INSTITUTION: DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

YEAR OF STUDY: FOURTH YEAR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING.

KENYA RURAL ROADS AUTHORITY NAIROBI REGION

DURATION: JANUARY TO APRIL 2017.

NAME: KIRII BRIAN MBATHA

REG. NO: E024-01-0824/2013.

COURSE: BSC. IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT.

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 1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank both Dedan Kimathi University of Science and Technology and Kenya
Rural Roads Authority Nairobi region for providing me with this opportunity to undergo my
attachment where I have learned more about road construction.
This industrial attachment was made successful through the contributions of Eng. Likavu and Eng.
Adimorah the chief roads officers in KeRRa Nairobi region. I am grateful for their full support and
encouragements throughout the period.

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 1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION. .....................................................................................................
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE FIELD ATTACHMENT PROGRAM…………………..
1.2 OBJECTIVES. ..............................................................................................................
1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE ORGANIZATION ............................................................
CHAPTER 2: PAVEMENT
2.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………...............……………………..
2.1 PAVEMENT THEORY………………………………………………………………
2.2 EARTHWORKS………………………………………………………………………
2.3 SUBGRADE…………………………………………………………………………..
2.4 SUB BASE……………………………………………………………………………
2.4.1 NATURAL MATERIALS……………………………………………….....
2.4.2 GRADED CRUSHED STONE…………………………………………….
2.4.3 STABILIZED MATERIALS……………………………………………….
2.5 BASES………………………………………………………………………………..
2.5.1 NATURAL GRAVEL……………………………………………………….
2.5.2 GRADED CRUSHED STONE……………………………………………..
2.6 STABILIZED MATERIALS………………………………………………………..
2.7 DENSE BITUMEN MACADAM…………………………………………………
2.7.1 AGGREGATES……………………………………………………………
2.8 SURFACING………………………………………………………………………..
2.8.1 PRIME COAT……………………………………………………………….
2.8.2 TACK COAT………………………………………………………………
2.8.3 SURFACE DRESSING………………………………………………….
2.8.3.1 GENERAL……………………………………………………….
2.8.3.2 BITUMEN BINDER………………………………………………

CHAPTER 3: SURVEY
3.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………
3.1 BASICS OF LEVELLING……………………………………………………………………
3.2 LEVELLING PROCEDURES…………………………………………………………………
3.3 REDUCING LEVELS………………………………………………………………………….
CHAPTER 4: EXPERIENCES
4.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………
4.1 RELATIONSHIP WITH STAFF……………………………………………………
4.2 THINGS ENJOYED……………………………………………………………….
4.3 THINGS LEAST ENJOYED………………………………………………………
4.4 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED……………………………………………………….
4.5 SKILLS LEARNED……………………………………………………………….
5. CONCLUSON…………………………………………………………………..
6. RECCOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………………….
7. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………..
8. TABLES………………………………………………………………………..

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 CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE FIELD ATTACHMENT PROGRAM

 Allow the student to pick up life skills e.g. Commination skills interpersonal skills, team
Work etc. on the job.
 Allow student to apply what they have learned from their course of study in the work
place.
 Provide opportunity for the student to gain practical experience in the working
environment.
 Provide opportunity for the student to explore their areas of interest.
 Enable the student to gain valuable experience in the relevant industries.
 Provide greater exposure for student who go over or oversees the attachment.
 Encourage the spirit of creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship.
 Create opportunity for future employment with the attached company after graduation

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The following were the objectives of the attachment program:
 Gaining skills in Road construction
 Gaining skills in Survey works.
 Obtaining skills in laboratory tests involving road construction.

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 1.3 ORGANIZATION BACKGROUND

KeRRA is a Corporation whose mandate is to offer guidance in the construction, maintenance

and management of the rural road network in the country. KeRRA is responsible for the
management, development, rehabilitation, and maintenance of rural roads (D, E & Others).

Vision

To be a provider of an adequate, quality, safe and efficient rural road network.

Mission Statement

To construct, maintain and manage the rural road network for sustainable socio-economic
development.

