4 Mac

The Medium Access Sublayer
• Deal with broadcast networks and their protocols.

• The key issue is how to determine who gets to use the channel
when there is competition for it.
• Broadcast channels are sometimes referred to as multiaccess
channels or random access channels.
• The protocols used to determine who gets next on a multiaccess
channel belong to a sublayer of the data link layer called the
MAC (Medium Access Control) sublayer.
• The MAC sublayer is especially important in LANs
• Many of which use a multiaccess channel as the basis for communication
• Technically, the MAC sublayer is the bottom part of the DLL
1
4.1 The Channel Allocation Problem
4.1.1 Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs
FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing

TDM: Time Division Multiplexing
Suitable for fixed number of users with constant traffic
Disadvantage: when the number of users is large and

continuously varying, or the traffic is bursty, FDM
presents some problems.
2
4.1.1 Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs
A simple queuing theory calculation
For a channel of capacity C bps, with an arrival
rate of λ frames/sec, each frame having a length
drawn from an exponential probability density
function with mean 1/μ bits/frame, the mean
time delay is defined as 1
T=
μC − λ
Now let us divide the single channel up into N independent

subchannels, each with capacity C/N bps. The mean input
rate on each of the subchannel will now be λ/N.
Recomputing T, we get 1
TFDM = = NT
μ (C / N ) − ( λ / N )
3
• The mean delay using FDM is N times worse than if all the
frames were somehow magically arranged orderly in a big
central queue
• The same argument may also apply to TDM
– Each user is statically allocated every Nth time slot
• Since none of the traditional static channel allocation method

works well with bursty traffic, we will now explore dynamic
methods
4
4.1.2 Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs
Five key assumptions:

1. Station Model. The model consists of N independent stations,
each with a program or user that generates frames for
transmission.
The probability of a frame being generated in an interval of

length Δt is λΔt, where λ is a constant (the arrival rate of new
frames).
Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked and

does nothing until the frame has been successfully transmitted.
5
2. Single Channel Assumption. A single channel is available for

all communication. All stations can transmit on it and all can
receive from it.
As far as the hardware is concerned, all stations are equivalent,

although some protocol software may assign priorities to them.
6
3. Collision Assumption. If two frames are transmitted

simultaneously, they overlap in time and the resulting
signal is garbled. This event is called a collision.
All stations can detect collisions.
A collided frame must be transmitted again alter. There are

no errors other than those generated by collisions.
7
4a. Continuous Time. Frame transmission can begin at any instant.

There is no master clock dividing time into discrete intervals.
4b. Slotted Time. Time is divided into discrete intervals (slots).

Frame transmissions always begin at the start of a slot.
A slot may contain 0, 1, or more frames, corresponding to an idle
slot, a successful transmission, or a collision, respectively.
8
5a. Carrier Sense. Stations can tell if the channel is in use

before trying to use it. If the channel is sensed as busy, no
station will attempt to use it until it goes idle.
5b. No Carrier Sense. Stations cannot sense the channel

before trying to use it. They just go ahead and transmit.
Only later can they determine whether or not the
transmission was successful.
9
4.2 Multiple Access Protocols
4.2.1 ALOHA
ALOHA of U. of Hawaii
Pure ALOHA
Computer
Center
413MHz at 9600bps
407MHz at 9600bps
the first multiple-access protocol: a method for sharing a

transmission channel by enabling the transmitter to access the
channel at random times
10
4.2 Multiple Access Protocols
4.2.1 ALOHA
Pure ALOHA Frames are transmitted at completely
arbitrary times.
11
Pure ALOHA
• nodes transmit on a common channel

• transmit frame of fixed length
• when two transmissions overlap, they garble each other
(collision)
• the central node acknowledges the correct frames it receives
• when a node does not get an acknowledgment within a
specific timeout, it assumes that its frame collided
• when a frame collides, the transmitting node schedules a
retransmission after a random delay
12
nodes
S collision?
new frame channel
G No S
old frame
Yes
S: the mean number of new frames generated by the infinite population

G: the mean number of transmission attempts
(new and old combined)
S = G× P0 where P0 is the probability that a frame does not

suffer a collision
13
pure ALOHA Vs slotted ALOHA
pure ALOHA
time
Nodes can starting transmitting at any time.
slotted ALOHA
slot
time
Nodes must start their transmissions at the beginning of a time slot.

