HUMAN BIOLOGY, HEALTH AND SOCIOLOGY

Table of Contents

Assignment 1: ............................................................................................................................ 4

1.1 Discussing the difference between sociological understanding and common sense ....... 4

1.2 Discussing the difference between sociological approach and other social science ....... 5

1.3 Discussing the application of basic concept in sociological explanation with examples 6

Assignment 2: ............................................................................................................................ 7

1 Analysis of the sociological factors those are influencing the relationship between health
professionals and patients ...................................................................................................... 7

2 Discussing the role of sociological motivational factors included in health and ill health. 7

3 Evaluating the role of social support network in health care maintenance in giving up
smoking .................................................................................................................................. 8

4 Analysing the way lack of support network influences health ........................................... 9

Assignment 3 ........................................................................................................................... 10

1. Explaining the structural features of male and female reproductive system ................... 10

2. Analysing the process of gametogenesis ......................................................................... 12

3. Discussing the development of adult reproductive organs and puberty .......................... 13

4. Discussing the role of hormones in ovarian and menstrual cycles .................................. 15

5. Explaining the process of fertilisation, implantation and foetal development................. 16

6. Discussing the role of placenta in pregnancy .................................................................. 17

7. Explaining the sequence of events in child birth ............................................................. 18

Assignment 4 ........................................................................................................................... 20

1. Poverty: an overview ....................................................................................................... 20

2. Sociological and Political approaches to health and poverty........................................... 21

3. Predominant links between government initiative and scientist research ....................... 22

Assignment 5 ........................................................................................................................... 23

1. Explaining the role of Calvin cycle ................................................................................. 23

 2. Analysing the process of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria............................. 24

3. Analysing the process of photosynthesis in Chloroplast ................................................. 25

References ................................................................................................................................ 27

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 33
Assignment 1:

1.1 Discussing the difference between sociological understanding and common sense
Sociological understanding Common Sense
Sociological understanding focuses on Common sense refers to the awareness and
studying certain behavioural aspect of knowledge perceived by majority of people
human based on the society. According to based on obvious facts. Moreover, common
the positivist, the sociological understanding sense is not dependent on any special theory or
is procured through the use of scientific education (Marik and Cavallazzi, 2013,
knowledge (Bradby et al. 2017, p.17). p.1774).
Sociological understanding is evidence Common sense is the view of the people based
based and perceived through execution of on their limited and immediate experiences
rigorous research. The researches done are making it obvious that the senses are made
based on in-depth qualitative research or through assumption. Thus, the common sense
large scale quantitative research thus is perceived through a distorted concept of
proving that the sociological understandings reality (Janoušek et al. 2016, p.231)
are developed through proper theory testing
(Busfield, 2017, p.781).
In sociological understanding, conflict The views of common sense reflect social
approaches are raised through serious convention and traditions thus tending to
question which is related to social change reinforce the resistance of social change and
and status quo. status quo.
In sociological understanding, the thinking Common sense is influenced by cultural
is postulated by developing thoughts based background of an individual which subjects
on the personal experience of individuals. that it will be different according to the
perceived views and different perception of
the people living in separate societies
(Pandolfi and Carreras, 2015, p.9).
Sociological understanding views the Common Sense is different and views the
individuals not as an isolated group but as a individuals as a group.
whole.
Table 1: Difference between sociological understanding and common sense

(Source: Author)
1.2 Discussing the difference between sociological approach and other social science
The other social sciences other than sociology include psychology, history, political science,
anthropology and others.

