Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
William G. Bickert
Brian Holmes
Kevin Janni
David Kammel
Richard Stowell
Joe Zulovich
i
ii
Contents
iii
Collection and Transfer 97 Feeding Dry Hay 129
Manure Storage 104 Feed Processing 129
Collection and Storage of Milking Safety 129
Center Effluent 110 Sizing Silos 130
Managing Lot Runoff 112 Sizing Dry Hay and Straw Storages 133
Land Application and Utilization 114 Sizing Commodity Storages 134
Preparing for Environmental Emergencies 114 Sizing Grain Storages 134
Chapter 9 Chapter 10
Feeding Facilities 117 Utilities 137
Planning the Feeding System 117 Water 137
Forage Storage 118 Storage 137
Grain and Concentrate Storage 120 Electrical 141
Feeding Total Mixed Rations 122 Lighting 141
Feed Center Design 125 Electric Motors 145
Conveying Forage 127 Standby Power 145
Auger Conveyors for Grain 128 Electric Fences 146
Feed Carts for Grain 128 Lightning Protection 146
Electronic Feeders 128 Heating Devices 147
iv
List of Figures
Chapter 2
4-10. A four-row tail-to-tail freestall barn
Figure Total Dairy Facilities Page with drive-through feeding
2-1. Farmstead and main road relationship and stalls along the outside walls. 38
for common wind conditions. 7 4-11. A four-row face-to-face freestall barn
with drive-through feeding
Chapter 3 and alleys along outside walls. 39
4-12. Two-row barn with drive-by feeding. 40
Figure Replacement Housing Page
4-13. Farmstead layouts for multiple
3-1. Post and rail feeding fence. 13 freestall barns on a single site. 41
3-2. Calf hutch. 15 4-14. Six-row barn with drive-through feeding. 42
3-3. Protecting calf hutches. 15 4-15. Three-row barn with drive-by feeding. 42
3-4. Individual calf pen. 16 4-16. Personnel or safety pass. 42
3-5. Calf barn. 16 4-17. Freestall barn for dry cows, bred heifers,
3-6. Super calf hutch, typical 12' x 24'. 18 and heifers of breeding age. 43
3-7. Super calf hutch with paved outside lots. 19 4-18. Separate handling/treatment barn. 44
3-8. Super calf hutches with a fenced dirt 4-19. Barn with bedded group and individual
lot area. 19 pens. 44
3-9. A transition barn. 19 4-20. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and
3-10. Two-row freestall barn (center feed), individual pens. 45
36' to 44' by 134'. 20 4-21. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and
3-11. Two-row gated, head-to-head freestall individual pens at the end of the
barn, 38' by 232'. 22 building. 45
3-12. Two-row gated, tail-to-tail freestall
barn, 36' by 200'. 23
3-13. Bedded pack heifer and dry cow barn. 24 Chapter 5
3-14. Heifer housing for heifers older than Figure Milking Center Page
6 months. 25 5-1. Flat-barn parlor. 49
3-15. Counter-slope youngstock barn. 26 5-2. Double-2 side-opening parlor. 49
5-3. Double-8 herringbone parlor. 49
5-4. A parallel parlor. 49
Chapter 4 5-5. Examples of milking center layouts. 50
Figure Milking Herd Facilities Page 5-6. Rapid exit parlor. 51
4-1. Freestall dimensions. 28 5-7. Parlor with ramp. 51
4-2. Location from which to start 5-8. Interior side view of ramp and pit. 51
measurements for sizing freestall cubicles. 29 5-9. Pit cross-section. 52
4-3. Forward-lunge freestalls. 30 5-10. Compressor ventilation. 52
4-4. Side-lunge freestalls. 32 5-11. Compressor sheds. 54
4-5. Stall using a mattress. 34 5-12. Parlor forced-air central-heating system. 54
4-6. Stall using a sand-based bed. 34 5-13. Hot water central-heating system. 54
4-7. Homemade beveled groover. 35 5-14. Summer air duct. 56
4-8. Post-and-rail feeding fence for cows. 36 5-15. Deep-water-seal trap drain. 59
4-9. Alley types. 37 5-16. Milk room floor slopes. 59
v
5-17. Milking platform drain system. 60 Chapter 8
5-18. Milking center drainage system. 60 Figure Manure and Effluent Page
5-19. Example of stray voltage. 61 Management
5-20. Construction of an equipotential plane 8-1. Normal annual precipitation, inches. 95
in a milking parlor. 62 8-2. Stepped gravity-flow channel. 99
5-21. Voltage ramp to an equipotential plane. 63 8-3. Push-off ramp. 102
8-4. Manure transfer to storage. 103
Chapter 6 8-5. Reception pit and pump. 104
8-6. Earthen storage basins. 105
Figure Special Handling and Page
8-7. Danger sign to be posted around
Treatment Facilities
manure storages. 107
6-1. Treatment pen stanchion and gates. 67
8-8. Storage using a picket dam. 109
6-2. Handling and treatment area in a
8-9. Roofed above-ground storage. 109
barn corner. 67
8-10. Grass filter strip. 111