14
vulnerability period
pure ALOHA slotted ALOHA

packet packet
Other nodes that are ready at this period will result in collision.
15
The probability that k frames are generated during a given
frame time is given by the Poisson distribution:
G k e−G
Pr[k ] = So the probability of zero frames in a
k! slot is just e-G.
In an interval two time slots long, the mean number of frames

generated is 2G. Therefore, the distribution is:
k −2 G
( 2G ) e
Pr[k ] = The probability of zero frames is e-2G.
k!
16
4.2.1 ALOHA
Using S=GP0, we get

For pure ALOHA: S=Ge-2G
For slotted ALOHA: S=Ge-G
To find the maximum value:

dS dS
S = Ge − G , = e − G − Ge − G , = 0 → G = 1, S = e −1
dG dG
−1
dS dS 1 e
S = Ge −2G , = e −2G − 2Ge −2G , = 0 → G = ,S =
dG dG 2 2
17
4.2.1 ALOHA
18
4.2.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols
With slotted ALOHA the best channel utilization that can be

achieved is 1/e. This is hardly surprising, since with stations
transmitting at will, without paying attention to what other
stations are doing, there are bound to be many collisions.
In local area networks, however, it is possible for stations to

detect what other stations are doing, and adapt their behavior
accordingly.
Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e. a transmission)

and act accordingly are called carrier sense protocols.
19
1-persistent CSMA: the station transmits with a probability of 1

whenever it finds the channel idle, if the channel is busy, it waits
until it becomes idle
non-persistent CSMA: the station transmits if the channel is idle,

if the channel is busy, it waits a random time and tries again
p-persistent CSMA (slotted): the station transmits with a probability

of p whenever it finds the channel idle, with a probability of 1-p, it
waits until the next slot. If another station has begun transmitting, it
acts as if there had been a collision. It waits a random time and starts
again.
20
21
CSMA with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
Abort a transmission as soon as they detect a collision. Quickly

terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth.
After a station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission,

waits a random period of time, and then tries again, assuming
that no other station has started transmitting in the meantime.
22
A conceptual model for CSMA/CD
(How long should each slot be?)
23
maximum collision detection time

A B
1.A starts t=0
transmitting 3. A reaches B 2.B starts
transmitting
5.B reaches A PROP
2PROP 4.B detects collision,

transmits JAM, stops
6.A detects collision,

transmits JAM, stops
The maximum collision detection time is equal to
twice the maximum end-to-end propagation delay.
24
4.2.5 Wavelength Division Multiple Access Protocols
25
M: number of slots in the control channel

n+1: number of slots in the data channel, where n of these
are for data and the last one is used by the station to
report on its status
On both channels, the sequence of slots repeats endlessly, with

slot 0 being marked in a special way so latecomers can detect it.
All channels are synchronized by a single global clock.
26
The protocol supports three classes of traffic:

(1) constant data rate connection-oriented traffic
(e.g., Uncompressed Video)
(2) variable data rate connection-oriented traffic
(e.g., file transfer)
(3) datagram traffic (e.g., UDP)
For the two connection-oriented protocols, the idea is that for

A to communicate with B, it must first insert a CONNECTION
REQUEST frame in a free slot on B’s control channel. If B
accepts, communication can take place on A’s data channel.
27
Each station has two transmitters and two receivers, as follows:

1. A fixed-wavelength receiver for listening its own control channel
2. A tunable transmitter for sending on other station’s control channel.
3. A fixed-wavelength transmitter for outputting data frames.
4. A tunable receiver for selecting a data transmitter to listen to.
In other words, every station listens to its own control channel

for incoming requests but has to tune to the transmitter’s
wavelength to get the data.
28
4.2.6 Wireless LAN Protocols
The hidden terminal problem
When A transmits to B and C also transmits to B

simultaneously, the frames will be collided at B. Since A
and C can not see each other.
29
The exposed terminal problem
When C hears B’s transmission intended for A, it may

falsely conclude that it can not send to D now.
30
MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
MACA: basis for IEEE802.11 wireless LAN standard
The basic idea behind it is for the sender to simulate the

receiver into outputting a short frame, so stations nearby can
detect this transmission and avoid transmitting themselves
fir the during of upcoming (large) data frame.
31
RTS (Request To Send, 30 bytes) contains the data length that will
eventually follow.
CTS (Clear To Send) frame contains the data length (copied from
the RTS frame)
32
Any station hearing the RTS is clearly close to A and must

remain silent long enough for the CTS to be transmitted back
to A without conflict.
Any station hearing the CTS is clearly close to B and must

remain silent during the upcoming data transmission, whose
length it can tell by examining the CTS frame.
33
•C is within the range of A but not within range of B, therefore

it hears the RTS from A but not the CTS from B
• As long as it does not interfere with the CTS, it is free to transmit
while the data frame is being sent
•Also, D is within the range of B but out of A, it does not hear
the RTS but does hear the CTS
• Hearing the CTS seems to him that it is close to a station that is
about to receive a frame
• So it defers sending anything until that frame is expected to be
finished
•Station E hears both control messages, and must be silent until
the data frame is complete
34
Despite these precautions, collisions can still occur.