Core Values

As a public sector institution, we are dedicated to excellence and provision of high quality
professional services to our customers. The values that will guide us in achieving our vision and
mission are:

 Integrity-We are committed to the promotion of honesty, transparency, accountability and

professional ethics
 Leadership- We will practice servant leadership where customer is the king
 Creativity- We will explore innovative methods of implementing our mandate
 Teamwork- We recognize the synergy brought about by team work and will actively
promote the same
 Reliability in delivery of service- We will strive to deliver services in a timely and cost
effective manner
 Environmental and Social Stewardship- Mainstreaming of environmental, gender and
other cross cutting issues in our operations

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 2. CHAPTER 2
2.0 INTRODUCTION

This section aims at giving explaining the theory behind the activities undertaken during the
attachment period. It covers the main activities undertaken which include; survey work and
pavement theory.

2.1 Pavement Theory

Pavement layers

 Formation is the surface of the ground, in its final shape, upon which the pavement
structure, consisting of sub base, base and surfacing is constructed.

 Subgrade consists of all the material below the sub base, including in-situ material, fill
and improved

 Fill is approved imported material used below formation level to construct embankments
or replace unsuitable natural material. Most types of soil and broken rock can be used but
highly plastic soil, expansive soil and organic soil should be avoided.

 Improved (or selected) subgrade is a layer of selected fill material, the top of which is at
formation level, placed where the natural in-situ or fill material is unsuitable for the direct
support of the pavement. Its purpose is to increase the strength and stiffness of the insitu
material and thus reduce the pavement thickness.

 Sub base consists of a medium quality granular layer resting on the subgrade and
supporting the base course.

 Base (or road base) consists of a pavement layer lying between the surfacing and the sub-
base, which can be constructed from asphalt, granular or stabilized material.

 Binder Course consists of the lower bituminous layer of the pavement, usually asphalt
concrete. It is not always present; the wearing course may rest directly on the base
course.

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  Surfacing is the uppermost pavement layer which provides the riding surface for vehicles.
It will normally consist of one of the following: surface dressing, sand asphalt or asphalt
concrete. If constructed of asphalt it will include a surfacing and an optional binder
course.

 Wearing Course consists of the uppermost bituminous layer of the pavement, usually
asphalt concrete. The top surface of this layer should provide a smooth surface but with
adequate texture to provide adequate friction for safe vehicle braking and turning.

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General Terms

 Borrow Area is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is removed for
construction of the works. (The term borrow pit is also used.)

 Quarry is an open surface working from which stone is removed by drilling and blasting,
for construction of the works.

 Stabilized Materials are naturally occurring gravels and clayey sands, or crushed stone, to
which either cement or lime, or both, have been added, in order to improve their
engineering properties.

 Lean Concrete is a high quality, well graded aggregate and Portland cement mixture,
mixed in a stationary plant and laid by a paver. It is used as a high quality base.

 Rock fill is rock material of such particle size that the material can only be placed in
layers of compacted thickness exceeding 300mm. Boulders with volumes greater than
0.2m³ are not normally used.

 Graded Crushed Stone consists of quarried stone which has been crushed to a range of
sizes, conforming to a high quality specification for grading, cleanliness, strength, shape
and soundness. Normally graded crushed stone is used for road base or as the aggregate
in bituminous bound material. .

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  Gravel Wearing Course consists of a surfacing applied to a road formation where no
bituminous surfacing is to be placed. The gravel can include one or a combination of the
following materials: lateritic gravel, quarzitic gravel, calcareous gravel, some forms of
partly decomposed rock, soft stone, coral rag, clayey sands and crushed rock.

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 2.2 Earthworks

Construction of new roads, and sometimes also reconstructed roads if they are widened,
invariably requires the movement of soil and rock prior to building the road pavement. Cuttings
and embankments will be constructed to obtain a satisfactory alignment on most roads and the
following discusses the main factors to be considered.

2.2.1 Cuttings

In most regions of the world cuttings are made in materials in different stages of weathering.
This is particularly true in tropical regions where the higher temperatures increase the rate of
chemical reaction, and if rainfall is significant, the result is often a quite profound and variable
weathering profile. Cuttings in weathered rock and soil are generally unstable because of
accumulation of water in the material and slips occur when this accumulation of water reduces
the cohesion of the soil and increases its mass. Wherever a cutting is required, the following
factors will affect its design and cost:

 Type, volume and position of the materials to be excavated

 Level and flow of water table and springs

 Drainage and protection against erosion

 Stability of the slopes

The analysis of slope stability is usually based on measurements of soil density, moisture content
and soil strength together with calculations of soil stresses using slip-circle analysis. In most
cases slope angles are determined by experience and those that have generally been found to be
satisfactory.

