Conservation & Recycling, Vol.1, pp.83-90. Pergamon Press, 1976. Printed in Great Britain.

MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR RECYCLING

MICHAEL E. HENSTOCK
University of Nottingham, England

INTRODUCTION
Any waste or discarded material is worthless if it cannot, in its current form, be used. The value of a
waste is potential, and depends entirely on its ability to be recycled. Such value may be economic or
social, usually the former.
Recycling may be by means of:
(a) Closed loop methods. Here, the material is refined back to essentially its virgin specification;
it may subsequently be used for any purpose appropriate to that material specification, e.g. copper
may be refined electrolytically before use in electrical applications.
(b) Open loop methods. The material is here treated as a starting point or raw material for another
manufacturing process, e.g. contaminated copper may be used in brass extrusions.
Recycling of energy is topical and the subject of much research, particularly into pyrolysis systems,
but these aspects of materials conservation are covered elsewhere in this symposium. This paper deals
entirely with the recycling of solid raw materials and is devoted to some of the methods that have been
developed to deal with the mixed waste so often encountered. The “value” of such a waste depends
entirely on the degree to which it may be split into fractions, each destined for a particular recycling
route. It is intended, here, to examine some of the newer separation techniques and the ways in which
they have been incorporated into complete Resource Recovery Systems (RRS).
Every waste-producing unit constitutes a separate problem, since the waste flow from each will be
different. Metal merchants collecting the waste of industry attempt to segregate, as far as possible,
into uniform and usable grades and aggregate the residue. No attempt will be made here to deal with
waste streams from individual factories, since the segregation methods applicable to one will certainly
be unsuitable for another.
The standard techniques of mineral dressing have been applied and, in some cases, modified to
achieve separation of one or more desired components (herafter termed “valuables”) from the worth-
less gangue. It should be noted that worthless is only a relative term; the gangue may be so in the
local context but it is arguable that nothing is truly worthless in a global sense. Even locally it is
possible that a discard might be used as landfill or to provide heat.
These standard techniques, some of which have been used for many years, include air and water
classification, sieving, jigging, tabling, flotation, magnetic and dense-medium separation. All are
easily located in the literature [ l] and little purpose is served by describing their operation in detail
here. Each has been used in some aspect of waste recovery; air classification or elutriation is commonly
used to remove the lighter fraction, generally paper and light polymeric film, from domestic refuse [2] ,
and water classification may be applied to the upgrading of the metallic fraction of the mixed non-
magnetic portion of shredded automobiles[3] . Magnetic separation is routinely used to extract tin-
plate cans from the domestic refuse stream and froth flotation has been applied to the recovery of
tine glass from incinerator residues[4] .
Each waste-separation flowsheet is designed for a specific application and it would be pointless,
as well as impractical,, to examine the many published schemes. In general, any separation process
works best on a continuous stream of feed material of consistent quality. Since, to need separation
at all, the stream must contain more than one component, it cannot by definition be homogeneous
83
84 MICHAEL E. HENSTOCK

but there should be some consistency between samples taken at predetermined intervals. A waste
from a plant reclaiming copper by chopping discarded cable would comprise finely divided rubber,
polymer and fabric with occasional metallic fragments; it could be considered as a homogeneous
feed. Used consumer durables are heterogeneous, e.g. motor cars, refrigerators, electronic equipment,
etc. but some degree of homogeneity can be achieved by size reduction. The equipment used for this
is known as a shredder or pulverizer, and is considered elsewhere[5]. The output from a shredder is
often fine enough to be treated by an assemblage of mineral-dressing methods. Typically [2], the
lightest paper and polymer is removed by air classification, ferrous scrap by magnets, and aluminium
and heavy organics partially by secondary air elutriation and partially in a water column. There are
innumerable variations on this theme.
The recent literature on waste treatment has revealed a number of new techniques, some appa-
rently developed specifically for recycling, and the remainder of this paper is devoted to considera-
tion of the more significant of these.
Some of the most promising processes currently under investigation include:

1. Electromagnetic or eddy current methods.

2. Float-and-sink, together with its extension to heavy-media separation.
3. Cryogenics.
4. Electrostatics.
5. Glass colour sorting.