For example, B and C could both send RTS frames to A at the
same time.
In the event of a collision, an unsuccessful Tx (i.e., one that
does not hear a CTS within the expected time interval) waits a
random amount of time and tries again later.
The algorithm used is binary exponential backoff.
35
MACAW (MACA for Wireless)

1. Introducing an ACK frame after each successful data
transmission
2. Adding carrier sense (keeping a station from transmitting
an RTS at the same time another nearby station is also
doing so to the same destination
3. Running the backoff algorithm separately for each data
stream rather than for each station (improving fairness)
4. Exchanging information about congestion between stations
and making backoff algorithm react less violently
36
Ethernet
•After discussing about the channel allocation, we need to discuss

about their application in real time systems…. specially in LAN
•IEEE has standardized a number of LAN and MAN under the

name of IEEE802
•Among those, the most important are 802.3 (Ethernet) and

802.11 (Wireless LAN)
37
Ethernet
IEEE 802.3: 1-persistent CSMA/CD
38
39
To allow larger networks, multiple cables can be connected
by repeaters.
A repeater is a physical layer device. It receives, amplifies, and

retransmits signals in both directions.
As far as the software is concerned, a series of cable segments
connected by repeaters is no different than a single cable.
40
Cable topologies: (a) Linear, (b) Spine, (c) Tree, (d) Segmented
41
Manchester Encoding
42
802.3 frame format
0 single address
1 group address multicast (all 1's for broadcast)
0 local address No significance outside
46
1 global address one of 2 unique address
43
802.3 frame format
Minimum frame length: 64 bytes
44
The Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm
If a frame has collided n successive times, where n<16, then the

node chooses a random number K with equal probability from the
set {0,1,2,3,...,2m-1} where m=min{10,n}. The node then waits
for K × 512 bit times. (slot time=512 bit time)
after first collision
after second collision
after third
collision
select one to start transmission
45
Acknowledgements
As far as CSMA/CD is concerned, an acknowledgement

would be just another frame and would have to fight for
channel time just like a data frame.
(What is the problem?)
A simple modification would allow speedy confirmation of

frame receipt. All that would be needed is to reserve the first
contention slot following successful transmission for the
destination station.
46
47
Many theoretical analysis assume the input traffic is Poisson.
It now appears that network traffic is rarely Poisson, but self-
similar. What this means is that averaging over long periods
of time does not smooth out the traffic.
The average number of packets in each minute of an hour has

as much variance as the average number of packets in each
second of a minute.
The consequence of this discovery is that most models of

network traffic do not apply to the real world and should be
taken with a grain of salt.
48
Switched 802.3 LANs
49
Fast Ethernet
The three primary reasons that the 803 committee decided to

go with a souped-up 802.3 LAN (instead of a totally new
one) were:
1. The need to be backward compatible with thousands of
existing LANs.
2. The fear that a new protocol might have unforeseen
problems.
3. The desire to get the job done before the technology
changed.
50
Fast Ethernet
The basic idea behind fast Ethernet was simple: keep all the old
packet formats, interfaces, and procedural rules, but just reduce
the bit time form 100 nsec to 10 nsec.
Technically, it would have been possible to copy 10Base5 or

10Base2 and still detect collisions on time by just reducing the
maximum cable length by a factor of ten.
However, the advantages of 10BaseT wiring were so

overwhelming that fast Ethernet is based entirely on this design.
Thus all fast Ethernet systems use hubs.
51
Fast Ethernet
The category 3 UTP scheme, called 100Base-T4, uses a signaling

speed of 25 MHz, only 25 percent faster than standard 802.3’s 20
MHz. To achieve the necessary bandwidth, 100BaseT4 requires
four twisted pairs.
52
Fast Ethernet
Of the four twisted pairs, one is always to the hub, one is always
from the hub, and the other two are switchable to the current
transmission direction.
To get the necessary bandwidth, Manchester encoding is not used,

but with modern clocks and such short distances, it is no longer
needed.
53
Fast Ethernet
Consequently, 100Base-TX is a full-duplex system; stations can

transmit at 100 Mbps and receive at 100 Mbps at the same time.
Often 100Base-TX and 100Base-T4 are collectively referred as

100Base-T.
The last option, 100Base-FX, uses two strands of multimode fiber,

one for each direction, so it, too, is full duplex with 100 Mbps in
each direction.
In addition, the distance between a station and the hub can be up
to 2 km.
54
Fast Ethernet
Two kinds of hubs are possible with 100Base-T4 and 100Base-TX:
hub: all incoming lines are logically connected, forming a single

collision domain.
switches: each incoming frame is buffered on a plug-in line card.

