IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Research Article

Real-time monitoring of zone 3 vulnerable ISSN 1751-8687

Received on 2nd April 2016
Revised 21st December 2016
distance relays to prevent maloperation under Accepted on 6th January 2017
E-First on 31st May 2017
load encroachment condition doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2016.0486
www.ietdl.org

Tohid Ghanizadeh Bolandi1, Mahmoud Reza Haghifam1 , Mojtaba Khederzadeh2

1Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Tehran, Iran
2Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, AC, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: haghifam@modares.ac.ir

Abstract: Undesired trip operation of zone 3 units of distance relays in power transmission network, during static and dynamic
load encroachment can lead to cascading failures and even catastrophic power system blackouts. Stressed conditions such as
power flow redistribution and power swing can cause maloperation of the third zone of distance relays. Fast and dependable
detection of the symmetrical faults, occurring during these conditions poses an additional challenge. One of the effective
methods to avoid the zone 3 contribution in cascading failure propagation is the detection and monitoring of vulnerable relays
which are exposed to maloperation in power system stressed conditions. In this study, a new relay ranking index is proposed for
real-time identifying the zone 3 of distance relays, most vulnerable to incorrect operation due to load encroachment. A novel
synchrophasor data-based monitoring index is also presented for supervision of critical distance relays operation. This index is
extracted based on positive-sequence fault component phasors of the current and voltage signals obtained by modern PMUs or
GPS based digital relays which have been reconfigured for this application. The proposed monitoring scheme is able to quickly
distinguish the fault from load encroachment condition. The performance of the proposed supervisory scheme is evaluated and
approved on a nine-bus WSCC system.

1 Introduction networks is considered in [6, 7] and a suitable WABP scheme is

Nowadays, in a deregulated environment, power transmission
networks are wide spread and more interconnected and they are
operated very close to their operating limits to maximise power
transmission to obtain maximum benefit in power market. In such a
situation, conventional backup protection such as zone 3 of a
distance protection is exposing the non-fault impedance
encroachment due to its overreaching protective zone. Undesirable
tripping of the zone 3 under stressed conditions such as heavy
loading situation caused by power flow redistribution and power
swing caused by outages or switching actions can be a trigger
reason in 75% of cascading outages [1–3]. Therefore, there is a
growing need for monitoring and enhancing the performance of
conventional backup protection to minimise the vulnerability of
transmission network against cascading tripping.
The recent advancement in synchrophasor technology and the
advent of fast communication systems have made it possible to
monitor the dynamics of power network by wide area measurement
system. This technology can be used as an effective tool by
operator to real-time monitor and control the system behaviour to
make timely decisions. Wide area backup protection (WABP)
scheme which can be realised by PMU-based wide-area
measurement system or GPS-equipped digital relays, has been
taken into consideration as an interesting application of
synchrophasor technology in recent years. Recently, different
WABP schemes are introduced in the literatures [4–10]. In [4],
fault area is identified based on the comparison between positive-
sequence voltage magnitudes of all buses. The difference of
positive-sequence current angle obtained from both ends of all
suspected lines in the fault area is used to detect the faulted branch.
The effects of dynamic and static load encroachment events such as
power swing and heavy loading condition are not addressed in this
method. In [5], a WABP scheme is proposed based on fault
component quantities of sequence voltage and current measured
from one transmission bus, which are used to estimate the fault
component voltage phasor at the other bus. Faulted branch is
detected based on the ratio of estimated fault component voltage to
the measured one. The issue of series compensated transmission
introduced for compensated lines. The integrated impedance
concept has been introduced as a powerful method for pilot
protection of transmission lines in the literatures during recent
years [7–9]. In [7], positive-sequence integrated impedance phase
angle is applied as a WABP scheme to directly find the faulted line
in series compensated transmission networks. A synchrophasor
data-based WABP scheme based on a limited number of PMUs is
proposed in [10]. This methodology is applicable for multi-
terminal lines and it can discriminate the faulty condition from
other stressed conditions.
Additional to WABP schemes which have been introduced as a
replacement for local backup protection, some other synchrophasor
assisted backup protection schemes have been presented to monitor
the zone 3 operation of backup relays without the need to
elimination of them [11–13]. In [11], synchrophasor data-based
apparent impedance extracted from PMUs in strategic locations is
used to support the correct third zone operation of distance relays
in stressed conditions. The performance of this technique depends
mainly on PMU location on the network. In [12], phase angle of
the positive-sequence impedance and transient monitoring function
value are presented as two criteria to support the zone 3 operation.
In [13], a classification method using support vector machines is
introduced as a supervisory control of zone 3 operation. This
scheme can segregate the events into symmetrical faults and
dynamic load encroachment phenomena. However, this method
requires a large number of simulations to be trained for all faults
and stressed conditions.
Relay operation margin can be applied as an important tool to
assess the relay status during each operating state. In [14],
operation margin of zone 3 distance relay is extracted as the
function of bus voltages. In this scheme, the relay margin (RM) is
controlled using its sensitivity analysis to bus power injection. In
[15], a framework is proposed for power system security analysis
which assesses the transmission network vulnerability based on
RM trajectory. In [16], a steady-state security analysis scheme is
proposed to adaptively avoid the static load encroachment to
vulnerable distance relays by applying an anti-encroachment zone.
All of the presented methods for identifying the vulnerable relay