Each of these techniques relies on a specific property of the material for identification and recovery
The success of the process depends upon the accuracy and consistency with which the property can be
detected and used to identify and isolate the product. An optical method might, for example, be ren-
dered inconsistent by surface coatings on the surface of fragments of waste.
Another factor in the ultimate efficiency of a separation process is the uniqueness of the property
selected as the basis for the separation. Should that property be common to one or more other corn.
ponents of the waste stream in addition to the desired material, a mixed product will be obtained; at
least one further separation step will then be necessary.

ELECTROMAGNETIC AND ELECTROSTATIC METHODS

These rely on the response of materials to electrical stimuli where the selection parameter is elec-
trical conductivity; metals generally exhibit electrical conductivities orders of magnitude greater than
other materials, and the selection parameter is thus, for all practical purposes, unique to metals. TWO
common components of the municipal waste stream are glass and aluminium; they have similar
densities and are, therefore, difficult to separate by gravity methods. Their electrical conductivities
are, however, very different.
Magnetic separators have traditionally relied on differences in ferromagnetic behaviour; this will
separate most ferrous materials from a mixture with non-ferrous metals. Certain stainless steels are
nonmagnetic and are not removed. Separation is, in any event, generally incomplete since shredding
may have failed to liberate completely the magnetic from the non-magnetic materials. A wide variety
of machines has been developed over the years; they will remove ferrous material too small to justify
prior manual picking. Figures 1 and 2 are typical.
If the voltage impressed on a conductor is induced, by varying the magnetic field, electrical
currents flow within the conductor. Each current is accompanied by its own magnetic field which
opposes the source field and the particle is repelled from the source field region. The ability of the
conductor to sustain the flow of these eddy currents is the selection criterion for identification and
recovery of products.
It has been established[6] that the repulsive force set up by eddy currents is a function of particle
size (Fig. 3); this suggests an optimum shredding procedure.
 MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR RECYCLING 85

Feed

Revolving
non- magnetbc
drum

Non- magnetic
/
Magnetic Magnetic Non- magnetic

Fig. 1. Magnetic pulley. Fig. 2. Drum-type magnetic separator.

I I I I I
I 2 3 4 20 40 60 60

Size , I”. Resistivity , 10-s &2-m

Fig. 3. Eddy current interaction force Fig. 4. Eddy current interaction force as a function
dependence upon size. of electric resistivity.

The force is also critically dependent on particle resistivity, as shown in Fig. 4. Translated into
acceleration and conductivity/density ratio, O/D, a linear relationship results (Fig. 5). Calculation of
this ratio for some common materials yields the following:

Metal Relative %

Al 13.1
cu 6.6
& 6.0
Zn 2.4
Brass 1.7
Fe 1.3
Sn 1.2
Pb 0.4
86 MICHAEL E. HENSTOCK

Aluminium is thus particularly amenable to separation by this method. The conductivity/density

ratio is not the only relevant factor; particle geometry is also important and it is possible to reject
particles of unfavourable "/D if their geometry is favourable.

Fig. 5. Linear dependence of acceleration on U/D, ratio.

The system has been developed in the U.S.A., where several prototypes are under evaluation. Its
principle utility seems to be in the recovery of the high-value aluminium can stock fraction in muni-
cipal solid waste; recoveries of up to 90% can be achieved[7] .