Sociological approach Psychology

This is a general science This is a special science
Sociological approach studies social aspects, Psychology is the science that deals with
social relationship and social institution mental process of the human mind (Bolier et
based on human perception and belief al. 2013, p.119).
(Bradby et al. 2017, p.19).
The main concern of sociology is assessment This involves evaluation of individual
of group behaviour as a whole. behaviour.
This uses questionnaire method and is termed This is older science and includes
as young science experimental methods (Gilbert et al. 2016,
p.1037).
Table 2: Difference between Sociological approach and Psychology

Sociological approach History

This studies the social phenomenon. This deals with past events related to human.
This is an interpretive and analytical science. This is a descriptive science.
The sociological approach has a broader History has narrow scope of study and does
scope of study and allows continuous testing not allow testing and re-testing of facts (Cam
and re-testing of theories and facts (Bradby et et al. 2016, p.872).
al. 2017, p.19).
Table 3: Difference between Sociological approach and History

Sociological approach Political science

A sociological approach is an analytical Political science deals with assessing the
science and studies unconscious and political activities of a government and
conscious human activities (Busfield, 2017, conscious societal activities. Political science
p.783). is a descriptive science (Monroe et al. 2015,
p.71)
This approach views human as a social Political science views man as a political
animal. animal.
This approach studies the social relationship This science studies political relationship
between man and society. between man and government.
Table 4: Difference between Sociological approach and Political science

Sociological approach Anthropology

This deals with civilised, complex and This deals with the study of primitive,
modern society. uncultured, uncivilised and simple society.
This approach assesses only social This examines cultural development as well
relationship by analysing quantitative data as biological aspect of the human through
(Busfield, 2017, p.783). analysis of qualitative data (Page and Singer,
2016, p.69)
Table 5: Difference between Sociological approach and Anthropology

1.3 Discussing the application of basic concept in sociological explanation with examples
The basic concepts of sociological explanation in relation to healthcare management include:

Cultural conflict: The culture is the set of traditional values that enacts to shape the feeling,
behaviour and psychological thought of a group of individual (Morris, 2014, p.19). For
example, according to the cultural norms, it is a sin for the Roman Catholic to execute
abortion (www.catholicnewsagency.com, 2017). This orthodox view has often resulted in
creating conflict among culture because due to this belief the mother often dies. The death of
the Indian Dentist in Ireland faced similar condition during which the woman was denied to
abort because it was against the cultural as well as the government rule in Ireland to execute
abortion (www.theguardian.com, 2012).

Linguistic conflict: The linguistic conflict arises due to the difference in the languages
spoken by various cultural groups. As mentioned by Koh et al. (2014, p.198), linguistic
conflict arises due to the influences of the social, political, economic and other factors. For
example, a Chinese patient was unable to entertain medical services in UK because the
person did not understand the health professional’s language while entertaining the health
services. Thus, it shows that lack of knowledge to interact with various linguistic groups
became a barrier in providing health services to different linguistic groups. Thus, it is needed
to implement translator in the health services to remove the barrier of languages.

Inequality: The black skinned individuals are often rejected health care as they are though as
the minorities of the societies and discriminated on racial grounds.
Assignment 2:

1 Analysis of the sociological factors those are influencing the relationship between
health professionals and patients
Various sociological factors are positively as well as negatively influencing the inter-
relationship between health professional and patients. As mentioned by de Andrade et al.
(2015, p.1343), economic stability is one of the main factors that affects the inter-relationship
between patients and health professionals. This is because an economically unstable person
does not have enough resources to use health care as their primary need and thus takes it for
granted. This is because for the economic unstable person the other aspects and factors of life
are more important than availing health care. As asserted by Pacquiao (2016, p.159),
education highly affects the inter-relationship between patients and health professional
because without proper education the patients are unable to understand the vitalities of health
care for enduring their life. Thus, it results in hindering the interaction between health
professional and patients because the doctor or nurses are unable to make the patients
understand the need of health activities required to improve their life. As argued by
Keshavarz (2017, p.2), cultural influences in the society has affected the health prospect of
the individuals adversely. This is because due to diverse cultural belief and trust differences
among groups the individuals often create hindrances for the health professional during
accessing health care. For example, it is important for the ill patients to eat red meat to
develop physical strength. However, due to differences of inset belief in the cultural society
the individual propose not to eat red meat because it will violate their cultural norms. Thus, it
provides hindrances to the health professionals to improve the patient’s health due to
inefficient health interaction between them.