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888 1878
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
are usually based on a power flow calculation extracted either V̄ i V̄ i vi∠δi
based on off line condition of power system or based on system Z̄ seen, i = = = ⋅ Z̄ (1)
I¯i (V̄ i − V̄ j)/Z̄ i j vi∠δi − v j∠δ j i j
information derived from state estimator. The identified vulnerable
relays in offline mode are usually blocked to prevent their
contribution in the propagation of cascading events. This approach where V̄ i, V̄ j, I¯i are the voltage and current phasors measured at
can unnecessarily decrease the dependability of the protection buses i and j, respectively. vi and δi are the voltage magnitude and
system. its phase angle at bus i, respectively, and Z̄ i j is the transmission line
In this study, to avoid the maloperation of zone 3 units of impedance between buses i and j. If impedance trajectory enters the
distance relays, a new scheme for real-time detection and zone 3 and the staying time reaches from setting threshold, the
monitoring of most vulnerable relays in each operating point is relay issues the trip signal. Therefore, the required condition to
presented. A novel vulnerability index, which is extracted based on operate the zone 3 can be defined as
synchrophasor measurements, is presented to rank the zone 3 of
critical distance relays. Distance relays which are identified as Z set, Z3, i Z set, Z3, i
vulnerable, will be monitored in real time to avoid their Z seen, i − ≤ (2)
maloperation under load encroachment condition. A new 2 2
monitoring index (MI) extracted based on positive-sequence fault
component phasors of voltage and current signals, is proposed to where Z set, Z3, i is the setting impedance of zone 3 relay i. Equation
monitor the zone 3 operation of vulnerable relays in stressed (2) represents the circular characteristic of zone 3 mho relay whose
situations. The implementation of the proposed technique requires centre and radius are identified by Z set, Z3, i /2. The distance between
a synchrophasor measurement device (SMD) which can be created the seen impedance trajectory and zone 3 operation boundary is
by reconfiguration of the modern PMUs or GPS-based digital defined as relay margin. The RM using (2) can be yielded as (see
relays to calculate and deliver the fault component phasors of the (3)) From (3), it can be observed that RM is dependent to the bus
current and voltage signals in appropriate rate. Synchrophasor- voltage phase angle and its magnitude, so that their variations can
based real-time vulnerability detection of critical relays by cause the impedance trajectory to enter the zone 3 characteristics.
introducing two novel ranking index and MI, are the main So, phenomena such as overload and power swing can be an
contribution of this study. The simulation results confirm that the important reason in maloperation of relay distance backup zones.
supervision of third zone distance protection using the proposed MI
can successfully discriminate the symmetrical faults from other 2.2 Operation margin trajectory sensitivity
stressed situations and improve the dependability and security of
distance protection scheme. As the relay operation margin is a function of bus voltage, with the
voltage variation during system contingencies the RM trajectory
2 Vulnerability index for identification of critical will be changed. The sensitivity analysis of the RM to the variation
of power system parameters such as bus voltages can be utilised to
zone 3 distance relays quantify the vulnerability of zone 3 distance relays with respect to
Vulnerability assessment is applied as a criterion to determine the the system various disturbances. For the relay located at bus i a
degree of exposure to the hazards and susceptibility of an element redefined RM based on bus voltage has been presented in [14],
or a system at the risk of outage, maloperation or interruption of which is expressed as follows:
service [17]. It is used as a measure for the detection of system's
weakness points which have a major contribution in the occurrence V i2 V i2 − V iV jcos(δi − δ j)
of cascading events. Vulnerability assessment can be used as an Mi = − (4)
Z set, Z3, i Z̄ i j
effective approach for preventing of cascading outages by early
detection of the vulnerable relays which may be incorrectly
operated in stressed conditions. The goal of distance relays The sensitivity of operation margin of the relay i protecting the line
vulnerability assessment is to identify the most critical relays i–j can be obtained as
exposing the maloperation in any operation point to control and
monitor their operation to avoid their contribution in cascading ∂Mi 2 ∂Mi 2 ∂Mi 2 ∂Mi 2

ΔMi(V i, j, θi, j) = + + + (5)

outages. Before the distance relays faces undesirable tripping, a ∂δi ∂δ j ∂V i ∂V j
suitable vulnerability index should be extracted and used to
determine the degree of vulnerability by ranking the critical relays where
in any operating state.
A new ranking index named vulnerable relay index (VRI) is ∂Mi 2V i 2V i − V jcos(δi − δ j)
introduced in this paper. The index VRI is defined as the ratio of = − (6)
∂V i Z set, Z3, i Z̄ i j
RM to the margin sensitivity, which is obtained based on positive-
sequence voltage phasors collected from both sides of the protected
line. The proposed VRI is applied to rank the most critical relays ∂Mi V icos(δi − δ j)
= (7)
exposing the maloperation under load encroachment in each ∂V j Z̄ i j
operating state. This index can also be utilised in dynamic security
assessment aims in contingency screening. ∂Mi ∂Mi V iV jsin(δi − δ j)
= − = − (8)
∂δi ∂δ j Z̄ i j
2.1 Operation margin of zone 3 distance relays
Apparent impedance of line i–j measured by mho distance relay The operation margin sensitivity (ΔM) will be obtained for each
located at bus i can be obtained as zone 3 distance relay to quantify the margin trajectory variation
speed.

