Chemistry 11 Notes

Unit 1-Safety in the Chemical Laboratory:

1. What should you indicate on your map regarding fire
extinguishers?
 Location of all fire extinguishers in lab
 The closest fire extinguisher outside the lab
2. When should you use a fire extinguisher?
When, in your opinion, the fire is uncontrolled and small enough to be
put out with a fire extinguisher
3. How do you use small fire extinguishers?
If the extinguisher has a hose and nozzle secured to the body by clips,
remove the hose from the clips so that you can hold the extinguisher in
one hand and direct the spray with the other
4. Where should you aim the nozzle at?
At the base of the fire, sweeping back and forth over the area in
flames
5. How do you use large fire extinguishers?
Can be set on their base and their hose freed from retaining slips,
allowing both hands free to pull the trigger and direct the spray
6. How long do large extinguishers last for?
20 seconds
7. How long do small extinguishers last for?
10 seconds
8. What is the minimum distance for the spray to be effective?
4-5m (12-15 ft)
9. Why should you not spray contents of an extinguisher at a
person?
Spray from some types of extinguishers can instantly freeze flesh or
drive powder into eyes or lungs
10. When should a fire blanket be used?
 When student’s clothing or hair catches fire
 To smother burning material on the floor or bench, as long
as the fire can be approached with sufficient safety to allow the
blanket to be placed over the entire area involved
11. How do you use a fire blanket?
Pull the cord at the bottom of the fire blanket “tube” to get the blanket
out
12. What must a student on fire do?
“Stop, drop and roll”
13. When do you use the eyewash station?
When any time a chemical or solution gets into eyes
14. How do you use an eyewash station?
 Push the vertical paddle back with your hand and put your
face down into the stream of water so that water strikes your eyes
DIRECTLY
  You must keep your eyes open in the stream of water,
blinking rapidly to help wash underneath the lids
 Keep washing eyes for at least 5 minutes, unless it is just a
harmless substance (how do you know?)
15. How do you use an eyewash bottle?
 Get to a sink so that water can be splashed up into your
eyes
 Lie on your back so that people administering first aid can
slowly drip liquid from an eyewash bottle into the affected eye(s)
 Washing should continue for at least 10 minutes
16. What if you get something in your eyes while wearing
contact lenses?
 Contact lenses must be removed for proper cleaning
 You may have to wash the contacts out if they can’t be
quickly taken off
17. What happens if you suspect some foreign object is in your
eyes?
Immediately call for help
18. When do you use an emergency shower?
When hazardous chemicals spray over large areas of the body
19. What are the two types of emergency showers used?
 An overhead shower having a pull-ring
 A hand-held shower with an on-off handle
20. What should you do if a hazardous liquid chemical or
solution soaks into your clothing?
Affected clothing must be removed after the washing process
21. When do you use an acid-base neutralizing solution?
Whenever an acidic or basic solution has come in contact with your
skin
22. How do you use an acid-base solution?
Wash affected area with large amounts of water and then pour some of
the neutralizing solution on the affected area and gently wash the skin
with solution
23. What is the order of first priority if there is more than one
problem?
 A person on fire immediately life threatening
 Person with chemicals or glass in their eyes threatens
permanent blindness
 Person soaked with chemicals harm to skin; generally a
slower reaction due to natural protective oils on skin
24. What are two types of protective equipment?
 Safety goggles
 Fume hoods
25. When do you use safety goggles?
Must be used whenever chemicals are being used or glass-working is
being performed
26. When should fume hoods be used?
Whenever poisonous or offensive odours are being produced
27. What should you do in case of a fire?
 Back out of harm’s way and evaluate the situation
 Warn teacher and other students with a shout
 If a fire is controlled, the fire can often be put out by
placing a watch glass or inverted beaker over the top of the
container and smothering the fire
 If the fire is major and will possibly continue to spread,
everyone must immediately evacuate the room except those who
may be using a fire extinguisher
28. What are some laboratory hazards and how do you deal
with the hazards?