Buffered frames are passed over a high-speed backplane from the
source card to the destination card.
55
Why Ethernet is so successful? Last more than 20 years!
Ethernet is simple and flexible.
Simple translates into reliable, cheap, and easy to maintain.
Ethernet interworks easily with TCP/IP. Both IP and Ethernet

are connectionless.
Speed can catch up with other standards.
56
Data Link Layer Switching
Bridge
A
C
LANs can be connected by devices called bridges, which operate

in the data link layer.
Bridges do not examine the network layer header.
57
Router
A
C
Router
In contrast, a router examines network layer headers.
58
Multiple LANs connected by a backbone to handle a total

load higher than the capacity of a single LAN.
59
Why a single organization may end up with multiple LANs?
1. Autonomy of departments to choose their own types of LANs

2. Cheaper to have separate LANs than to run a single large LANs
3. Load splitting
4. Physical distance is too great. (For example, >2.5km in 802.3)
5. More reliable
6. More secure
60
Transparent Bridges
Plug and play bridge
When a frame arrives, a bridge must decide whether to discard

or forward it, and if the latter, on which LAN to put the frame.
The decision is made by looking up the destination address in a
big (hash) table inside the bridge.
61
Transparent Bridges
When the bridges are first plugged in, all the hash tables are
empty. None of the bridges know where any of the destinations
are, so they use the flooding algorithm.
Use backward learning algorithm. If a frame comes from LAN1

with source address A, the bridge learns that host A is in LAN1.
The topology can change as machines and bridges are powered

up and down and moved around. To handle dynamic topologies,
whenever a hash table entry is updated, the time is recorded.
Periodically, a process in the bridge scans the hash table and
purges all entries more than a few minutes old.
62
Transparent Bridges
Routing procedure for a transparent bridge:

1. If the destination and source LANs are the same, discard
the frame.
2. If the destination and source LANs are different, forward
the frame.
3. If the destination LAN is unknown, use flooding.
63
Transparent Bridges
Avoid looping in parallel bridges.
64
Spanning Tree Bridges
65
66
•To build the spanning tree, first the bridges have to choose
one bridge to be the root of the tree.
•They make this choice by having each one broadcast its serial
number, installed by the manufacturer, and guaranteed to be
unique worldwide.
• The bridge with the lowest serial number becomes the root.
•Next, a tree of shortest paths from the root to every bridge and
LAN is constructed.
•If a bridge or LAN fails, a new one is computed.
67
Source Routing Bridges
Source routing assumes that the sender of each frame knows

whether or not the destination is on its own LAN.
When sending a frame to a different LAN, the source machine

sets the high-order bit of the source address to 1, to mark it.
Furthermore, it includes in the frame header the exact path that

the frame will follow.
68
This path is constructed as follows:
Each LAN has a unique 12-bit number, and each bridge has a 4-bit
number that uniquely identifies it in the context of its LANs. A
route is then a sequence of bridge, LAN, bridge, LAN, … numbers.
For example, the route from A to D: (L1, B1, L2, B2, L3)
69
A source routing bridge is only interested in those frames with

the high-order bit of the destination set to 1.
For each such frame, it scans the route looking for the number
of the LAN on which the frame arrived.
If this LAN number is followed by its own bridge number, the

bridge forwards the frame onto the LAN whose number
follows its bridge number in the route.
70
Three possible implementations:
1. Software: the bridge runs in promiscuous mode, copying all frames to its
memory to see if they have the high-order destination bit set to 1. If so, the
frame is inspected further.
2. Hybrid: the bridge’s LAN interface inspects the high-order destination bit
and only accepts frame with the bit set. This interface is easy to build into
hardware and greatly reduces the number of frames the bridge must inspect.
3. Hardware: the bridge’s LAN interface not only checks the high-order
destination bit, but it also scans the route to see if this bridge must do
forwarding. Only frames that must actually be forwarded are given to the
bridge. This implementation requires the most complex hardware but wastes
no bridge CPU cycles because all irrelevant frames are screened out.
71
Implicit in the design of source routing bridge is that every

machine in the inter-network knows, or can find, the best path
to every other machine. How these routes are discovered is an
important part of the source routing bridge.
The basic idea is that if a destination is unknown, the source

issues a broadcast frame asking where it is. This discovery frame
is forwarded by every bridge so that it reaches every LAN on the
internetwork. When the reply comes back, the bridges record
their identity in it, so that the original sender can see the exact
route taken and ultimately choose the best route.
72