Z set, Z3, i Z set,Z3, i V̄ i Z set, Z3, i Z set, Z3, i

RMi = Z seen, i − − = ¯ − −
2 2 Ii 2 2
(3)
V i∠θi Z set, Z3, i Z set, Z3, i
= Z̄ − − , operation condition: RMi ≤ 0
V i∠θi − V j∠θi i j 2 2

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888 1879
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2.3 Vulnerable relay index
A novel VRI to identify the vulnerable zone 3 of distance relays is
extracted based on RM defined in (3) and margin sensitivity
presented in (5) and defined as follows:
RMi
VRIi =
ΔMi(V i, j, θi, j)
VRI is obtained for each relay and applied to identify the critical
zone 3 distance relays exposing the maloperation during load
encroachment situation in each operating point. The contingency
screening and analysis can also be performed by VRI. It is
important to notice that VRI should be calculated in per unit (pu).
The relay, which has small RM and high ΔM results in small VRI
and it is exposed the vulnerability.
2.4 Threshold selection
To identify the vulnerable relays which are required to be
monitored in stressed conditions, a suitable absolute threshold
should be selected for VRI. According to the NERC
recommendations for relay loadability setting under extreme
condition, an operational condition by assuming a 0.85 pu voltage
and a power factor angle of 30° or 45° are considered for the
theoretical maximum loading situation [12, 18, 19]. The theoretical
maximum power transfer occurs when the voltage angle between
sending and receiving bus of transmission line is 90° (i.e.,
δi − δ j = 90∘). On the other hands, according to the IESO System
Operations Manual 7.4 which determines the required standards
and criteria for secure and reliable operation of the IESO-
Controlled Grid of Ontario, following fault clearance or the outage
of an equipment without a fault, the RM on all backup distance
relays should be at least 20% [20]. Considering the above-
mentioned criteria to evaluate the distance relay, some conservative
assumptions are made for obtaining an absolute threshold for the
proposed VRI in (9) as follows:
• δi − δ j is set at 90° (δi − δ j = 90∘).
• Voltage at each bus is set at 0.85 pu (V i = V j = 0.85 pu).
• The minimum allowable RM is determined as 20% (i.e.,
RMi = 0.2 × Z set, Z3, i).
• The zone 3 setting is assumed to be 2.4 times the impedance of
line i − j [6] (Z set, Z3, i = 2.4 × Z̄ i j).
Considering the above-assumption and replacing them in (3) and
(5)–(8), the following threshold is extracted as a criterion to
identify the vulnerable relays at each operating point:
RMi 0.2 × 2.4 × Z̄ i j(pu)
VRITH − i = = = 0.3373
ΔMi(V i, j, θi, j) (1/ Z̄ i j(pu) ) × 1.423
(10)
2 frequency quantity) of fault component voltage or current
× Z̄ i j(pu)
As seen, the proposed threshold for identifying the vulnerable
relays are dependent on the per unit positive-sequence impedance
of the line which is protected by them. The relay whose VRI is less
than VRITH − i, is identified as vulnerable and it should be
monitored to avoid its likely maloperation under the stressed
condition. To increase the sensitivity in identifying the vulnerable
relays, the selected threshold can be set to a high value to choose
the more relays to be monitored.
3 MI formulation and analysis
A supervisory control scheme for monitoring the performance of
the identified vulnerable relays exposing the maloperation due to
impedance entrance to zone 3, is proposed based on a novel MI.
The performance of the MI is analysed for internal and external
1880
fault cases based on fault component equivalent network modelled
by a line with distributed parameters.
3.1 Extraction procedure of fault component phasor
When a power system is exposed to a disturbance, the network
variables such as voltage and current are changed due to the
(9)
disturbance occurrence. The changes created in these variables are
called superimposed components (or fault component when the
disturbance is a short-circuit fault) which are obtained by the
difference between the post-disturbance and pre-disturbance values
of any network variable [21]. According to the superposition
theorem, a superimposed component equivalent network can be
obtained by eliminating the all pre-disturbance voltage sources and
replacing all network components and loads by their equivalent
impedances such as network depicted in Fig. 1b [22, 23]. The
corresponding procedure for extracting the positive-sequence fault
component phasors is as follows [24]:
1. In digital format, the fault superimposed component of the
sampled voltage and current signals can be obtained by
subtracting the existing sample from its corresponding sample
in the previous cycle. Moreover, to reduce the dynamically
load variations effects and power swing on the yield fault
component quantity, an extra term represented in the brackets
is also computed in the calculation process as follows:
ΔY[n] = Y[n] − Y[n − 2N] −
Y[n − 2N] − Y[n − 4N] (11)
where Y[n] and ΔY[n] are the present sample and the fault
component sample of voltage or current signal Y, respectively.
N is the number of signal samples captured per power–
frequency cycle and n is the sample number (n = 0, 1, 2, …,
etc.). Equation (11) obtains the fault superimposed quantities,
just up to two cycles after the fault occurrence with acceptable
accuracy. It means that two cycles after the fault inception, the
Y[n − 2N] will be the sample corresponding to Y[n] captured
just at fault inception time. However, it is possible to change
the integer numbers of 2 and 4 to the higher values to extract
the fault component accurately up to more cycles after the fault
occurrence.
2. Extracting the phasor samples of fault component digital
signals (steady-state quantity of fault component) using the full
cycle discrete Fourier transform (DFT) algorithm as
N−1 N−1
2 2π
ΔȲ =
N ∑ ΔY n ⋅ cos
N
n − j ∑ ΔY n
n=1 k=1
(12)
2π
⋅ sin n
N
where ΔȲ is the estimated phasor sample (fundamental-
which is obtained during the present data window with the
length of one cycle.
3. The positive-sequence quantities of the extracted fault
component phasors can be obtained as
1 ∘ ∘
ΔȲ 1 = ⋅ ΔȲ a + e j120 ΔȲ b + e j240 ΔȲ c (13)
3
where ΔȲ a, ΔȲ b and ΔȲ c are the phasors quantities of fault
component voltage or current yield for phases a, b and c in step
2.
The aforementioned positive-sequence fault component phasor can
be obtained by a SMD included a programmable microprocessor
such as modern PMUs or GPS-equipped digital relays which are
gradually developing across the world. The components of the
SMD are presented in the following subsection to clarify the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017