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 2.3 Subgrade

The aim of the design process is to protect the bearing capacity of the in situ subgrade material in
order that the road pavement will be able to fulfill its service objective over the design period.
The bearing capacity and quality of the subgrade (or roadbed or fill) is of prime importance in
the selection of pavement type and is improved by overlaying it with layers of material to
achieve an integrated and structurally balanced system.

Table 2.3: Subgrade Classes

Soil Class CBR Range Modulus, MPa (of

median value)

S1 2 15

S2 3 to 4 25

S3 5 to 7 50

S4 8 to 14 80

S5 15 to 29 125

S6 30+ >250

Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design

i. Materials Suitable for Pavement Support

Materials directly supporting the pavement shall normally comply with the following:

 CBR ≈ 15% at specified compaction, normally 95% of BS Heavy (AASHTO T180)

 Swell < 2% at 100% MDD (Modified Compaction) and 4 days soak

 Organic matter < 3% (percentage by weight)

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 ii. Improved Subgrade

Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the pavement support
but also:

 Protects the upper layers of earthworks against adverse weather conditions (protection
against soaking and shrinkage).

 Facilitates the movement of construction traffic.

 Permits more effective compaction of the pavement layers.

 Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength.

 Prevents pollution of open-textured sub-bases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.

iii. Lime Treated Subgrade

Treatment of subgrade soils with lime is encouraged because otherwise they may have to be
removed and disposed. It may be effective in the following cases:

 Where the soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available;
treatment with hydrated lime may be a cost-effective solution.

 Where the soils are excessively wet and cannot expeditiously be dried out; treatment with
quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a markedly stronger subgrade.

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 2.4 Sub-bases

The sub base acts as a construction platform for the upper pavement layers and as a separation
layer between the subgrade and the road base. In certain circumstances it may also act as a
drainage layer, especially in concrete roads. The selection of a suitable sub base material will,
therefore, depend on the design function of the layer and the anticipated moisture conditions,
both at construction and in service.

2.4.1 Natural Materials

Natural materials in Kenya suitable for sub bases can be lateritic, quarzitic or calcareous

gravels, some forms of soft stone, coral stone (on the coast), clayey and silty sands, and
conglomerate.

2.4.2 Graded Crushed Stone

Graded crushed stone may be used as sub base material where no suitable natural gravel can be
found.

The following should be noted when using graded crushed stone as a sub base material.

 ‘Crusher-run’ should be used as much as possible; the grading envelopes given cover the
crusher-runs usually obtained. For softer stones a grading at the design stage which is
coarser than the envelope may be acceptable.

 Material shall consist of crushed stone, free of clay, organic and any other deleterious
material

 Grading after compaction shall be considered: compaction may cause further crushing
and produce additional fines in the case of soft stone

 Generally, the fines (% passing 0.425mm sieve) shall be only slightly plastic: in dry
areas, the plasticity may be further relaxed (PI<8)

 Graded crushed stone should always be kept moist during handling, transporting and
laying and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5 m, in order to avoid
segregation

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  Care must be taken to ensure that the layer edges are properly compacted

 No visible movement under a steel wheeled roller applying at least 5000 Kg/meter width
of roll.

2.4.3 Stabilized Natural Materials

Natural gravels, sands and clayey sands may be stabilized with cement or lime.

Cement bound granular sub bases

These materials are intended to perform as rigid monolithic pavement layers to increase the
dynamic stiffness of the pavement. For traffic classes T6 and T7 a DBM base is required: this is
a rigid layer which needs a rigid layer to be constructed on, otherwise it will break.

Typically, they are graded crushed stone to which is added 2% to 3% cement in a plant mixer.

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 2.5 Bases

The main function of the base is to act as the load-spreading layer of the road pavement.
Therefore, only strong materials will be suitable. Bases fall into two categories: unbound and
bound. Unbound bases, such as natural gravels and crushed stone, rely on their intrinsic internal
friction to develop the necessary bearing capacity. Bound bases have a binder, either bitumen or
cement or lime, which is used to strengthen them and enhance their ability to reduce the traffic
stresses on the layers below.

2.5.1 Natural gravel

Natural gravels meeting the requirements in Table 1.1 are very scarce in Kenya. Lateritic gravels
are not suitable owing to their poor nodule hardness and high plasticity. Weathered rocks are of
even poorer quality. Only quartz gravels and coral gravels are potentially satisfactory.