Float-and-sink
The problem of discarded polymeric waste is worldwide; currently, about 2% of collectable refuse
in developed countries is polymeric although peaks occur, such as that of 6.7% for Japan in 1968. The
packaging industry alone of the US consumed, in 1970, almost 1.8 X lo6 tonnes of plastics almost 3
of the total production.
Of the total collectable plastics waste ca. 66% is polyoleflin, 20% polystyrene, 11% polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and the remainder is accounted for by all other plastics. Of the 1970 total mentioned
above only ca. 12% is estimated to have been collected[8].
Methods have been developed to obtain clean fractions of high density polyethylene (HDPE), low
density polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP) and PVC from waste using float
and sink techniques. The observed densities of virgin pelletised plastics are given below:

Plastic Density (g/cm3 )

PP 0.90
LDPE 0.92
HDPE 0.94-0.96
PS 1.05-1.06
PVC 1.22-1.38

Mixtures of these can be separated in media including water (P = I), water t alcohol (P = 0.93)
brine (P = 1.20), etc.
The extension into heavy media technology, where separation is made in suspensions of solid
particles, is obvious. Much interest has been shown in the recovery, by this means, of aluminium
from municipal solid waste (MSW) and from the non-magnetic reject from autoshredders.
 MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR RECYCLING 8-l

The specific gravity of aluminium is 2.7 and this is the medium density at which a split could
be made with solid metal. However, small particles may be prevented from sinking by the attachment
of air bubbles. A principal source of aluminium in MSWis beverage cans; these are found[9] to settle,
in a ferrosilicon heavy medium, at densities as low as 1.7 and as high as 3.0. Behaviour is strongly
dependent on shredding characteristics; whole cans or crumpled sheets entrap air pockets or
ferrosilicon medium, thus reducing or increasing the apparent density of the fragments.
A possible flowsheet for treatment of shredded automobiles would take the non-magnetic fraction
first to an air classifier to remove fabrics, rubber and light polymers. Heavy medium treatment would
then remove the aluminium, and the remaining non-ferrous material might be treated pyrometallurgi-
tally.
The dense-medium principle has been applied by Warren Spring Laboratory to the residues from
municipal incinerators[ lo] . From them, one fraction assaying 60% Cu and another assaying 95% Al
are recoverable, valued (1972) at g203 and $6 l/tonne respectively.

Cyogenics
Many normally ductile materials become extremely brittle at low temperatures. The fringe of this
phenomenon was demonstrated by the wartime Liberty Ships and in the disastrous losses associated
with catastrophic fracture. At liquid gas temperatures many metals behave in a glass-like manner,
whilst others continue to show ductility. This principle has been used to separate certain mixtures of
materials.
Broadly speaking, fee metals such as copper and aluminium retain ductility at low temperatures,
whilst bee (e.g. iron) or hexagonal metals (e.g. zinc) are embrittled. Scrap such as small motors and
generators can be treated with liquid nitrogen and the steel housings then fragmented in a hammer
mill [ 1 l] . The method is applicable to the stripping of insulated copper wire, in preference to the
highly polluting process of cable burning. On a large scale, cryogenics is in Belgium being applied to
the processing of baled scrap automobiles; after chilling, the hulks are reduced to coin-sized flakes in
a hammer mill in less than 1 minute per bale, and a 37OkJ/s (500 h.p.) shredder is claimed to process
as much scrap as a 3.7MJ/s (5000 h.p.) shredder operating conventionally.
The method has also been applied[ 121 to the size reduction of scrap rubber tyres whose transport
is, because of their shape, very uneconomical in respect of space.

Electrostatic methods
Electrostatic methods have long been used in the mining industry but they may be adapted to
separate streams of mixed refuse. The equipment is shown, schematically, in Fig. 6; operating voltages
of up to 200 kV are employed [ 131. In separating paper from polymers the former adheres to the drum
and the latter is drawn to the electrode. On 2.5-7.6 cm shredded material concentrates averaging 99.4%
plastic and 99.9% paper are claimed, with plastics recovery exceeding 9%.

2
I Combination 4 inch aluminum electrode
with wire electrode
2 Vibrotory feeder
3 Grounded rototing drum
4 Brush
5 Adjustobte stream splitter

Fig. 6. Electrostatic separation equipment.

88 MICHAEL E. HENSTOCK

Fig. 7. Sortex 962 MC equipment.

The method can thus be used to separate any materials having different electrical conductivities,
e.g. metal and plastic wastes.