6-3. Treatment stall. 67
8-11. Two grass filter strips with alternate
6-4. Milking center treatment area. 68
dosing. 111
6-5. Milking center treatment area with
8-12. Lot runoff handling system. 112
treatment stall and headgate. 69
8-13. Settling basins. 113
6-6. Fenceline stanchion. 70
8-14. Holding pond. 114
6-7. Handling and treatment building. 71
8-15. Example Emergency Action Plan. 116
6-8. Separate handling/treatment barn. 72
6-9. Commercial headgate. 72
6-10. Herringbone palpation facility. 73 Chapter 9
Figure Feeding Facilities Page
vi
List of Tables
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
Table Data Summary Page Table Milking Herd Facilities Page
1-1. Freestall dimensions. 1 4-1. Freestall dimensions. 29
1-2. Typical freestall alley widths. 1 4-2. Recommended floor thickness. 36
1-3. Bedded-pen space needs for calves and 4-3. Concrete strengths. 37
transition heifers. 1 4-4. Drinking water requirements. 37
1-4. Replacement heifer resting area space
requirements per animal. 2
Chapter 5
1-5. Suggested dimensions for post and rail
feeding fences. 2 Table Milking Center Page
1-6. Minimum feed-space requirements. 2 5-1. Floor area required for equipment in
1-7. Floor and lot slopes. 2 the utility room. 52
1-8. Drinking water requirements. 2 5-2. Maximum number of units per slope
1-9. Cumulative ventilating rates for warm for milklines with LIMITED AIR
dairy barns. 3 admission. 57
1-10. Daily fresh manure production of 5-3. Maximum number of units per slope
dairy cattle. 3 for parlor milklines admitting
1-11. Typical management categories EXCESSIVE AIR. 57
of a herd. 3
1-12. Recommended floor thickness. 4
Chapter 7
1-13. Concrete strengths. 4
1-14. Conversions. 4 Table Building Environment Page
1-15. Metric Conversions. 4 7-1. Minimum separation distance
between naturally ventilated
buildings (feet). 77
Chapter 2
Table Total Dairy Facilities Page
Chapter 8
2-1. Typical management categories of
a herd. 6 Table Manure and Effluent Page
Management
8-1. Daily fresh manure production
Chapter 3
of dairy cattle. 92
Replacement Housing 8-2. Bedding requirements for dairy cattle. 93
3-1. Bedded-pen space needs for calves and 8-3. Bulk densities of common bedding
transition heifers. 12 materials. 93
3-2. Replacement heifer resting area space 8-4. Volumes of manure and bedding used
requirements per animal. 12 in sizing storages. 94
3-3. Heifer freestall dimensions. 13 8-5. Approximate milking center effluent
3-4. Suggested dimensions for post and and flush volumes. 94
rail feeding fences. 13 8-6. Gravity-flow step height. 98
3-5. Minimum feed-space requirements. 13 8-7. Flush parameters. 100
3-6. Dairy cumulative ventilating rates for 8-8. Flowrate for floor heating system for
warm barns. 14 pipes 18'' o.c. (gpm). 101
vii
8-9. Flowrate for floor heating system for 9-15. Storage capacity for round grain bins. 134
pipes 12'' o.c. (gpm). 101 9-16. Upright silo capacity for ground
8-10. Storage using a picket dam. 109 shelled corn. 135
9-17. Upright silo capacity for ground ear
and whole shelled corn. 135
Chapter 9
Table Feeding Facilities Page
9-1. Estimate of silage harvesting and Chapter 10
storage losses. 118 Table Utilities Page
9-2. Minimum feed rate for forage. 119 10-1. Water requirements. 137
9-3. Mixer sizing. 124 10-2. Safety characteristics of water sources. 138
9-4. Dry matter factor, DMF. 130 10-3. Pressure loss in pipes due to friction. 140
9-5. Upright silo capacity, ton DM. 130 10-4. Recommended illumination levels . 141
9-6. Upright silo capacity, wet ton. 131 10-5. Color characteristic temperature and
9-7. Horizontal silo capacity, ton DM. 132 color rendition index values for
9-8. Horizontal silo capacity, wet ton. 132 common lights. 142
9-9. Horizontal silo capacity. 132 10-6. Typical mounting heights and
9-10. Silage bag capacities. 133 horizontal separation distances for
9-11. Silage piles. 133 select lights to produce an
9-12. Hay and straw densities. 133 illumination level of 20 fc. 143
9-13. Hay shed capacities. 133 10-7. Indoor lighting design values. 145
9-14. Commodity storage densities and 10-8. Spacing requirements for propane
storage requirements. 134 tanks. 147
viii
Chapter 1
Data Summary
T his chapter contains many of the design tables upon which the recommendations
of this book are based. The tables refer to the chapters that discuss the use of the
data. The tables include information about the following topics:
■ Freestall dimensions.