 Spilled chemicals chemical burns notify teacher for
cleanup instructions but keep away in the meantime
 Broken glass cuts; chemical in cuts use broom/dustpan
provided and put in special receptacle for broken glass
 Burning chemicals in container burns step back and
notify class, then deal with fire
 Chemicals on hands chemical burns; skin irritation or
allergic reaction wash off immediately under fast-running water
 Being asked to smell chemical vapours strong odours
may injure nasal passages dilute smell by wafting odour to your
nose
 Bunsen burners burns; fires tie long hair back or use
elastics; don’t keep burner gas on for more than a few seconds if
burner won’t start
 Loose hair or floppy clothing/accessories burns or
chemical spillage; equipment knocked onto floor tie long hair back
or use elastics; remove ties or tuck into shirt front; secure or
remove loose clothing accessories
29. Why should you never put unused chemicals back into
their original containers?
 Chemical may be put in the wrong container, spoiling the
chemicals or starting a reaction
 Chemicals may be contaminated by using glassware that
was not perfectly clean and dry
30. What are the general rules of safe laboratory conduct?
 There must be no horseplay in the lab
 There must be no running in the lab always look where
you are going and don’t turn around quickly, notify people if you are
 passing behind them with a container of chemicals, so that they
know not to make any sudden moves
 You must not carry out unauthorized experiments
 You must always have a “conscious safety attitude”
31. What does it mean by having a conscious safety attitude?
Means you should always think about the possible safety-related
consequences of any action you are planning
Unit 2-Introduction to Chemistry:
1. What is a conversion factor?
A fractional expression relating or connecting two different units
2. What are the three major pieces of information which must be
identified in every unit conversion problem?
 The unknown amount and its UNITS
 The initial amount and its UNITS
 A conversion factor which related or connects the initial
UNITS to the UNITS of the unknown
3. Why must you always include the units?
They are the “major players” in the calculation
4. What is the general form of a unit conversion calculation?
(Unknown amount) = (initial amount) x (conversion factor)
5. What are some base units in the International System (SI)?
 Length meter  m
 Mass gram g
 Time second s
 Amount of substance mole mol
 Volume liter  L
 Mass  tonne t
6. What are some multiples of base units in the SI?
 Mega M 106
 Kilo k 103
 Deci d 10−1
 Centi c 10−2
 Milli m 10−3
 Micro µ10−6
7. What are some importance equivalences?
 1 mL = 1cm³
 1 m³ = 10³ L
 1 t = 10³ kg
8. Metric conversions involve using unit conversion between what
two components?
Prefix symbols and exponential equivalents
9. All prefix symbols are related to a “central” base unit, what unit
is it?
m also could be any other base unit such as g, s or mol
 10. What a derived quantity?
A number made by combining two or more other values
11. What is a derived unit?
A unit made by combining two or more other units
12. What is mass?
Quantity of matter in an object
13. What is density?
Mass contained in a given volume of a substance
14. What is the formula for density?
d=m/V
15. What is the density for water at 4ºC?
1000.0 g/L or 1.0000 g/mL
16. Objects will sink in a liquid if?
The density of the object is greater than the density of the liquid
17. Objects will float in a liquid if?
The density of the object is less than the density of the liquid
18. What is a significant figure?
A measured or meaningful digit
19. What is an accurate measurement?
A measurement that is close to the CORRECT or ACCEPTED value the
closer to the correct/accepted value, the more accurate the
measurement
20. What is a precise measurement?
A reproducible measurement the more precise a measurement, the
more SIGNIFICANT digits it has
21. The number of significant figures is equal to what?
To all certain digits plus the first uncertain digit
22. What are defined or counted values?
Involves things which cannot realistically be subdivided and must be
taken on an all-or-nothing basis
23. What is the procedure for correctly reading measuring
scales when a pointer is exactly on a numbered division?
 Determine the value that the measurement seems to have
 Pretend you have a value in between two of the
unnumbered subdivisions on your measuring device
 Determine how many decimal places you could read off the
measuring device at the “in between value”
 Add a sufficient number of zeroes to the actually reading to
give you the correct number of decimal places for you reading
24. What is experimental uncertainty?
Estimated amount by which a measurement might be in error
25. Are leading zeros significant?
No
26. The number of leading zeroes depends on what?
Size of the unit used to express the measured value, and is not related
to precision, accuracy or number of significant figures
27. What are two ways to count the number of significant
figures?