Fig. 1  SMD block diagram
Fig. 2  Single-line diagram of positive-sequence transmission network
exposed to an internal fault
(a) Equivalent network, (b) Fault component network
above-mentioned extraction procedure of fault component phasors.
3.2 Main components of SMD
Fig. 1 shows the major elements of a SMD which are to be found
in conventional digital relays equipped by GPS or modern PMUs,
[4, 25]. The analogue three-phase voltage and current signals are
first passed from one low-pass anti-aliasing filter and thereafter
they are sampled by an analogue-to digital (A/D) converter with a
sampling frequency bigger than twice the cut-off frequency of
filter. The mentioned procedure for extracting the positive-
sequence fault component phasors corresponding to (11)–(13) can
be easily programmed in the microprocessor block shown in Fig. 1.
In this stage, the fault component quantities of the sampled
voltages and currents in A/D convertor are first calculated by (11)
and then the phasor samples of them are obtained by the DFT
technique as (12). The obtained phasor values of three phases are
used to produce the positive-sequence components by (13). The
final output of the SMD is the time-stamped real-time
measurements which are created from two of the signals obtained
from the GPS receiver [25]. Finally, the created synchrophasor
measurements (ΔV̄ 1, ΔI¯1, V̄ 1, I¯1), are transferred over the fast
communication links through modems to the phasor data
concentrators (PDCs) located in a higher hierarchy measurement
level.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
3.3 MI definition and performance analysis
In this section, a novel MI extracted based on positive-sequence
fault component phasors of voltage and current is introduced and
its interesting performance in internal and external faults is
demonstrated during symmetrical faults. The fault component
voltage and current phasors obtained in each bus of transmission
line are applied to compute the superimposed quantity of complex
power injected into the line which is named fault component
complex power (FCCP). Let ΔŪ m, ΔŪ n be the positive-sequence
fault component voltage phasors obtained at the buses M and N,
respectively, and let ΔI¯m, ΔI¯n be the positive-sequence fault
component current phasors obtained at the buses M and N,
respectively. The proposed MI is defined as
MImn = arg(ΔS̄m) + arg(ΔS̄n) = ∠ΔS̄m + ∠ΔS̄n (14)
where
ΔS̄m = ΔŪ mΔI¯m
∗
(15)
ΔS̄n = ΔŪ nΔI¯n
∗
(16)
where ΔS̄m, ΔS̄n are the phasor quantities of FCCP obtained at
buses M and N, respectively. Additional details on the
mathematical analysis of the MI in internal and external
symmetrical faults can be found in the following subsections.
3.3.1 Internal faults: To demonstrate the response of the MI in the
symmetrical internal fault events, the single-phase diagram of a
power transmission line modelled by distributed parameters is
considered as depicted in Figs. 2a and b. Fig. 2b represents the
fault component network corresponding to faulted network in
Fig. 2a. According to Fig. 2, Zm and Zn are the source impedances
behind the buses M and N, respectively. An internal fault is
assumed to be occurred at the point f.
Considering Fig. 2b, the fault component voltage phasors
computed at buses M and N are achieved as
ΔŪ m = − Z mΔI¯m (17)
ΔŪ n = − Z nΔI¯n (18)
The FCCP injected to transmission line from buses M and N can be
computed as
ΔS̄m = ΔŪ mΔI¯m = − Z m ΔI¯m
∗ 2
(19)
ΔS̄n = ΔŪ nΔI¯n = − Z n ΔI¯n
∗ 2
(20)
From (17) and (18), the MInm of the line M–N can be obtained as
MImn = arg(ΔS̄m) + arg(ΔS̄n)
= ∠ − Z m ΔI¯m + ∠ − Z n ΔI¯n
2 2
(21)
= ∠ − Zm + ∠ − Zn
In transmission networks, the equivalent source impedance Zs is
almost equal to XS. Therefore, phase angle of equivalent source
impedances Zm and Zn can be considered approximately equal to
90∘. So, the MImn value following an internal fault, reflects the sum
of phase angles corresponding to positive-sequence source
impedance seen from the sending and receiving ends of the
protected transmission line whose value is almost equal to −180∘. It
is important to notice that the extracted MI is not affected by the
output of superimposed source modelled at the fault point (i.e., ΔUf
and ΔIf). On the other words, the proposed MI is not dependent on
fault location. It is also expected that the proposed MI is not
1881
 considering that ΔŪ m = − Z mΔI¯m, by rewriting (24) and (25), the
fault component voltage and current phasors at bus N can be
obtained as

ΔŪ n = cosh(γl)( − Z mΔI¯m) + Z Csinh(γl)( − ΔI¯m) (28)