It may be advantageous to stabilize them mechanically, by mixing in sand to reduce the

plasticity, or stone (crushed or not) to provide hard, coarse, angular particles. An addition of up
to 30% of sand or stone is regarded, practically and economically, as a maximum.

Natural gravels are suitable only for Traffic Classes T1 to T5, for they are prone to attrition and
their properties are too variable.

2.5.2 Graded Crushed Stone

Graded crushed stone (GCS), either basaltic rock, gneiss or granite, is the most widely used base
material in Kenya. Recommended specifications are presented in Table 1.2

The following points should be noted:

 GCS is not considered suitable for Traffic Classes T6 or T7

 For Traffic Class T5 the GCS must be entirely crushed: for T4 and lower the GCS may
be semi-crushed

 The grading generally required is 0/40 mm but for T4 and T5 a finer grading is required
in order to minimize segregation and provide sufficient stability

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  GCS should always be kept wet during handling, transporting and laying and should not
be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5 m, to avoid segregation.

 Special care must be taken to ensure that the layer edges are always properly compacted,
by providing an extra width or specific lateral abutment

 Adding material from another source to achieve the grading is permissible providing it is
passing 5mm sieve, a maximum content of 15%, non-plastic and free of deleterious
material

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 2.6 Stabilized materials
2.6.1 General

Since there is an indigenous cement and lime industry in Kenya, it can be advantageous to treat
otherwise unsuitable natural materials with cement or lime. It will be only appropriate, however,
when the cost of the treatment is less than the cost of the removal of the unsuitable material plus
replacement by suitable material. Stabilization enhances the properties of road materials in the
following ways:

 retention of strength when saturated with water

 increased resistance to erosion

 increased effective elastic moduli of the layers above the stabilized layer

Possible problems are associated with these desirable effects:

 Environmental and traffic stresses can cause stabilized layers to crack

 Cracks can reflect through the surfacing allowing water to enter the structure

 The stabilization reactions are reversible if the stabilized material is exposed to the
atmosphere, resulting in decrease in the strength of the stabilized layers

 The stabilization procedure requires skill; for instance, the operation must be carried out
relatively quickly, especially with cement stabilizer, and the resulting mixture of the
stabilizer and natural material must obviously be as homogeneous as possible.

The balancing of these advantages and disadvantages generally limits the amounts of admixed
stabilizer to between 2% and 6%.

An indication of the suitability of the soil for stabilization is provided by the Initial Consumption
of Lime test (BS 1924 1990) which determines the amount of lime, or cement, required to
complete the neutralizing reactions and initiate the stabilizing reactions whereby strength-
forming calcium silicates and aluminates are progressively created. Normally, the amount of
stabilizer used in the contract is the ICL value + 1%. Soils containing >0.3% of sulphate should

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be avoided for stabilization as there have been instances of deleterious reactions between the
sulphate and the strength-forming calcium silicates and aluminates.

Choice and Quality of Stabilizer

The choice of stabilizer depends on the plasticity of the natural material, see Table 2.6.1:

Table 2.6.1: Choice of Stabilizer

% Passing 75µm sieve PI Best Stabilizer

< 6, or Cement*

PI x (% passing 75µm) <

60
Less than 25%***
6 to 10 Cement preferred

> 10 Cement or lime

< 10 Cement preferred

More than 25% 10 to 20 Cement or lime

> 20 Lime preferred**

* Lime requires the presence of clay minerals for reaction to take place and is
therefore suitable only for materials with high PI.

** Cement can be used to stabilize materials of high PI provided they are treated
beforehand with approx. 2% of lime, which reduces plasticity and improves
workability.

*** Desert sands do not usually stabilize well with cement. They are more
effectively stabilized with bitumen (see later).

Cement shall conform to KS EAS 18-1 ’Cement: Composition, Specifications and Conformity
Criteria, Part I. Lime shall conform to KS 02-97 1982 ‘Specification and Methods of Test for

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Building Limes’. The water used shall contain less than of 2000ppm sulphate and 1000ppm of
chloride.

I. If cement stabilizer is used, mixing, compaction and finishing shall be completed within
2 hours and the treated layer shall be protected against evaporation within 4 hours. If lime
stabilizer is used, the respective times allowed are 4 hours and 8 hours.
II. Protection and curing shall normally be achieved by the application of a bitumen seal
coat. No vehicle shall be allowed on a cement treated layer for the first 7 days after
compaction.