 Express the number in scientific notation and then count
all the digits
 Starting from the left side of the number, ignore all
“leading zeroes” and only start counting at the first NON-ZERO digit
28. What must you always do when performing calculations?
 Must always perform calculations to the maximum number
of significant figures allowed by your calculator and only your final
answer should be rounded off to the correct number of significant
figures
 Rounding off intermediate answers often produces
incorrect results
29. When multiplying or dividing two numbers, the result is
rounded to what?
The least number of significant figures used in the calculation
30. When adding or subtracting two numbers, the result is
rounded to what?
The least number of decimal places used in the calculation
Unit 3-The Physical Properties and Physical Changes of Substances:
1. What is qualitative information?
Non-numerical information
2. What is quantitative information?
Numerical information
3. What is an observation?
Qualitative information collected through the direct use of our senses
4. What is an interpretation/inference?
An attempt to put meaning into an observation
5. What is a description?
A list of properties of something
6. What is data?
Quantitative information which is experimentally-determined or
obtained from references
7. What is an experiment?
Test or a procedure that is carried out in order to discover a result
8. What is a hypothesis?
Single, unproven assumption or idea which attempts to explain why
nature behaves in a specific manner
9. What is a theory?
A set of hypotheses that ties together a large number of observations
of the real world into a logically consistent and understandable
pattern a tested, refined, and expanded explanation of why nature
behaves in a given way
 10. What is a law?
Broad generalization or summary statement which describes a large
amount of experimental evidence stating how nature behaves when a
particular situation occurs
11. What are the general characteristics of hypotheses?
 Are normally single assumptions
 Are narrow in their scope of explanation
 Are tentative when originally proposed, but may become
generally accepted after more complete testing
12. What are the general characteristics of theories?
 Are composed of one or more underlying hypotheses
 Are broad in scope and may have subtle implications which
are not foreseen when they are proposed because they provide
explanation for entire “fields” of related behavior
 Are sometimes called models because they often provide
a concrete way to examine, predict and test the workings of nature
 Can’t be “proven” but at some point it may have such a
tremendous record of explanation and prediction that we place a
high probability on its correctness as a model capable of describing
reality
 Must be “falsifiable”must make testable predictions
about behavior of system under new conditions (if a theory makes
no predictions then it is not “wrong”, but it is discarded as useless)
13. What are the general characteristics of laws?
 Summarize results of many experiments or observations
and state what will happen when a specific situation occurs
 Do not try to explain why something occurs
 Are not “proven theories”
14. What are some examples of hypotheses?
 All gases are made up of tiny, fast-moving particles
 Tiny particles in a gas transfer some or all of their energy
of movement when they collide with one another or the walls of
their container
 Tiny particles in a gas act like miniature billiard balls and
entire system undergoes no net change in energy when particles
collide
15. What are some examples of theories?
 Kinetic Theory of Gases states that gases act as they do
because they are made up of point-like particles which are
constantly moving, colliding and exchanging energy
 Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases when an acid and
base react, the left-over positive and negative ions combine to
produce a substance called salt
16. What are some examples of laws?
  Boyle’s Law states that if the temperature is unchanged,
then the greater the pressure applied to a sample of gas, the
smaller its volume
 Charles’ Law  states that if applied pressure is
unchanged, then the greater the temperature of a gas sample, the
greater its volume
17. Define matter.
Anything that has mass and occupies space is what makes up the
universe, other than energy
18. What is a substance?
Something with a unique and identifiable set of properties
19. What is a physical property?
Property that can be found without creating a new substance
20. What is a chemical property?
Ability of a substance to undergo chemical reactions and change into
new substances, either by itself or with other substances
21. What is an extensive property?
Physical property which depends on amount of substance present
are not used to identify substances examples include mass and
volume
22. What is an intensive property?
Physical property which depends solely on the nature of the substance
and not how much of substance is present are used to identify a
substance examples include density and melting temperature
23. Matter exists in three common states, what are they?
Solid, liquid and gas
24. What are some properties of solids?
Are rigid, do not readily change their shape, and experience very small
changes in volume when heated or subjected to pressure
25. What are some properties of liquids?
Conform to shapes of their containers and experience only slight
changes in volume when heated or subjected to pressure
26. What are some properties of gases?
Conform to shapes of their containers and experience drastic changes
in volume when heated or subjected to pressure
27. Why can liquids be seen as an “intermediate” phase
between a solid and gas?