1
ΔI¯n = sinh(γl)( − Z mΔI¯m) + cosh(γl)( − ΔI¯m) (29)
ZC

Therefore, the FCCP value in bus N is achieved as

ΔS̄n = ΔŪ nΔI¯n

∗

= (cosh(γl)Z m + Z Csinh(γl))
(30)
∗
Zm
sinh(γl) + cosh(γl) ( ΔI¯m )
2
⋅
ZC

Fig. 3  Single-line diagram of positive-sequence transmission system

The phase angle of the ΔS̄n can be extracted as
exposed to an external fault
(a) Equivalent network, (b) Fault component network
∠ΔS̄n = ∠(cosh(γl)Z m + Z Csinh(γl))
Zm (31)
−∠ sinh(γl) + cosh(γl) = ∠θ1 − ∠θ2
ZC

To calculate the ∠ΔS̄n some simplifying assumptions are

considered as follows:

• Practically, in transmission lines, the phase angles of γ and Z C

are approximately very close to π/2 and zero, respectively.
Hence, γl can be considered as a pure imaginary number.
Assuming γl = jY we will have

sinh(γl) = sinh( jY) = jsin(Y) ∠sinh(γl) ≃ 90∘

⇒ (32)
cosh(γl) = cosh( jY) = cos(Y) ∠cosh(γl) ≃ 0∘
Fig. 4  Phasor diagram of the FCCP extracted at bus N in the case of • Compared (26) and (27) it can be realised that Z C >> γ .
external faults at behind the bus N • According to the algebraic laws of complex numbers:

influenced by fault resistance. This is one of the important features

of the proposed approach. ∀(Z 1, Z 2) ∈ C ⇒
∠Z 1 ≤ ∠Z 2 ⇒ ∠Z 1 ≤ ∠ Z 1 + Z 2 ≤ ∠Z 2 (33)
3.3.2 External faults: The MI response is investigated for external
faults located forward the relay M and behind the relay N according ∠Z 1Z 2 = ∠Z 1 + ∠Z 2
to Fig. 3. The FCCP value and its phase angle in bus M using • In practice, the phase angle of Thevenin equivalent source
Fig. 3b are given by impedance in transmission network is an invariant value close to
π/2.
ΔS̄m = ΔŪ mΔI¯m = − Z m ΔI¯m
∗ 2
(22)
Considering the above assumptions, the ∠ΔS̄n which is equal to
∠ΔS̄m = ∠ − Z m ΔI¯m = ∠ − Z m
2
(23) ∠θ1 − ∠θ2 can be illustrated by a phasor diagram depicted in Fig. 4.
As shown in Fig. 4, ∠θ1 − ∠θ2 has a positive value close to π/2.
For the transmission line modelled with distributed parameters Therefore, from (23) and (31), the index of MImn in the case of
in Fig. 3b, the fault component voltage and current phasors of bus external fault is derived as
N in terms of similar quantities belong to bus M can be obtained as
MImn = arg(ΔS̄m) + arg(ΔS̄n) = ∠θ1 − ∠θ2 − ∠Z m ≃ π/2
ΔŪ n = cosh(γl)ΔŪ m + Z Csinh(γl)( − ΔI¯m) (24) (34)
− π/2 ≃ 0∘

1
ΔI¯n = sinh(γl)ΔŪ m + cosh(γl)( − ΔI¯m) (25) As demonstrated in (34), in external faults, the phase angle of
ZC MImn is very close to 0°. Comparison between (34) and (21)
reveals that the proposed MI can be effectively used to discriminate
where ZC, γ and l are the characteristic impedance, propagation the external faults from internal faults. It is worth to notice, that the
constant and line length, respectively. ZC and γ are given by phase angle of FCCP in forward and backward faults is different
(see ∠ΔS̄n). Hence, it can be realised that FCCP has a directional
z feature in diagnosing the fault direction. It is also important to
ZC = (26)
y notice that during the load encroachment condition, the flowing
current through transmission line is abruptly changed and increased
γ = zy (27) such that it can lead to undesired impedance trajectories entrance
into zone 3 characteristic of distance relay. According to the
where z, y are the per unit length values of line positive-sequence superposition theorem, in a network with multiple sources, each
series impedance and shunt admittance, respectively. Now, source and its effect can be analysed independently. Under this