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 2.7Dense Bitumen Macadam

Bituminous premixes are produced in plant using aggregates of good quality, hot-mixed,
transported to site and laid and compacted while still hot. The mixes must be designed to provide
high deformation resistance, high fatigue resistance and good durability while being sufficiently
workable during construction to allow satisfactory compaction. The exact requirements depend
on the application, whether as a base or surfacing.

In Kenya dense bitumen macadam, also known as close-graded bitumen macadam, is normally
used for base for heavily trafficked roads of Traffic Class T5 or greater. It is a ‘recipe premix’,
i.e. a mix of bitumen and aggregate which has been proven by experience to be satisfactory,
rather than a mixture which has been designed from mechanical testing procedures, such as the
Marshall test procedure. It is particularly appropriate for having high stiffness and resistance to
deformation but, since the air voids content can be in excess of 5%, it needs a surfacing for
protection against the environment.

2.7.1 Aggregates

The aggregates used for DBM (and for all bituminous premixes) must be clean, hard and
durable, similar in quality to crushed stone for road base. They consist of coarse aggregate, with
particle size greater than 2.36mm; and fine aggregate, with particle size between 2.36mm and
0.075mm. Premix also contains a small proportion of filler, consisting of rock fines, cement, or
lime.In asphalt production two factors are important:

 the minimum mixing temperature should be used to achieve complete coating of the
aggregate but high enough to enable compaction to be completed, and

 the mixing temperature must not be elevated above the allowable range to compensate for
long delivery journeys or because of cold weather;

Control of mix temperature should be based on bitumen viscosity but as a general guide the
maximum temperature limits shown in Table 2.7.1 for mixing and delivery to the paver should
be adhered to:

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Table 2.7.1: Bitumen Temperature Maxima-Minima

Operation Grade of bitumen

40-50 60-70 80-100

Mixing (ASTM D 946) 170 165 160

Max.(ºC)

Delivery to paver 150-170 145-165 140-160

(ºC)

The highest bitumen content commensurate with adequate stability should be used.

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 2.8 Surfacing

2.8.1 Prime Coat

A prime coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an unbound surface, usually
an unbound or a cement/lime-bound surface, in order to promote and maintain adhesion between
the road base and a bituminous surfacing.

MC 30 and MC 70 are the most suitable binders. MC 30 can be used for practically all types of
materials. MC 70 is suitable only for open textured materials, such as graded crushed stone. The
depth of penetration should be between 3 and 10mm and the quantity sprayed should be dry
within two days. The rate of application will depend on the texture and density of the material to
be primed. It is usually between 0.8 and 1.2litre/m2. It is good practice to dampen the surface to
be primed as this facilitates the penetration of the binder

Priming a cement-treated layer with cut-back can cause slight surface disintegration, because of
interference with the cement hydration. If difficulties arise, priming should be replaced with a
bitumen emulsion tack coat, although the absorbance of an emulsion is not as good as cutback
bitumen.

2.8.2 Tack Coat

The prime function of a tack coat is to glue a new bituminous surface to an underlying
bituminous surface. Tack coats should be very thin, otherwise they will act as a lubricant rather
than a glue (especially in hot climates) and unnecessarily increase the bitumen proportion in the
overlying asphalt. It is best to use a bitumen emulsion, spread thin to approximately 0.2 to 0.8
l/m2. All tack coats should be applied to a cleaned surface shortly before laying the next
bituminous layer but allowing sufficient time for evaporation of cutter or run-off of emulsion
water. Rapid curing cut-backs (RC 250, 800 or 300); medium curing cut-backs (MC 250, 800 or
3000); quick-breaking emulsions (Al or Kl-70); or A3 Anionic emulsion diluted with water l:l.
MC 30 & MC 70 prime cut-backs are not suitable for tack coats.

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 2.8.3 Surface Dressing

2.8.3.1 General

Surface dressing, or chip seal as it is otherwise known, is a very effective and versatile
technique. It consists of the spraying of a bitumen film followed by the application of a layer of
aggregate chippings. Thus, surface dressing does not impart structural strength to the pavement
or improve the riding quality but it does provide a waterproof seal and can restore surface
texture. It can be used as the principal seal for surfacing lightly trafficked roads or used as a
maintenance process to re-seal all types of roads. The lives of all bituminous surfacing are
extended by periodic applications of surface dressing.