■ Freestall alley widths.
■ Calf and transition heifer housing.
■ Heifer and dry cow resting areas.
■ Feeding fences.
■ Feed space requirements.
■ Floor and lot slopes.
■ Water requirements.
■ Ventilation rates.
■ Manure production.
■ Management categories.
1
Table 1-4. Replacement heifer resting area space requirements per animal.
2 See Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, for more information on space requirements.
Chapter 1 Self-cleaning Bedded Slotted Paved outside e
Data Summary Age, mos Weight, lb/hd resting area a, ft 2 /hd resting area b, ft 2/hd floor,, ft 2 /hd
floor lot, ft 2/hd
0-2 c 100 to 190 Do not use 32 (4'x8' hutch) Do not use Do not use
28 (4'x7' pen)
3-5 190 to 350 Do not use 28 Do not use Do not use
6-8 350 to 500 10 25 12 35
9-12 500 to 650 12 28 13 40
13-15 650 to 800 15 32 17 45
16-24 800 to 1,200 18d 40 25 50
d
Dry cow, far-off > 1,300 20 50 35 55
Dry cow, close-up > 1,300 — 10 — —
a
8% slope (1"/ft).
b
Assumes access to 10' wide scraped feed alley or paved outside lot.
c
Use hutch or individual pens. House separately from older animals.
d
Heifers and dry cows in late pregnancy may have difficulty breathing if they lie facing downhill on self-cleaning floors.
Incidence of mastitis may be a problem for this group also.
e
Provide proper treatment for concentrated runoff.
Table 1-5. Suggested dimensions for post and Table 1-6. Minimum feed-space requirements.
rail feeding fences. See Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, and
Refer to Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, for Chapter 4, Milking Herd Facilities, for more information
more information on post and rail feeding fences. on feed space requirements. Feed always available.
Throat Neck rail Age, months Mature
Age, mos Weight, lb/hd Height, in height, in Type 3-4 5-8 9-12 13-15 16-24 cow
6-8 a 350-500 14 28 - - - - - - - - - inches per animal - - - - - - - - -
9-12 500-650 16 30 Feed always available
13-15 650-800 17 34 Hay or silage 4 4 5 6 6 6
Mixed ration 12 12 15 18 18 18
16-24 800-1,200 19 41 or grain only
Cows 1,200-1,500 21 48 All animals eat at once
a
A diagonal bar feeding fence is recommended for this Once a day 12 18 22 26 26 26-30
group to prevent calves from escaping. feeding
Manufacturers can provide information about
available panels.
Buildings and equipment on a dairy farm facilitate the job of caring for the
animals. They are tools that allow essential tasks prescribed by the management
plan to be implemented on a regular basis. Labor requirements, flow of animals and
materials, pollution control, future expansion, management requirements, and
animal environment are important design considerations.
Creating an environment that meets the needs of the animals is essential. Calves,
heifers, and cows require an environment that permits them to grow, mature,
reproduce, and maintain health. If the basic needs of the animals are not met, no
amount of management can guarantee success.
The ability to group animals and select facility components that relate to the
animals’ environment are important aspects of facility design. However, more
important is understanding the concepts of managing groups and the environmental
needs of the animal.
5
Table 2-1. Typical management categories of a herd.a ■ Labor efficiency.
6 If using this table as a planning guideline, then 15 to ■ Nutrient recycling.
25% more space may be required. These are categories
Chapter 2
and not group size. Refer to Chapter 3, Replacement
■ Better use of storage.