2 Discussing the role of sociological motivational factors included in health and ill health
The sociological motivation factors that impact health and ill health include:

Placebo effect: The placebo effect refers to the situation where a patient avails a medication
or treatment which is not a therapeutic relief to their health problem but is used to provide
them psychological relief. As mentioned by Hall et al. (2015, p.285), placebos are mainly
inert medications that are used by the doctors to ensure psychological well-being of the
patient. Thus, with the improvement in psychology of the patients it also helps them to
endure the health complication. As criticised by Schwarz and Büchel (2015, p.13), placebos
are seen as an unethical and deceptive practice by few health professionals. However, other
health professional justifies placebo as a boon because they boost the well-being of the
patient without causing any harm.

Therapeutic communication: In therapeutic communication, the patients are treated with

various techniques like active listing to the patient’s health problems, providing pain relief
through pain management, recognition and listening to the patient’s health problem, etc. As
commented by Webster (2014, p.81), therapeutic communication helps the health
professional to feasibly interact with the patients and provide them health by psychological
well-being.

Compliance Strategy: The compliance strategy relates that the medical organisation needs
to develop policy by following the norms and regulation made by the government and
authorities to support the well-being of patients. As commented by Al-Tawfiq and Pittet
(2013, p.374), compliance strategy is effective to motivate the health aspect since compliance
allows no discrimination of the patients while providing care. Thus, this strategy allows a
holistic and positive therapeutic approach implementation in dispensing effective care.

3 Evaluating the role of social support network in health care maintenance in giving up
smoking
A well-determined social network allows significant health prospect for the patients or
individuals by allowing them to cope health distress. As mentioned by Eysenbach et al.
(2004, p.1166), the social network involves the society along with friends, family and
relatives of the patients. The support of the family has an effective health prospect in giving
up smoking because they inform the smoker about the way the habit is deteriorating their
social life. As mentioned by Hutton et al. (2015, p.777), family acts as a psychological
support for the individual trying to quit smoking. This is because the family motivates the
person and accordingly support them by helping the person to follow the guideline needed in
the smoking cessation process.

The social network dispenses the information to aware the individual about the way smoking
is slowly degrading their health status through proper health campaign. This is effective
because in social health campaign the individuals’ trying to quit smoking is provided intricate
information through informative brochure along with pictorial representation of the adverse
effects that a person may faces due to long-term smoking. This helps to alert the person to
become attentive to take care of their health by implementing efficacious health strategies. As
commented by Moorhead et al. (2013, p.72), proper social network helps the individuals with
effective medical cessation services needed for the person to quit smoking. This is done by
providing important details like the diet chart to be maintained, nicotine replacement therapy
(NRT), etc required for effectively cease smoking.

4 Analysing the way lack of support network influences health

The lack of supportive network negatively influences the health prospect of individuals as
they become unaware to improve their health quotient. As asserted by Miller and DiMatteo
(2013, p.421), the lack of social support disorients the patients as they fails to understand the
way their daily activities are deteriorating their health. Thus, the individuals fail to take care
of their own and often involves in unhealthy activities resulting in health adversities.
Moreover, without social support the patients lack health education resulting them to lack the
knowledge of therapeutic and treatment opportunity. This results in degrading the health
status because they are unaware about the specialist care facilities they could avail to ensure
their health betterment.

The lack of support network also results in deteriorated health motivation to the individuals.
This is because the individuals lack effective support and guidance required by them to attain
health benefits. Moreover, due to the lack of effective social support the individual remain
unaware of the difficulties they may face if proper health strategies are not implemented by
them. The individuals also remain unaware of the side effects of their daily activities that are
acting as negative traits in deteriorating their health status. As mentioned by Luszczynska et
al. (2013, p.2160), due to lack of support network in health the lower classes of the society
often face lack of health services thus deteriorating their health condition. For example, the
lack of social support resulting in health adversity are presented in various reports such as
Black report 1980, Acheson Report 1998, etc.
Assignment 3

1. Explaining the structural features of male and female reproductive system

The structural features of a male reproductive organ:

Penis: Penis is longitudinal tube-shaped external male reproductive organ that helps in
urination and sexual intercourse. The main structural feature of penis includes shaft, foreskin,
glans and meatus (Jones and Lopez, 2013, p.45)

Scrotum: This is a loose pouch-shaped skin sac that contains testes and hangs behind the
penis.