 Both solids and liquids undergo only slight changes in
volume when heated or subjected to pressure
 Both liquids and gases conform to the shapes of their
containers
28. What happens to the particles in a solid?
All particles are packed into a given volume in a highly organized and
rigid manner which requires particles to be in direct contact with each
other not compressible
 29. What happens to the particles in a liquid?
Particles remain in close contact with each other but have sufficient
room to slide pas on another easily and prevent an organized
packing not compressible
30. What happens to the particles in a gas?
Particles are widely separated and only contact each other during
collisions compressible
31. How big is the volume occupied and movement allowed in
a solid?
Small, small
32. How big is the volume occupied and movement allowed in
a liquid?
Small, large
33. How big is the volume occupied and movement allowed in
a gas?
Large, very large
34. What is hardness?
Ability of a solid to resist abrasion or scratching
35. What is malleability?
Ability to be rolled or hammer into thin sheets
36. What is ductility?
Ability to be stretched or drawn into wires
37. What is luster?
Manner in which a solid surface reflects light
38. What is viscosity?
Resistance of a fluid to flow
39. What is diffusion?
Intermingling of fluids as a result of motion within the fluid applies to
both gases and liquids
40. What is vapour?
Gaseous material formed by evaporation of a substance which boils
above room temperature
41. What is vapour pressure?
Pressure created by vapour evaporating from a liquid abbreviated VP
42. What is boiling temperature?
“Boiling point” abbreviated BP
43. What is melting temperature?
“Melting point” abbreviated MP
44. What is a system?
Part of universe being studied in a given situation
45. What is a phase?
Any part of a system which is uniform in both its composition and
properties
46. Phases in a system are separated from each other by
what?
Visible boundaries
47. What is an element?
Substance which cannot be separated into simpler substances as a
result of any chemical process
48. What is an atom?
Smallest possible unit of element which retains the fundamental
properties of the element
49. What is a molecule?
Cluster of two or more atoms held together strongly by electrical forces
50. What is an ion?
An atom or molecule that possesses an electrical charge
51. What is a particle?
General term used to describe a small bit of matter such as an atom,
molecule, or ion
52. What is a homogeneous substance?
Substance consisting of only one phase
53. What is a heterogeneous substance?
Substance consisting of more than one phase
54. What is a pure substance?
Substance that is homogeneous and has an unchangeable composition
55. What is a mixture?
System made up of two or more substances, such that relative
amounts of each substance can be varied
56. What is a mechanical mixture?
Heterogeneous mixture of two or more substances
57. What is a solution?
Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
58. What are the different types of solutions and give an
example for each.
 Gas-in-gas solution air (oxygen, nitrogen, etc)
 Gas-in-liquid solution soda pop
 Liquid-in-liquid solution water and alcohol
 Solid-in-liquid solution salt water
 Solid-in-solid solution alloys (metals melted together)
59. What is a solvent?
Component in a solution which exists in the greater quantity
60. What are aqueous solutions?
Solutions in which the solvent is water
61. What is a solute?
Component in a solution which exists in smaller quantity
62. If water exists in a solution and it exists in a lesser
quantity, should it still be called the solvent?
Yes
63. What is a compound?
Pure substance made of two or more types of atoms only one type of
molecule is present in a compound
64. How do you classify pure substances?
In any given state, they will have unchanging, uniform properties
65. How do you classify homogeneous mixtures?
 For a particular composition, it has uniform, unchanging
physical properties
 If composition is changed, then a new set of physical
properties result properties of this new mixture are uniform and
unchanging if the composition does not change
66. How do you classify heterogeneous mixtures?
Substances that make up mixture will each have their own, unique set
of physical properties physical properties of each substance present
will have no effect on physical properties of other substances present
67. What is a mechanical mixture?
Mixture that can often be separated by hand or by use of a sieve or
magnet
68. What is filtration?
Allows separation of liquids from solids separation of mechanical
mixture involving liquids and solids
69. Can filtration be used to separate dissolved solids from a
liquid and why?