Total Dairy Facilities Housing, and Chapter 4, Milking Herd Facilities, for ■ Treatment for various reasons.
proper group sizes.
Tree Windbreak
Tree Windbreak
Livestock
Grain
Center
and Feed
Center
Shop and
Livestock
Main Road
Machinery
Center
Court
Grain
House N and Feed
Center
Tree Shop and
Winter Few House
Windbreak Machinery
Winds Winds
Main Road W E
Summer Summer
Breezes Winter Winds Tree Windbreak
WindbreakTree
House S
Alternate Drive
Shop and
Machinery
Livestock
RoadMain
Center
Grain Court
and Feed
Livestock
Center
Shop and Center
Machinery House
Grain
And Feed
Center
Figure 2-1. Farmstead and main road relationship for common wind conditions.
The direction of the farmstead from the main road affects farmstead layout. Layouts assume prevailing winter
winds are from the north and west, and prevailing summer winds are from the southwest, south, or east.
Lactating cows need 35 to 50 gallons per head per Install gates at remote accesses with signs warning
8
day of drinking water depending on milk production. about unauthorized entry. When possible, make
Chapter 2 Peak water consumption usually occurs shortly after access roads at remote sites visible from a public road
Total Dairy Facilities milking. Each cow drinks at a rate of 6 to 7 gpm. or neighboring residence.
Provide a system that can supply peak and total daily Safety. Locating the residence away from the
requirements. Where groundwater supplies are not dairy facilities can reduce the risk of exposure of
adequate, use surface sources such as farm ponds or children to injury or death from equipment and
community water systems. Approval of the water animals.
system may be required by a local milk inspector.
Access. Provide all-weather roads for milk trucks,
repair persons, technicians, veterinarians, feed delivery, Remodeling
and manure handling equipment. Provide adequate When planning to expand, decide whether to
parking for employees, service people, and visitors. remodel or abandon an existing building or farm-
Minimum road width is 12 feet. Minimum turning radius stead. Carefully consider present and future needs.
for large milk or feed trucks is at least 55 feet. A hay wagon Evaluate these general factors:
can turn 180 degrees in about 50 feet. Consider a separate ■ Functional final setup.
Minimum acreage required by many state pollution ■ Cost of remodeling vs. cost of new building.
Consulting engineers usually do a project in three Before new construction, develop a long-range plan
phases: preliminary planning, engineering design, for the operation. Include the following in the plan:
and construction monitoring. They may be retained ■ Production goals for the next 5 to 10 years.
When looking for a consulting engineer, consider ■ Environmental needs of the animals.
the engineer’s qualifications and experience. Check ■ Future alternatives for the operation.
the engineer’s educational background and ask for a ■ A drawing of the future farmstead.
10
Chapter 2
Total Dairy Facilities
!
Chapter 3
Replacement Housing
Brian Holmes, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Wisconsin
11
to determine housing needed for each management ■ Good feed efficiency by reducing competition
12
group. for feed.
Chapter 3 ■ Calf housing (0-2 months). ■ Calving at proper weight and size at 24 months.
Replacement ■ Transition heifer housing (3-5 months). ■ Feed handling ease and proper diets
Housing ■ Heifer housing according to age.
6-8 months. ■ Manure handling ease.
9-12 months. ■ Animal observation and handling ease for
13-15 months (breeding age). breeding, treatment, and grouping.
16-24 months. ■ Proper ventilation and environment.
■ Proper resting space or freestall size.
The number of replacement animals to be housed
depends on the number of mature cows and bred Space requirements for a particular operation
heifers, and can be larger at times than the average depend on the housing system chosen and how
values in Table 2-1. As herd size increases, so does replacements move from the resting area to feed and
the number of replacements. Increasing herd size to water and back again. Herd size and makeup are
without expanding facilities for replacements results guides to estimating the space needed for resting, but
in crowding, which can increase injury and disease alley size, water space, and bunk space also must be
transmission and can lower growth rates. included to accommodate the animals and provide an
animal-friendly environment.
Provide separate areas for resting and feeding.