Epididymis: This is convoluted duct situated behind the testes that help the passage of the
sperm through vas defers (Jones and Lopez, 2013, p.55).

Testis: The testes are round in shape and are contained within the scrotal sacs, and the testis
produces spermatozoa.

The male also involves vas deferens (transports matured sperm), seminal vesicles (provides
molecules to sperm to deliver energy) and prostate gland (its fluid nourishes sperm) as the
internal male reproductive structure (Jones and Lopez, 2013, p.117).

Figure 1: Male Reproductive System

(Source: Jones and Lopez, 2013, p.122)

The structural feature of a female reproductive organ:

Mon Pubis: This is the rounded-portion in the vulva region and anterosuperior of pubis
symphysis where the pubic hairs develop during puberty.

Labia: The labia are longitudinal folds fibrous and adipose tissue that extends from the
anterior part of the mons to the posterior region of the perineal body. The labia are of two
types: Labia Majora and Labia Minora (Schubert, 2013, p.356)

Hymen: This is the thin membrane at the interface of the vaginal orifice.

Ovary: These are oval shaped organ which is connected to the uterus through the fallopian
tube.

Cervix: The cervix is present in the lower end of the uterus and is composed of strong
muscles. They allow the menstrual blood flow and direct the sperm entry during intercourse.

Fallopian Tube: These are the uterine tubes those are lined by ciliated epithelium extending
from the ovary to the uterus (Schubert, 2013, p.360).

Uterus: The uterus is hollow sac-like structure that consists of three layers such as
endometrium, myometrium and perimetrium (Schubert, 2013, p.367).

Figure 2: Female Reproductive System

(Source: Schubert, 2013, p.360)

2. Analysing the process of gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the process of development of male and female sex cells that is sperms and
ova respectively in the testis and ovaries.

Spermatogenesis: In the multiplication phase, the spermatogonium(2n) are mitotically

divided to form stem cell spermatogonia and additional spermatogonia or primary
spermatocyte. In the growth phase, the primary spermatocyte through meiosis I division
develops into two secondary spermatocytes(n). In the maturation phase, the each of the
secondary spermatocytes develops to form two spermatids through meiosis II stage. The
spermatids with maturation of its Golgi body develop the acrosome that is the head of the
sperm. Next, the next is formed through the cleavage of the cytoplasm, and the distal
centriole produces the sperm's axial filament. The middle piece involves the mitochondria
and a ring centriole and manchette that cover the head to the middle part of the sperm. In the
end, tails are formed for providing motility to the sperm (Kracklauer et al. 2013, p.127).

Figure 3: Spermatogenesis

(Source: Kracklauer et al. 2013, p.132)

Oogenesis: In the multiplication phase, the oogonium(2n) develops additional oogonia along
with primary oocyte through mitotic division. In the growth phase, primary oocyte(2n)
develops to form a polar body(n) and a secondary oocyte(n) through meiosis I. In the
maturation phase; the polar body develops to form secondary polar bodies that degenerate.
However, the secondary oocyte at the maturation phase if gets fertilised by sperm develops
into mature ovum (n) through meiosis II and forms a zygote. In case, the ovum is not matured
then it is released out of the body through the process of menstruation (Raven, 2013, p.19).

Figure 4: Oogenesis

(Source: Raven, 2013, p.23)

3. Discussing the development of adult reproductive organs and puberty

The development of the adult reproductive organ is preceded from the embryonic stage. The
Wolffian duct develops to generate the male reproductive organs and the Mullerian duct
develops to form the female reproductive organs.

Male Adult Reproductive organ: In the developmental process, through a series of

evagination the Wolffian duct develops to form the epididymis tubule, vas deferns, and the
ejaculatory duct with the development of seminal vesicles from the anterior part of the duct in
males. The gonads in males are developed to form testes that are originated from the
mesothelium and mesonephros. The genital ridge from mesonephros gives rise to tunica
albuginea along with the stroma and septae of the testis. The coelomic epithelium produced
covers the genital ridge thus giving rise to testis cord resulting formation of epinehrous tubule
and rete testis. The primodial cells migrate to give rise to spermatogonia that lie between the
sex cord cells (Murashima et al. 2015, p.163).