While this algorithm clearly finds the best route (it finds all routes),
it suffers from a frame explosion.
3N-1 frames here.
73
74
Remote Bridges
Point to point protocol used between bridges:

1. Choose some standard point-to-point protocol, putting complete
MAC frames in the payload field (best if all LANs are identical)
2. Strip off the MAC header at source bridge, put back at destination
(can not catch errors caused by bad bridge memory)
75
Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers, and Gateways
76
Repeaters:
• are analog devices that are connected to two cable segments
• A signal appearing on them is amplified, and put on the other
• Do not understand frames, packets or headers
– Only understand VOLTS
Hubs:
• Has a number of input lines that it joins electrically
• The entire hub forms a single collision domain
• All the input lines must operate at the same speed
– Difference: Hubs do not amplify the incoming signals, and are designed
to hold multiple line cards each with multiple inputs
– Similarity: Both do not examine the 802 address or use them in any way
77
Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers, and Gateways
(a) A hub. (b) A bridge. (c) a switch.
78
Bridges:
• Connects two or more LAN… etc
• With a bridge, each line is its own collision domain as compared
to the Hub
Switches:
• Similar to bridges
• Main difference is that a switch is most often used to connect
individual computers
79
Router:
• Different from all of the above. When a packet come into a router:
– the frame and trailer are stripped off, and
– the packet located in the frames’ payload field is passed to the routing
software
• The routing software does not see the frame address, and does not
even know whether the packet came in on a LAN or a point-to-
point line
Transport Gateway:
• These connect two computers that use different connection-
oriented protocols (TCT/IP Vs ATM transport protocol)
Application Gateway:
• Understand the format and contents of the data, and translate
messages from one format to another
– An email gateway could translate Internet message into SMS for mobile
80
Summary
81

4 Mac

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

4 Mac

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Medium Access Sublayer

• Deal with broadcast networks and their protocols.

• Technically, the MAC sublayer is the bottom part of the DLL

4.1.1 Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs

FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Suitable for fixed number of users with constant traffic

Disadvantage: when the number of users is large and

Now let us divide the single channel up into N independent

• Since none of the traditional static channel allocation method

Five key assumptions:

The probability of a frame being generated in an interval of

Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked and

2. Single Channel Assumption. A single channel is available for

As far as the hardware is concerned, all stations are equivalent,

3. Collision Assumption. If two frames are transmitted

All stations can detect collisions.

A collided frame must be transmitted again alter. There are

4a. Continuous Time. Frame transmission can begin at any instant.

4b. Slotted Time. Time is divided into discrete intervals (slots).

5a. Carrier Sense. Stations can tell if the channel is in use

5b. No Carrier Sense. Stations cannot sense the channel

the first multiple-access protocol: a method for sharing a

• nodes transmit on a common channel

S: the mean number of new frames generated by the infinite population

S = G× P0 where P0 is the probability that a frame does not

Nodes can starting transmitting at any time.

Nodes must start their transmissions at the beginning of a time slot.

pure ALOHA slotted ALOHA

In an interval two time slots long, the mean number of frames

Using S=GP0, we get

To find the maximum value:

With slotted ALOHA the best channel utilization that can be

In local area networks, however, it is possible for stations to

Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e. a transmission)

1-persistent CSMA: the station transmits with a probability of 1

non-persistent CSMA: the station transmits if the channel is idle,

p-persistent CSMA (slotted): the station transmits with a probability

Abort a transmission as soon as they detect a collision. Quickly

After a station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission,

(How long should each slot be?)

maximum collision detection time

2PROP 4.B detects collision,

6.A detects collision,

M: number of slots in the control channel

On both channels, the sequence of slots repeats endlessly, with

The protocol supports three classes of traffic:

For the two connection-oriented protocols, the idea is that for

Each station has two transmitters and two receivers, as follows:

In other words, every station listens to its own control channel

The hidden terminal problem

When A transmits to B and C also transmits to B

The exposed terminal problem

When C hears B’s transmission intended for A, it may

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

MACA: basis for IEEE802.11 wireless LAN standard

The basic idea behind it is for the sender to simulate the

Any station hearing the RTS is clearly close to A and must

Any station hearing the CTS is clearly close to B and must

•C is within the range of A but not within range of B, therefore

Despite these precautions, collisions can still occur.

MACAW (MACA for Wireless)

•After discussing about the channel allocation, we need to discuss

•IEEE has standardized a number of LAN and MAN under the