The main property of surface dressings that lends itself to such versatile behavior is the bitumen
film, which is much thicker in surface dressing than bituminous pre-mixes. On heavily trafficked
roads where the pre-mixes are compacted to refusal, the bitumen content is even lower than
normal and in these situations surface dressing is applied to protect the pre-mix from early
weathering.

2.8.3.2 Bitumen binder

Bituminous Binders are petroleum-derived adhesives used to stick chippings onto a road surface,
as in surface dressings, or to bind together a layer of surfacing or base material. There are three
principal types used in road work:

• Straight-Run (or Penetration) Bitumen is bitumen whose viscosity or composition has not
been adjusted by blending with solvents or any other substance.

• Cut-Back Bitumen is bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by the addition of
volatile diluent, such as kerosene or diesel.

• Short Residue Bitumen is the primary product of the refinery before the air-blowing
process, and is bitumen of variable viscosity whose penetration can be measured, and which
approximates to a slow-curing cut-back bitumen.

• Bitumen Emulsion is bitumen in finely-divided droplets dispersed in water by means of

an emulsifying agent to form a stable mixture.

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CHAPTER 3

SURVEY
4.0 3.0 Introduction:
Levelling is a means by which surveyors can determine the elevation of points, using other
known points as references. Levelling is perhaps the most basic of surveying operations and
forms an important fundamental part of almost every surveying project.

3.1 Basics of Leveling:

In levelling, the surveyor looks back (BS) to a point of known elevation to determine the
elevation of his or her instrument (EI). The surveyor then looks forward (FS) to a point of
unknown elevation and determines the elevation of that point using the elevation of his or her
instrument (EI) and the value on the level rod read through the level’s telescope.
Once the elevation of a point is determined, that point can be used for determining the elevations
of other points.
In this way, the surveyor may “leap-frog” forward, eventually determining the elevations of
points that are impractical from the initial location, and developing greater accuracy by means of
a “closed traverse”.
3.2 Levelling procedures
(a) Setting up
• Back sight and foresight distances should be approximately equal to avoid any errors due to
collimation, refraction or earth curvature.
• Distances must not be so great as to not be able to read the graduations accurately.
• The points to be observed must be below the level of the instrument, but not lower than the
height of the staff.
(b) Elimination of parallax
Parallax is the apparent movement of the image produced by movement of the observer's eye at
the eyepiece.
It is eliminated by focusing the telescope on infinity and then adjusting the eyepiece until the
Cross-hairs appear in sharp focus. The setting will remain constant for a particular observer's
eye.

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(c) Booking
i. Level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in a register.
Details of the site, work, date, observer, chainman, booker, weather, wind, instrument and
any other relevant items shall be entered.
ii. Enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the Back sight column, and
sufficient detail in the Remarks column to identify it. Enter the point's R.L. zero from the
site register or plate on the BM, etc.
iii. enter all other points on subsequent lines as intermediates except the point chosen as the
fore sight. Identify them in the Remarks column as above. Enter the foresight on a
further line in the Foresight column.
iv. Change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following back sight on the same line
as the previous foresight but in the Back sight column.
v. Repeat the above procedure at each setup on the outward run then reverse it to work
back to the starting point on the return run. The furthest point out is treated as for all
other change points.
3.3 Reducing the levels
Two methods are in general use; the "rise and fall" method and the "height of collimation"
method.
The "rise and fall" methods shall be used for reduction of all site levelling. Reduction shall be
carried out on site before packing up to ensure that the levelling has been done correctly.
• Calculate the rises and fall between successive points and book them in the appropriate column
(one can determine whether each shot is a rise or fall by the following rule of thumb: a higher
value on top denotes a rise; a higher value on the bottom denotes a fall)
• Add up the back sight and foresight columns for the entire traverse and note the difference
between them
• Add up the rises and falls for the entire traverse, and compare the difference between them with
the difference between the back sights and foresights; they should be the same
• Carry the reduced levels in the R.L. column down the page by adding or subtracting the
appropriate rise and fall values to the successive values of R.L. The final value of the original
starting point will differ from the original value by the amount of the close.
If the levelling has been done correctly and all arithmetic reductions are correct, the differences

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between total back sights and foresights, total rises and falls, and starting and finishing R.L.'s
should be the same. This difference is the close; and for site inspection purposes it should be
within ± 2mm or ± 6mm, depending upon which water-level standard is being followed, ± 3mm
or ± 10m

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CHAPTER 4

EXPERIENCES, DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

4.0INTRODUCTION

This section gives a general view of how I related with the staff, the skills learned at the end of
the attachment and my view of the whole program.