Figure 5: Development of male Adult Reproductive organ

(Source: Murashima et al. 2015, p.169)

Female Adult Reproductive organ: In portion of the Mullerian duct that lies in the genital
cord fuse to form the vagina and uterus. The fallopian tube is developed from the outer part
of the Mullerian duct that lies apart from the genital cord. In case of female, the genital ridge
gives rise to the capsule and stroma of the ovary. The coelomic epithelium gives rises to
follicular cells, and the primodial cell migrates from the yolk sac to develop into oogonia and
primary follicles (Costa et al. 2014, p.153).
 Figure 6: Development of female Adult Reproductive organ

(Source: Costa et al. 2014, p.153)

Puberty: During puberty, the male and the female becomes sexually matured with rising of
various developmental changes. The developmental changes include growth of pubic hair and
body hair in case of both male and female. In female, during puberty breasts development,
changes in body shape and height with start of menstrual cycle occurs. In male, the
enlargement of penis, testis and scrotum occurs with increase in body shape and height and
the voice becomes deeper (Satterthwaite et al. 2014, p.341).

4. Discussing the role of hormones in ovarian and menstrual cycles

The roles of hormones in the menstrual and the ovarian cycle include:

FSH: In the follicular phase, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is released and plays the
role to develop a wide number of follicles within the ovaries. The each of the follicle contains
a single egg and after the FSH level decreases only one follicle is allowed to develop that
releases oestrogen (Michels et al. 2017, p.1743).

Oestrogen: This hormone plays a role in the development of the female sex organ along with
development of secondary sex characters and breasts in female. Moreover, it controls the
release of LH and FSH for properly maintain the menstruation cycle by helping in the
formation of uterine lining (Bancroft et al. 2013, p.465).

Progesterone: This hormone helps in thickening of the uterus for making it suitable for egg
implantation. Moreover, the progesterone helps in maturation of the ovaries to support
fertilisation and implantation process. This hormone in the ovarian cycle also boosts the
formation of mammary glands for milk secretion (Wallen, 2013, p.634).
LH: The Luteinising hormone stimulates the ovulation process by releasing an egg. The LH
is released when the progesterone levels are growing, and the oestrogen has fallen.
Moreover, it promotes to form corpus lutem and stimulates the release of relaxin, inhibin,
progesterone, oestrogen and others by the corpus lutem (Ferin et al. 2013, p.441).

Human Chorionic gonadotropin: This hormone is released after the egg is fertilised and
prevents the degeneration of the corpus lutem.

Figure 7: Hormone Level in Menstrual Cycle

(Source: Ferin et al. 2013, p.447)

5. Explaining the process of fertilisation, implantation and foetal development

The process of fertilisation, implantation and foetal developments are the roles involved in
developmental phase of the foetus from the zygote to end of pregnancy. As mentioned by
Hackett and Surani (2013, p.737), fertilisation is the fusion of egg and sperm to form a
zygote. This union of the male and the female egg is executed within the ampulla of the
fallopian tube. The sperm on reaching the secondary oocyte stage produces an enzyme by its
acrosome that helps it to dissolve the egg jelly coat. As commented by Swann and Lai (2016,
p.127), after the sperm enters through the jelly coat its losses its trail and enters the egg to
fertilise it for implantation.
 Figure 8: Fertilisation

(Source: Hackett and Surani , 2013, p.739)

The fertilised egg attaches to the uterine wall after it had remained in the fallopian tube for
three days. As mentioned by Leslie (2014, p.754), after the fertilised egg has passed through
the fallopian tube it undergoes proliferation through cell division and forms an inner cell
mass to form blastocyst. The blastocyst enters the matured endometrium to get implanted. As
asserted by Kashir et al. (2014, p.1204), the maturation of the endometrium to allow the
successful implantation is provided by release of oestrogen and progesterone. The egg can be
implanted within 6-10 days of ovulation, and after this, the endometrium is shed, and thus the
egg cannot get implanted.