Management Groups Feeding in resting areas increases manure accumula-
Separating replacement animals into groups tion, and more bedding is required to keep animals
according to age, size, or special management needs clean and dry.
allows each group to be treated according to its
needs. Plan building space and layout for these
groups of animals using Tables 3-1 and 3-2. More
than one group can be housed in the same building,
Table 3-1. Bedded-pen space needs for calves
but allow for managing each group separately. In
and transition heifers.
larger herds, separate facilities may be provided for
Housing type Pen size
each group. Some of the benefits of managing
0-2 months (individual pens)
animals in groups are:
Calf hutch (plus 4'x6' outdoor run) 4'x8'
■ Healthier animals by minimizing the risk of
Bedded pen 4'x7'
transmitting disease to younger animals. Tie stall (warm housing only) 2'x4'
3-5 months (groups up to 6 head) 25-30 ft2/hd
Super calf hutch or bedded pen minimum
Table 3-2. Replacement heifer resting area space requirements per animal.
Self-cleaning Bedded Slotted Paved outside e
Age, mos Weight, lb/hd resting area a, ft 2 /hd resting area b, ft 2/hd floor,, ft 2 /hd
floor lot, ft 2/hd
0-2c 100-190 Do not use 32 (4'x8' hutch) Do not use Do not use
28 (4'x7' pen)
3-5 190-350 Do not use 28 Do not use Do not use
6-8 350-500 10 25 12 35
9-12 500-650 12 28 13 40
13-15 650-800 15 32 17 45
16-24 800-1,200 18d 40 25 50
Dry cow, far-off > 1,300 20d 50 35 55
Dry cow, close-up > 1,300 — 10 — —
a
8% slope (1"/ft).
b
Assumes access to 10' wide scraped feed alley or paved outside lot.
c
Use hutch or individual pens. House separately from older animals.
d
Heifers and dry cows in late pregnancy may have difficulty breathing if they lie facing downhill on self-cleaning floors.
Incidence of mastitis may be a problem for this group also.
e
Provide proper treatment for concentrated runoff.
Table 3-3. Heifer freestall dimensions.
Stall width measured o.c. of 2" pipe stall dividers. Stall length measured from alley side of curb to front of stall. 13
Neck rail Chapter 3
Age, Freestall size Height above Distance from Replacement
months Weight, lb/hd Width, in Lengtha, in curb, in back curb, in
Housing
6-8 350-500 30 60 31 46
9-12 500-650 33 64 33 49
13-15 650-800 37 72 37 57
16-24 800-1,200 42 78 40 62
a
Length for side lunge stalls. Add 12-18 inches for front lunge stalls.
8"
Throat Height
freestalls. Manger Wall
Cold Housing
Cold housing is the recommended system for Animal health is generally better with larger rates
raising replacement animals. Cold-housing systems of cold-weather ventilation. Since the number of
provide a dry environment free of excessive drafts in calves and young heifers in a facility varies, design
winter, and wind ventilation and shade in summer. mechanical ventilation systems for a range of
The building is usually uninsulated and has natural stocking rates.
ventilation designed as an integral part of the
building. Indoor temperature follows outside
temperature very closely. Calf Housing (birth to weaning)
Advantages of cold housing over warm housing are: Calves and young heifers are very susceptible to
■ Less expensive to build. respiratory illness and other diseases. Keep calves
■ Less expensive to ventilate. less than two months old in clean, dry, draft-free
■ Better disease control. facilities with adequate space, bedding, and fresh air.
Separate calves to reduce disease transfer from nose-
During cold weather, disadvantages of cold to-nose contact. Separate calf groups from older
housing are: animals to minimize exposure to disease organisms.
■ Freezing can make manure handling difficult. Keep calves in individual pens in an enclosed
■ Waterers must be protected from freezing. building or outside in individual hutches until
■ Frostbite of calves’ ears may be a problem. weaning. After weaning they can be moved to small
■ Increased feed is required to maintain body heat. group pens.
2'
8'
24'
6'
4' x 6' Fenced Yard
40'
8'
6'
60'
8'
Opening
Open Ridge 2"/10' of
2"/10' of building width building width
Eave Opening
1"/10' of building width
Optional
Winter
Closure
10' min.
10' min.
Channel for
precipitation
48' entering ridge
End View
End View
sink
10'
8'
wh
Door
2'
ref
10'
w w
8'
Door
Bedded 4' x 7' Pens
Recommended Solid Wall
48'
5'
8'
Resting Area
w w
Door
10'
Feed
and
10'
Bedding
Storage
10' 10' 10' Door Openable Sidewall
30' 8' 48'
PlanView
Plan View
Feedbunk
Water
2x6 Rafters, 2’ o.c. 2x6 2x6 Nailing Supports 2x6 Knee Brace
8’ minimum
Curtain
20’
Front View
Front View
6’ minimum
Curtain
Rear View
Rear View
Curtain for
Severe Winter Concrete Open
a
Weather Curb Eave
Prevailing Winter Wind (optional)
w Full Curtain
10
w
Feed
Manger
Bedding
Bedding,
Calf Shelter optional 2’high wall
Portable
Site A
20'
or Super Bunk
Calf Hutch 10’ 14’
4' 3’
Overhang Overhang
24’ Building
12' 10'
a
Curb is 12" to 15" wide, 5" high. Capacity for
6 to 8 calves, up to 5 months old.