Colour sorting of glass

The transparency of glass has been made the basis of a sorting method to separate it from stones
and other opaque material. A simple adaptation of the optical system enables the device also to
grade scrap glass (cullet) into various coloured fractions, e.g. flint, amber and green, and two-stage
separation could deliver these end products from the glass concentrate[ 141. The equipment is shown
in Fig. 7. Commodities to be separated are fed from the hopper by means of a vibrating tray which
drops the particles onto an inclined chute, down which they accelerate into the inspection area or
optical box. Here, photocell sensors view the particles and the resulting signals are evaluated electroni
tally into accept and reject categories. A reject signal will trigger off a high speed blast of compressed
air from the ejector, causing the corresponding undesirable particle to be deflected from the main
stream into a separate collecting hopper. The equipment is shown schematically in Fig. 8.
The main application of this system is the removal of stone/ceramic particles from glass cullet and
 89

Fig. 8. Operating sequence of the Sortex 962 MC.

its separation into the various constituent colours which are then suitable for recycling.
The system has been described in the context of glass which may be identified by its transparency
and separated from opaque particles. The use of electromagnetic sensor heads, however, permits the
same basic system to separate no&ferrous from ferrous metals; future developments will probably
involve the use of ultra-violet, X-ray transmission and X-ray fluorescence as rejection criteria.
The efficiency of this type of unit diminishes as particle sizes fall and glass fragments smaller than
0.6 cm are best dealt with by other means.

Acknowledgements - Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, after S. J. Truscott, A Textbook of Ore Dressing, reproduced by permission
of Macmillan (London). Figs. 3-5, after Sommer and Kenney, Ref. 6, IOp. cit. Fig. 6. is reproduced by courtesy of
the United States Bureau of Mines. Figs. 7 and 8 are reproduced by courtesy of Gunson’s Sortex (Mineral and
Automation) Ltd.

REFERENCES
1. See, e.g. S. J. Truscott, A Textbook of Ore Dressing, Macmillan, New York (1923).
2. P. M. Sullivan, Resource recovery from raw urban refuse, U.S. Bureau of Mines, R.I. 7760, (1973).
3. L. J. Troisland, K. C. Dean and C. J. Chindgren, Upgrading junk auto shredder rejects, U. S. Bureau of Mines,
TPR 53, (March 1972).
4. B. Morey, Inorganic resource recovery and solid fuel preparation from municipal trash, Proc. 4th Mineml Waste
Utilizcrtion Symposium, Chicago, May 7 (1974).
5. M. W. Biddulph, Principles of recycling processes, Conservation & Recycling 1,31-54 (1976).
6. E. J. Sommer Jr. and G. R. Kenny, An electromagnetic separator for dry recovery of non-ferrous metals from
shredded municipal solid waste, Proc. 4th Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago, May 7 (1974).
7. J. A. Campbell, Electromagnetic separation of aluminium and non-ferrous metals, Proc. 4th Mineml Waste
Utilization Symposium, Chicago, May 7 (1974).
8. A. J. Warner, Solid waste management of plastics, Research study conducted for the Manufacturing Chemists
Association, (December 1970).
90 MICHAEL E. HENSTOCK

9. E. L. Michaels, Heavy media separation of aluminium from municipal solid waste, AIME 103rd Annual
Meeting, Dallas, TX, February 24 (1974).
10. E. Douglas and D. V. Jackson, Waste reclamation 1: a source of raw materials, J. Environmental Planning and
Pollution Control 1,2 (1972).
11. J. H. Bilbrey Jr., Use of cryogenics in scrap processing, Proc. 4th Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago,
7 May (1974).
12. N. R. Braton and J. A. Koutsky, Cryogenic recycling, Proc. 4th Mine& Waste Utilization Symposium, Chicago,
7 May (1974).
13. M. R. Grubbs and K. H. Ivey, Recovering plastics from urban refuse by electrodynamic techniques, U. S. Bureau
of Mines, TPR 63, (December 1972).
14. Gunson’s Sortex Ltd., Private communication, (1974).