After the egg gets implanted the foetus develops to form an embryo. The baby is termed
embryo till 8th week of pregnancy after which it is called foetus till birth. The foetal
development involves a total of 30-36 weeks during which the lungs, heart, brain, hands, legs
and other body parts starts to develop to give the foetus prominent human characteristics.

6. Discussing the role of placenta in pregnancy

The placenta plays a diverse role during pregnancy that involves various important functions
including:

 The placenta delivers adequate nutrient to the foetus from the mother’s body. This is
done through the help of blood circulation that reaches the umbilical cord of the baby
by the placenta (Guttmacher et al. 2014, p.303).
  The placenta acts as a filtering device just like the kidney as it provides filtrated blood
to baby by eliminating the hazardous substances.
 It helps in the respiration of the foetus by delivering oxygen from the mother’s body
to the baby thus acting as a lung (Sibley et al. 2014, p.6).
 The placenta acts as the waste delivery channel that allows the release of waste
products produced by the baby to be delivered into the mother’s body that is later
released through the urine by the mother (Cross, J., 2015, p.479).
 This acts as a blood filtering device as the placenta separately maintains the foetal and
the mother’s blood thus acting effectively to avoid the mixture of blood.
 The placental lactose and other hormones produced by the placenta helps to keep the
glucose level of the body within standards thus allowing free availability of glucose
for the foetus (Sibley et al. 2014, p.6).
 It also helps to avoid the foetus to inhale amniotic fluid by maintaining a continuous
flow of oxygen from the mother’s body.
 Lastly, it releases a series of hormones that controls uterine contraction so that the
baby can be delivered when it has reached its full term.

7. Explaining the sequence of events in child birth

The sequence of events in child birth involves three main stages in vaginal birth.

Pre-labour and labour Stage: In pre-labour stage, the mother often experiences frequent
uterine contraction. Moreover, by the end of this phase, the cervix experiences expanding and
thinning that leads to cervical dilation that is mainly occurred during the end phase of
pregnancy. After the pre-labour stage, the mother enters the active phases during which 3-4
contraction is felt within 10 mins interval and the cervical membrane experiences to dilate up
to 3-4 cm with the rapture of it outer membrane (Gonzalez et al. 2017, p.375).

Fetal expulsion: This stage is stimulated by releasing of prostaglandins and oxytocin that
impact to dilate the cervix to its extreme to facilitate the birth of the foetus. Thus, with the
effect of hormones and the dilated cervix, the mother feels the urge to deliver the baby by
pushing. At the first stage of fetal expulsion, the head is engaged in the pelvis and later passes
down the pelvic inlet. The appearance of the head of the fetous through vaginal orifice is
called crowning. After, this process, the head is descended the pelvis region and extrudes out
from the pubic arch and further out through the introitus of the vagina (Boorman et al. 2014,
p.255).
Placental delivery: This the last stage of the birth sequence where the fetus has been just
expelled out from the vagina. The placenta is usually released out naturally or through
artificial means after the baby is released outside. This is later clamped out and is painless
since no nerves are present (Belachew et al. 2014, p.224).

Figure 9: Events of Child Birth

(Source: Gonzalez et al. 2017, p.377)