1882 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
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Fig. 5  Simulated 9-bus WSCC system
principle, a circuit exposure to a disturbance can be divided into
two separate networks; those are the pre-disturbance network and
the superimposed network. Therefore, the sudden changes in power
flowing through the transmission line can result in superimposed
quantities such that it can affect the flowing current through the
protected transmission line such as external symmetrical fault.
Therefore, from the view point of the relays located at sending and
receiving ends of line, it can be modelled such as external fault
conditions. It can be expected that the equivalent superimposed
network indicated in Fig. 3b might also be valid and applicable for
analysing the load encroachment condition with this difference that
the value of the current of the equivalent superimposed source
modelled at point of ‘f’ will be equal to the increased load current.
Hence, the value of the MI (MImn) in load encroachment condition
will be same as that obtained in (34). Similar conclusions can also
be achieved in the power swing condition.
4 Proposed supervisory scheme for vulnerable
relays monitoring
It was demonstrated in Section 3, that during internal faults, the
proposed MI represents the summation of phase angles
corresponding to positive-sequence equivalent impedances seen
from both ends of line, which is approximately equal to −180°,
while during the load encroachment conditions and external fault,
the MI, which is obtained by (34), has a phase angle close to 0°.
This feature can be used as an effective distinguishing criterion in
monitoring the zone 3 of vulnerable relays and diagnosing the
symmetrical faults from other events such as load encroachments.
Nevertheless, considering the measurement errors and the criterion
sensitivity, to improve the reliability of decision making logic of
the proposed MI the operation criteria of the MI are considered as
follows:
In internal faults: − 180∘ − θ < (MImn : arg(ΔS̄m) + arg(ΔS̄n))
(35)
< − 180∘ + θ
In external fault/load encroachment: 0∘ − θ < (MImn : arg(ΔS̄m) + arg(ΔS̄n)) < 0∘ + θ
If VRIi < VRITH − i ⇒ calculate: MIi = MIi j, MI jk , …, MI jk ,
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
(see (36)) where θ is the security margin angle which can be set as
30∘ < θ < 60∘. Considering the real condition of the power system,
the suitable setting of θ can be selected. In this study, θ is selected
60°. To make a decision by the MI-based supervisory scheme, the
phase angle of MI should be laid in the defined threshold range in
(35) for five consecutive samples. The proposed supervisory
scheme for monitoring of the vulnerable relays comprises the
following steps:
(1) Gathering the voltage and current phasors extracted by SMDs
located at every bus of the transmission network and collection of
them at the corresponding PDC. In this step, the positive-sequence
voltage and current phasors are transmitted by high speed
communication channels such as optic fibre to the PDC.
(2) The collected data in PDC are correlated by time-stamps for
time synchronisation and bad data are rejected [26]. Thereafter, the
PDC sends the synchronised data stream to system monitoring and
protection centre (SMPC) (see Fig. 5).
(3) In the SMPC, the index of VRIi is calculated for each relay
based on synchrophasor measurements obtained from both ends of
transmission line where the relay is located on.
(4) Ranking the distance relays by comparing their VRI with
threshold value of VRITH–i.
(5) Checking the operating point of the network. If events such as
line outage, fault occurrence, or load variation are detected, the
VRIs are updated otherwise; the process is continued by step 6.
(6) Identifying the zone 3 of vulnerable relays exposing the
operation. The critical relays whose, VRIs are smaller than
threshold value of VRITH–i, are identified as vulnerable relays
required to be monitored.
(7) Gathering the positive-sequence fault component phasors of
voltage and current obtained by SMDs located at the buses which
are covered by zone 3 of vulnerable relays and sending them to the
SMPC.
(8) Calculating the MI. In this step, the MIs related to the lines
which are covered by zone 3 of vulnerable relays are extracted in
the SMPC.
(9) Monitoring the performance of vulnerable relays by MI to
avoid their likely maloperation under the stressed condition. For
this purpose, the following criterion is checked in the lines which
are placed in the protected area of the zone 3 vulnerable relay (see
(37)) where VRIi is the index of the ith vulnerable relay. MIi is the
set of MIs of the lines located within the zone 3 area of relay i. MIij
is the MI of line between buses i and j. MI jk is the MI obtained for
n
adjacent lines which are covered by zone 3 of relay i. N is the
number of adjacent lines.
(10) Issuing or blocking the trip signal. Considering (37), If MI of
one line is placed in the threshold limit presented in (35), the fault
occurrence is realised, otherwise, the impedance entrance to zone 3
has been caused by load encroachment and the relay trip command
is blocked.
According to the aforementioned steps, after identifying the
vulnerable relays, the proposed supervisory scheme is applied by
MI in unison with the zone 3 of critical distance relays. MI
distinguishes the fault events from load encroachment and the trip
command authorisation in the case of fault occurrence is issued by
the SMPC. Therefore, the relay maloperation under the situations
of the load encroachment during the power flow redistribution is
avoided.
(36)
n = 1, …, N (37)
1 n
1883
Table 1 Ranking results of zone 3 distance relays of WSCC system using VRI
Base load condition Increasing the load at bus 8 by 100%
Relay no RMi ΔMi VRIi Ranking Relay no VRIi Ranking
R87 0.2036 12.8618 0.0158 1 R87 0.0033 1
R78 0.2109 10.5013 0.0201 2 R78 0.0035 2
R46 0.2788 10.2661 0.0272 3 R89 0.0045 3
R57 0.3831 12.5937 0.0304 4 R98 0.0048 4
R89 0.3869 12.5064 0.0310 5 R54 0.0078 5
R75 0.3310 10.4614 0.0317 6 R64 0.0085 6
R45 0.3271 10.2805 0.0318 7 R45 0.0115 7
R64 0.4208 12.8400 0.0327 8 R46 0.0120 8
R98 0.3523 10.6398 0.0331 9 R75 0.0246 9
R54 0.4750 12.8169 0.0371 10 R96 0.0260 10
R96 0.4904 10.6067 0.0462 11 R57 0.0290 11
R69 0.6852 12.5707 0.0545 12 R69 0.0434 12