No only works when solid particles present are big enough to be
seen; smaller particles simply pass through filter paper
70. What is residue?
Material which remains behind on filter paper
71. What is filtrate?
Liquid which passes through filter paper
72. What is evaporation?
Involves allowing liquid in a solid-in-liquid solution to evaporate or to
be boiled away, leaving the solid
73. What is the process of distillation?
 Liquid-in-liquid solution is heated and liquid with lowest
boiling temperature boils first
 Vapour produced ascends to top of distillation flask, passes
a thermometer, enters side-arm of flask and contacts cold inner
surface of condenser
 Gas cools and condenses back into a liquid, dropping out
end of condenser as a purified liquid known as distillate
74. What are two ways of solvent extraction?
 Extraction of a solid from a mechanical mixture of solids
 Extraction of a dissolved liquid or solid from a liquid
solution
75. When extracting a solid from a mechanical mixture of
solids, what happens to the desired solid?
  Left behind
 Dissolved and subsequently separated by simple
evaporation of solvent
76. When two liquids are miscible, what does that mean?
They are mutually soluble in each other in all proportions
77. When two liquids are immiscible, what does that mean?
They are insoluble in each other
78. What two important properties must a solvent possess to
carry out solvent extraction on a solution with one or more
solid/liquid substances dissolved in a liquid solution?
 Added solvent is immiscible with solvent already present
 Added solvent dissolves one or more desired substances
from solution and leaves unwanted substances behind
79. What is the process of solvent extraction?
 After solvent is added to solution, mixture is shaken in a
separatory funnel some substances are more soluble in added
solvent than they are in original solvent and pass from original
solvent into added solvent
 Added solvent is drained from original solution and second
quantity of solvent is added to solution
 After being shaken, more of remaining desired substances
go into added solvent and can be drained
80. What is recrystallization?
Variation on method of evaporation in which solid in a solid-in-liquid
solution is separated in a pure and crystalline state
81. What is a saturated solution?
Solution that has dissolved the entire solid that it can all solvent
present is required just to keep all solid dissolved
82. What are two most common ways to prepare a saturated
solution?
 Adding a solid to a solvent at room temperature until no
more solid dissolves
 Adding just enough hot solvent to dissolve the solid
83. When is recrystallization used?
When a solid consists mostly of desired materials and small amounts of
one or more impurities
84. What are the steps of recrystallization?
 Saturated solution of desired solid is prepared in a suitable
solvent
 Solvent is then allowed to slowly evaporate or slowly cool
as it does some of desired solid comes out of solution as crystals
 Resulting crystals are often extremely pure
 Once crystals have formed, they are separated from
remaining solution by hand separation (only if a few large crystals
 have formed) or by filtration (when a mass of small crystals has
formed)
85. What is fractional crystallization?
Describes process of purifying a substance by recrystallization
86. What is gravity separation?
Used to separate desired solids from a mechanical mixture, based on
their density
87. What is a centrifuge?
Whirls a test tube around at extremely high speeds forcing finely
dispersed solids to the bottom of test tube
88. When are centrifuges used?
When a chemical reaction forms small amounts of solid particles in a
solution and solid must be separated
89. What is a precipitate?
A solid formed in a liquid solution as a result of a chemical reaction
90. Filtration works best with what?
With relatively large volumes of liquid
91. A centrifuge works best with what?
With volumes that can be held in a small test tube
92. How do paper, column and thin layer chromatography
work?
Used to separate small amounts of solid-in-liquid solutions containing
two or more dissolved solids which are colored or can be reacted to
form colors
93. What is paper chromatography?
Uses a sheet of absorbent paper
94. What is thin layer chromatography (TLC)?
Uses a thin absorbent layer of dried silica gel on a sheet of glass or
plastic
95. What are the steps of paper or thin layer chromatography?
 Drop of solid-in-liquid mixture is put near one end of a
chromatography sheet and allowed to dry
 Developing solvent is allowed to absorb into lower end of
chromatographic sheet containing mixture and liquid is absorbed up
sheet
 Solvent front is seen as liquid slowly moves upwards
 As solvent is absorbed up sheet, two opposing tendencies
come into play dissolved solids tend to stay absorbed onto sheet,
but solids also tend to dissolve in solvent
 After drying sheet, areas containing separated solids can
be individually cut out or scraped off
 Each individual solid can be dissolved out of paper or silica
gel and solvent evaporated to leave solid in its pure form
96. What are the steps of column chromatography?
 Tube is packed with stationary phase
 Solution containing mixture of dissolved solids is poured on
top of stationary phase and then a developing solvent is poured in
top of column\
 Solvent spreads out and separates components in mixture