Assignment 4

1. Poverty: an overview
Poverty refers to the situation where an individual fails to meet their basic
requirements of life. The basic requirements namely clothing, food, and shelter are
not being met by the individual. The theories on poverty are:
Structural functionalism
 The thinkers of the 1800s attempted to get a direct observation of primitive
cultures, conjecturing about the organisation of these thinkers in the context of
the western society. The theories that were propagated by these thinkers were
characterised by few assumptions and were quite simple.
 The approach that they wanted to make was to evaluate group and individual
behaviour, which serves a significant function for the extensive society.
 Claude Levi Strauss, also known as the father of structural anthropology
proposed the fact that, the investigations made on anthropology were based on
the elemental patterns of the mortal thought. As commented by Clausen (2014,
p.123), it can produce the categories, which are related to culture. It also
organises the available worldview of studies. This thinker believed that, these
processes are, however, are not tenacious of culture. Instead, these processes
are operated within the premises of culture.
 Radcliffe Brown, on the other hand, deeply focused on the social structure
instead of the biological needs. He propagated that; the society is an
interrelationship of systems, which maintains itself though the aspect of
cybernetic feedback. On the other hand, institutions are considered to be the
orderly sets of relationships. Their function is the systematic design of society.
Conflict theory
 The society is in constant conflict over the fetching of resources.
 It also shows the major patterns that are associated with inequality in the
society.
 The members of the privileged groups tend to maintain their advantageous
factors. On the other hand, the subordinate groups tend to struggle for their
deserving quest.
2. Sociological and Political approaches to health and poverty
 Health is considered to be a state of physical and mental wellbeing of an
individual. It emphasises on the significance of being free from epidemics and
illness.
 Recognising a healthy body is dependent upon the attributes of a healthy
environment and the stability of mind. The first social institution that helps in
the diagnosis of health is medicine. It helps in the prevention of diseases,
sickness and treats the other health related issues that are faced by an
individual.
 In order to accomplish the tasks of application of medicines, it is
characterised by the emphasis on healthy habits responsible for the eradication
of diseases.
 The political economists have recognised varied dynamics of the world
economy. The political economy of health leads to the accumulation and
perspective on the policy of health.
 It seeks to understand the prevalent conditions, which enumerates the health of
population and service development in the context of health.
 Moreover, it can be related that the growth in economy often results to the
increment of health resources. It can also refer to the improvement of
productivity of labour.
 The improvement of health leads to the economic growth of nations. Once an
individual seeks the help of medical grounds in order to eradicate the diseases,
the economy of the nation boosts up because of this.
 According to Hickey and Du Toit (2013), some of the sociologists have
propagated the fact poverty is closely related to the moral feelings of people,
and the dependency of cultures.
 Some of them have also pointed out the declining influence of the social
aspect of class in UK.
 Opportunities and resources are distributed unequally across the strata of
society. The sociologists have also pointed out the importance of shame and
disfigurement in the understanding of poverty and its experience among
individuals.
  The political perspective of poverty refers to the fact that, politics is also
related with the tenets of poverty.
 Furthermore, it can be said that the political stability of a nation, strictly
depends on the level of poverty.
 This is because, the more the level of poverty, the less political support in a
nation.
 Due to the economic crisis in UK, the level of poverty has slightly increased,
which has the political growth.

3. Predominant links between government initiative and scientist research

Scientific research refers to the undertaking of a collective task, of inventing
something new and creative. A scientist also tends to consume time in order to invent
something productive. As commented by Clausen (2014, p.123) it is important to
undertake government initiative in order to smoothly execute the work. On the other
hand, it is also important to note that, without the support of the government, the
research scientist will not be able to initiate their work. After the completion of the
research, the scientists intend to seek recommendation from the government to
improve their working method. Thus, it is important to link the relationship between
government initiative and scientist research. The predominant link is characterised by
the fact that, scientist research cannot be effective without the initiative by the
government. In the viewpoint of Williams (2013), it can also be said that, the
government also has the liberty to reject any research work, which will not be
considered as convenient to them. The research scientists need to seek permission
from the government, and it is a significant issue, which needs to be addressed.
Assignment 5

1. Explaining the role of Calvin cycle

The primary role Calvin cycle involves is the production of organic food for the plants by
using the products of the light reaction of photosynthesis along with ATP (Adenosine tri-
Phosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). The Calvin cycle
takes place within the stromal membrane of the chloroplast, and the reactions are light
independent (Takagi et al. 2014, p.333).