5 Simulation studies and evaluation
To validate the effectiveness of the proposed monitoring scheme, it
has been evaluated on the 9-bus WSCC system (see Fig. 5)
simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC software. The system data are
presented in [6, 7]. Transmission line lengths are all considered to
be 300 km and lines have been modelled with distributed
parameters. Two mho distance relays are assumed to be located at
both ends of each line. Zone 3 reach is set to cover the whole
length of the adjacent line. The voltage and current signals are first
passed from an anti-aliasing filter and thereafter a one-cycle DFT
is applied to estimate the phasor quantities with sampling rate of 20
samples/cycle. The performance of the proposed algorithm is
evaluated under various fault and power system conditions as
follows. The SMDs arrangement with PDC and SMPC are shown
in Fig. 5.
5.1 Identification of vulnerable relays based on VRI in steady
state
Based on the introduced VRI in Section 2, the zone 3 of distance
relays denoted in Fig. 5 are ranked in Table 1 for two operating
conditions, one is the base load condition and other is the increased
load condition at bus 8.In Fig. 5, the positive-sequence impedances
and the lengths of all transmission lines have been assumed to be
similar. So, the VRITH–i of all distance relays will be same. The
operation margin of the relays (RM) and margin sensitivity (ΔMi)
defined in (3) and (5) are also presented for base load condition in
per unit values (Sbase 100 MVA, Vbase 400 kV). Considering (10),
the threshold value of 0.005 is set for identifying the vulnerable
relays. The distance relays based on their VRI values have been
ranked in descending order in Table 1. As seen, in the base load
condition, the VRI of all distance relays is bigger than VRITH–i and
it means that none of the relays need to be monitored in this
operating point. Another case by increasing the load of bus 8 to
twice its steady-state value is analysed. From the results presented
in Table 1, it can be seen that the VRIs of R87, R78, R89 and R98
are less than VRITH–i and they are identified as vulnerable. The
relay ranking results in Table 1 demonstrate that the relay, which
has small operation margin due to power flow dispatch instructions
and loading condition along with large sensitivity to system
condition variation is identified as vulnerable relay. For example,
in the base load condition, the relay R87 is determined as the first
rank critical relay which has small RM and large ΔMi. It is worth
to notice that the proposed VRI provides incorporation between
RM and ΔMi to realistically rank the vulnerable relay. For
demonstration of the proposed MI performance, the relay R78 is
considered as one of the possible vulnerable relays located in line
7-8 to be analysed in different system condition such as fault
events and load encroachments conditions.
5.2 Performance of MI under symmetrical internal and
external faults
The proposed MI is capable to discriminate between internal fault
and external one. The effects of fault location, fault resistance, fault
inception instant and fault type are all investigated on the
performance of the MI. The obtained results are given in Table 2.
All faults occur at t = 1 s. The value of the MI is obtained
according to fifth consecutive sample placed between the
thresholds presented by (35). As mentioned in Section 5.1, the zone
3 of relay R78 is identified vulnerable. As regards the R78 protects
the lines 7-8 and 8-9, the MI of these lines are applied to make
supervisory decision on the operation of R78. The obtained results
demonstrate the credible operation of the proposed MI in reliable
distinguishing the internal and external faults and their directions in
half a cycle. Moreover, despite the distance relay, the proposed MI
is not affected by the value of fault resistance. The purpose of the
MI is just to distinguish the symmetrical faults from other events;
however, as shown in Table 2, the proficiency of the MI is also
realised in asymmetrical faults. Assuming a three-phase fault is
occurred on line 8-9 at t = 1 s, the voltages and currents of the relay
R89 at bus 8 are shown in Figs. 6a and b, respectively. Fig. 6c
shows the phase angle variations of FCCP78, FCCP87 and MI 7-8
during the fault and Fig. 6d depicts the same for line 8-9. It can be
realised that during a fault in line 8-9, the ≮FCCP78, ≮FCCP89
and ≮FCCP98 reflect the phase angle close to −90° confirming the
occurrence of a forward fault. As regards the fault is located behind
the R87, the phase angle of FCCP87 is almost reached to +90°. The
MI also shows an acceptable response. The presented results in
Table 2 reveal the effectiveness of the MI in various fault location
and fault inception instant. The bold results in Table 2 indicate the
fault detection by MI of line exposed to fault.
5.3 Performance of MI during load encroachment
Load encroachment phenomenon is resulted due to undesired
impedance trajectories entrance into zone 3 characteristic of
distance relay in heavy loading condition which is created due to
power flow redistribution caused by outage of some transmission
lines. Considering the NERC emergency loading condition [27], in
order to create the heavy load condition, the load of bus 8 is
increased which leads to increase the flow through the lines 7-8
and 8-9 and results in the load encroachment into zone 3 region of
vulnerable relay R78. This event acts similar to an external fault
occurring at bus 8. Therefore, it is expected that <FCCP78 and
<FCCP98 will reach close to −90°and the <FCCP87 and <FCCP89
will reach close to +90°. The trajectory of apparent impedance seen
by relay R78 during such condition is depicted in Fig. 7a. As
shown in this figure, the impedance trajectory has encroached into
zone 3 characteristics of relay R78 which may result in
unnecessary outage of line 8-9. The response of the proposed MI in
lines 7-8 and 8-9 and their associated ≮FCCP during this situation
are shown in Figs. 7b–d. From Fig. 7d, it is observed that the phase
angle values of MI in both lines 7-8 and 8-9 are reached close to 0°