4.1 RELATIONSHIP WITH STAFF

The staffs were delightful.

They were easy to work with and made my stay at KERRA comfortable.

Professionally they were diligent and ready to teach and guide me in my various tasks.

4.2 THINGS ENJOYED

What I liked most about my training is that it is very strongly related to academic materials and
survey and earthworks learnt in the university.

Among the things I enjoyed most was the exposure the attachment offered as I was working both
with the contractors and supervisor (KeRRA).

The attachment also gave me the opportunity to work on different stages of road construction
from earthworks, stabilization, surfacing and paving.

4.3 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED

 Poor weather especially the rainy season slowed down works and also led to damage of
road sections especially those of earthworks. It also slowed down the laying of DBM.
 Mechanical failures that led to time wastage.

4.4 LEARNED SKILLS.

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My training with KERRA was very useful to me in acquiring new engineering skills that I had
not had before. These learned skills prove being very valuable by signifying an impact in solving
problems. Some of the engineering skills I learned are the following.

 Skills of teamwork and planning which contribute to the efficiency of any project in
terms of time and money.
 Survey works and carrying out road levels.
 People skills in dealing with different personalities in the construction industry while
maintain professionalism.
 Time management in any stage of the project.

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 5.0 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, I am well satisfied with my training. I have acquired a number of new technical
skills and improved another group of existing skills, other than those gained at university
laboratories.
It is very good to acquire such a large number of skills in a three-month training period. So,
training at KERRA can be said to be very valuable.

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 6. RECCOMMENDATION

.The following are some of my recommendations:

i. Division and specialization of labor to avoid incomplete and shoddy work in case of
changing of laborers.
ii. Motivation of the workers by giving them allowances and tokens.
iii. Providing back up equipment in case of breakdowns. This ensures the work isn’t
disrupted and remains on schedule.
iv. Proper communication channels throughout the organization to avoid
miscommunication.

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 7. REFERENCES

British Standard Codes:

BS 1881-102:1983 Slump test

BS 1377:1990 part 1-9 methods for tests for soils

Road Design Manual Part III 1987: Materials and Pavement Design For New Roads

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 8. Tables

Table 1.1: Specification for Natural Gravel as Base

Material Material Class

Properties

CBR,%, at specified field density Min 80

Swell Max 0.5% at BS Heavy

Waterberg Limits General Coral gravel

LL max 30 LL max 35

PI max 8 (LS max 4) PI max 10 (LS max 5)

PM max 90

Particle Strength ACV max 35, or

TFV min 75 (dry) and min 50 (wet)

Grading, sieve size, mm Envelope 0/40

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50 100

37.5 95-100

28 80-100

20 60-100

10 35-90

5 20-75

2 12-50

1 10-40

0.425 7-33

0.075 4-20

Field Density Min 95% of MDD BS Heavy at 80-105% OMC

Layer restrictions Min thickness compacted layer: 125mm

Max thickness compacted in one layer: 200mm

Table 1.2: Crushed Stone Specifications for Base

Material Properties Material Class

GCS1

Compaction, Vibrating hammer, Average 98% of MDD

KS 999-4
No result < 96% of MDD

SG of compacted layer Average dry density min 85% of SG

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 No result < 82% of SG

Stone cleanliness SEV (AASHTO T176) min 30

Fines non plastic

Stone toughness ACV max 30, or

TFV min 110 (dry value) and 75(wet value)

Stone durability Water Absorption max 1%

(if doubt then max Mg2SO4 Soundness 18%: KS 1238-20)

Stone particle shape Flakiness Index max 30%

Grading, sieve size, mm 0/20 0/30 0/40

% passing % passing % passing

50 - 100

37.5 - 100 90-100

28 100 90-100 75-95

20 90-100 65-95 60-90

10 60-75 40-70 40-75

6.3 40-60 30-55 30-63

2 30-45 20-40 20-45

1 15-30 15-32 15-35

0.425 13-27 10-24 10-26

0.075 4-10 4-10 4-12

Particle Size Max size shall be ⅔ of compacted layer

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Layer restrictions Min thickness compacted layer: 125mm

Max thickness compacted in one layer: 200mm

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