The Calvin Cycle pathway plays the role to connect atmospheric CO2 to ribulose biphosphate
(RuBP) to make 3-PGA. This role is executed by the cycle with the help of three steps that
include:

Carbon Fixation: In this stage, the CO2 molecule is added with ribulose-5-phosphate
(RuBP), and after the combination, a six-carbon compound is produced that is broken down
into two molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction in the role of Calvin
cycle is catalysed by RuBP carboxylase or rubisco (Guadalupe et al. 2013, p.125).

Reduction: After the 3-PGA molecule is produced, the ATP and NADPH are used to convert
the molecule into glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate (G3P). This process in the role of Calvin
Cycle is termed reduction because NADPH reduces 3-PGA molecule into G3P by donating
its electrons (Okegawa and Motohashi, 2015, p.900).

Regeneration: In the last stage, the G3P molecules are further extracted to produce organic
food and the other molecules produced are regenerated to form RuBP that is reused in the
next light independent reaction.

Figure 10: Reaction of Calvin cycle

(Source: Okegawa and Motohashi, 2015, p.910)

 Figure 11: Process of Calvin cycle

(Source: Guadalupe et al. 2013, p.127)

2. Analysing the process of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria

Oxidative Phosphorylation is the process that involved transferring of electrons from the
NADPH molecule or FADH2 to an oxygen atom (O2) for the formation of ATP molecules by
implementing a series of electron carriers. In this process, 26 to 30 molecules of ATP are
produced within the mitochondria by completely oxidising of carbon dioxide and water.
Further, the electron transport chain and chemosmosis together make up the oxidative
phosphorylation process within mitochondria (Bridges et al. 2014, p.475).

The co-factors that are used in the oxidative phosphorylation include NADH and FADH2
which are delivered form the TCA cycle in the reduced state. These reduced co-factors are
then used to transfer electron that coordinates to release H+ ions out from the cell. The
electron transfer is done by moving the co-factors from a higher energy level to lower helping
to pump H+ ions. After the electron transfer, the co-factors are oxidised to form NAD+ and
FAD those are reused in the other systematic steps of cellular respiration. The H + ion is
released from the intercellular space through the process of proton pumping thus establishing
an electrochemical gradient. Some of the H+ ions are now accepted by the terminal electron
acceptor oxygen molecules to form water. The other H+ ions by forming a proton-gradient
participate in the process of ATP generation catalysed by the ATP synthase enzyme. The
ATP synthesis is done by tracing the H+ back into the matrix by lowering their electron
gradient (Schertl and Braun, 2014, p.17).

Figure 12: Oxidative Phosphorylation

(Source: Bridges et al. 2014, p.479)

3. Analysing the process of photosynthesis in Chloroplast

The process of photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplast response to light and dark
reaction. The light reaction for producing photosynthesis is conducted in the grana with the
presence of light. The dark reaction occurs in the absence of light within the stroma of the
chloroplast.

In the process of light dependence reaction two types of photosystems are involved PSI and
PSII. During the production of O2 in light reaction energy is transferred to PSII which
produces a high energy electron which is passed through the terminal electron acceptor and
replaces an electron from water. This is called hydrolysis is water that generates O2 as by-
product. During the time of ATP synthesis in light reaction, stoma is also involved along with
the granal thylakoid. The interior portion of thylakoid is enriched with H+ ion which builds a
gradient inside the thylakoid membrane. Some of the released energy pumps the H+ ions from
the stroma into the thylakoid interior; they pass through the help of ATP synthase which
drives ATP. During the onset of light reaction in PSI the electron is boosted at a high enrgy
level and gets transferred to the electron acceptor. During the electron transfer, the electron is
passed through the terminal NADP+ to formulate NADPH (Shikanai, T., 2014, p.25).

In the dark reaction, NADPH and ATP enter the Calvin cycle and combines with CO 2 and
water to produce 3PGA catalysed by rubisco. Later, the NADPH through reduction changes
3PGA into G3P thus forming NAD+ and H+. The NAD+ and H+ are then reused in the light
reaction, and the RuBP is reused in the dark reaction of photosynthesis (Yamori et al. 2015,
p.13908).

Figure 13: Photosynthesis in Chloroplast

(Source: Shikanai, T., 2014, p.27)

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