1884 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 6  Simulation results for three-phase fault at line 8-9
(a) Three-phase voltages at the location of relay R89, (b) Three-phase currents at the location of relay R89, (c) FCCP78, FCCP87and MI 7-8, (d) FCCP89, FCCP98 and MI 8-9
which confirm the non-fault condition. Thus, the proposed
supervisory scheme of vulnerable zone 3 by MI can effectively
support the reliable operation of these relays in such a stressed
condition.
5.4 Performance of MI for the three-phase faults during the
load encroachment
Another important challenge involved in distance relays is their
inability in discriminating between three-phase fault and load
encroachment events which are occurred simultaneously. To
evaluate the performance of the proposed MI, a three-phase fault
during load encroachment condition as in Section 5.3, is simulated
in line 7-8. Corresponding results are represented in Fig. 8.
Impedance trajectory variations in this situation are depicted in
Fig. 8a. From Fig. 8d, it is observed that initially due to load
encroachment the MI of line 7-8 (MI 7-8) represents the phase
angle close to 0° confirming the non-fault situation. However,
when a three-phase fault occurs in line 7-8 at t = 1.04 s, the value
of the MI phase angle is immediately changed to −180°
demonstrating the validity of the proposed index in diagnosing the
symmetrical fault occurred during load encroachment condition.
Moreover, it is important to notice that the corresponding MI in
line 8-9 during fault occurrence still remains at its previous value.
5.5 Performance of MI during power swing
To validate the performance of the proposed index during the
power swing, a three-phase fault is created at line 7-5 near to bus 7
at 1 s and is removed after 0.6 s by opening the both end breakers.
This causes an unstable power swing into the system. The voltage
and current signals at the location of relay R78 are shown in
Fig. 9a. As shown in Fig. 9b, the seen impedance of vulnerable
relay R78 enters the zone 3 and crosses it periodically during
power swing. As regards the power swing will result in continuous
change of current flowing the lines 7-8 and 8-9, the superimposed
current will continue to exist in same direction in sending and
receiving ends of transmission lines. Therefore, similar to the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
situation created in the case of an external fault which remains at
near the bus 7 in line 7-5, the values of ∠FCCP in buses 7–9 will
be shown in Figs. 9c and d. The response of the MI for lines 7-8
and 8-9 is depicted in Figs. 9c and d. As shown, the phase angle
represented by MI 7-8 and MI 8-9 confirm the non-fault condition
and avoids relay undesired operation.
6 Conclusion
Zone 3 unit of a distance relay has difficulty to discriminate a
three-phase fault from other stressed conditions. Maloperation of
the zone 3 of distance relay during static and dynamic load
encroachment has been reported as one of the most important
reasons in triggering the cascading outages worldwide. In this
paper, a novel real-time monitoring scheme has been proposed
based on synchrophasor measurements for providing a reliable
supervisory control over the vulnerable zone 3 of distance relays.
The critical distance relays are first identified and ranked by
extracting the synchrophasor-based vulnerability index in each
operating condition. This new index is composed of relay operation
margin and as well as margin sensitivity toward the voltage
magnitude variation and its angular difference. Thereafter, a new
MI is introduced using fault component phasor quantities to
support the reliable operation of identified vulnerable relays to
avoid their likely maloperation under load encroachment condition.
The simulation results affirm the efficiency and capability of the
proposed index in reliable and fast distinguishing the fault situation
from load encroachment events. The introduced MI is also not
affected by fault resistance, fault type, fault location and fault
inception angle. In addition, the proposed method can also be used
in wide area backup protection schemes.
1885
Table 2 Effects of fault location, fault resistance, fault inception instant and fault type on MI
Fault ∠FCCP78 = ∠ΔS̄78, deg . ∠FCCP87 = ∠ΔS̄87, deg . MI7-8 ∠FCCP89 = ∠ΔS̄89, deg . ∠FCCP98 = ∠ΔS̄98, deg . MI8-9
detection
instant, s
Effect of fault location (ABC fault)
Fault location
0.25 line 7-8 1.008 −95 −105 −200 +90 −83 +7
0.5 line 7-8 1.008 −93 −104 −197 +85 −87 −2
0.75 line 7-8 1.008 −92 −103 −195 +86 −86 0
0.25 line 8-9 1.008 −86 +87 +1 −101 −89 −190
0.5 line 8-9 1.008 −85 +83 −2 −107 −91 −198
0.75 line 8-9 1.008 −84 +88 +4 −107 −92 −199
Effect of fault inception instant (ABC fault in 0.5 line 7-8)
Fault
inception
instant, s
1.002 1.01 −94 −107 −201 +89 −80 +9
1.008 1.016 −91 −103 −194 +86 −90 −4
1.015 1.023 −97 −100 −197 +83 −90 −7
1.02 1.028 −90 −108 −198 +88 −84 +4
Effect of fault resistance (ABC fault in 0.5 line 7-8)
Fault
resistance, Ω
0 1.008 −90 −105 −195 +88 −82 +6
10 1.008 −89 −108 −197 +89 −84 +4
50 1.008 −87 −111 −198 +90 −81 +9
100 1.008 −83 −109 −192 +90 −83 +7
500 1.008 −80 −110 −190 +95 −80 +15
Effect of fault type in 0.5 line 7-8
Fault type
AG 1.008 −76 −110 −186 +94 −80 +14
ABG 1.008 −80 −114 −194 +95 −84 +11
AB 1.008 −82 −98 −180 +81 −79 +2
ABC 1.008 −90 −108 −198 +85 −87 −2

1886 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 7  Simulation results during load encroachment
(a) Impedance trajectory seen by relay R78, (b) ≮FCCP78, ≮FCCP87, (c) ≮FCCP89, ≮FCCP98, (d) MI of lines 7-8 and 8-9

Fig. 8  Simulation results for three-phase fault at line 7-8 during load encroachment
(a) Impedance trajectory seen by relay R78, (b) ≮FCCP78, ≮FCCP87, (c) ≮FCCP89, ≮FCCP98, (d) MI of lines 7-8 and 8-9

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2017, Vol. 11 Iss. 8, pp. 1878-1888 1887
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 9  Simulation results during unstable power swing
(a) Voltage and current signals at location of relay R78, (b) Impedance trajectory seen by relay R78, (c) ≮FCCP78, ≮FCCP87 and MI of line 7-8, (d)≮FCCP89, ≮FCCP98 and MI
of line 8-9
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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017