3:12 minimum roof slope.
Bedding,
optional Bedded Pens
Gate
Feed Manger
Drive
Feed Alley
10
Waterer Gate
Door
Figure 3-10. Two-row freestall barn (center feed), 36' to 44' by 134'.
Note: Dimensions are for building interior and do not include wall thicknesses.
flushed or the floor is slotted because it is not precipitation off animals while animals rest and
21
possible to move animals during tractor scraping. keeps bedding dry. A roof also eliminates contami-
When animals have access to outside runs, tractor nated runoff from the alley. Provide enough space, Chapter 3
scraping can be accomplished. Build an 8-foot alley for each group of animals in the bedded resting area Replacement
when a feed cart is used. For drive-through feeding, a Table 3-2. The bedded area is roofed and provides a Housing
16- to 18-foot alley is required. warm, draft-free resting surface. Additional heat
develops from the decomposing manure in the
Two-row Graduated Freestall Barn bedded pack. Bedded-pack barns are often sized to
A two-row graduated freestall barn changes the allow installation of a scrape alley and freestalls at a
length of the freestall in the pen by placing the curb at later date. Use a shed (single slope) roof if an
an angle to the side of the building. Stalls at one end expansion will occur on the other side of the drive-
of the building are shorter than stalls at the other end. by feed alley. A macadam or crushed rock surface
The alley floor is sloped toward the freestalls, where a can be used under the resting area pack. Macadam is
grated gutter is used to remove manure. The floor slope a built-up rock base (see Using All-Weather
provides a self-cleaning floor. Stalls are bedded with Geotextile Lanes and Pads, AED-45) which distrib-
chopped bedding to allow movement of the manure utes concentrated surface loads over the original
and bedding through the grate. A gravity gutter, flush soil. Macadam also provides a slip-resistant surface
gutter, or barn cleaner can be used to remove manure. and is porous enough to allow good drainage. Take
Building temperatures must remain above freezing measures to avoid groundwater contamination. If
most of the time to prevent frozen manure in the concrete is used rather than macadam, slope the
gutters. This type of building requires insulation and a floor to the scraped manure alley. Add bedding to
controlled natural ventilation system. the upper end of the pack as needed. Remove
manure and bedding as a solid two to four times a
Two-row Gated Freestall year. A substantial amount of bedding is required to
A two-row gated freestall barn can provide good keep animals clean and dry.
housing, Figures 3-11 and 3-12. Having two rows of Paved feeding alleys are typically scraped two or
freestalls along one side of a single bunk, all under three times a week. Extending the roof over this area
roof, provides flexibility in feeding system design. reduces runoff. To provide for a system with an
Depending on the layout, feeding may be accom- outside lot, the feeding alley is extended away from
plished with a feed cart, mechanical bunk, or mobile the building and generally is not roofed. Runoff must
scale mixer. In three-row barns, there is limited bunk be controlled to prevent surface water and groundwa-
space. When feed is always available, competition for ter contamination.
feed can be managed.
An alternative layout for a two-row gated freestall Counter-sloped Barn
barn is shown in Figure 3-12. Manure in the gated The counter-sloped barn, a relatively low-cost
freestall system is easily removed by a tractor- facility, is based on a sloped resting and feeding floor
mounted scraper. Animals are fenced in one alley separated by a tractor-scraped alley, Figure 3-15.
while the other alley is cleaned. When the feed bunk The resting floor and feeding floor are sloped 8%
is located on the south or east side in a cold barn, the (1 in/ft) toward the center scrape alley and are self-
bunk side of the building may be left open. cleaning. Size the resting area of the pens to allow for
a self-cleaning resting area, Table 3-2. Runoff from
Four-row Gated Freestall uncovered alleys must be controlled to prevent
Two-row gated freestall barns can be expanded for stream and groundwater pollution. The building also
larger herds by using a common center feed alley. can be designed to be completely under roof to
Stall rows are located on both sides of the feed alley. control water entry. This system is not recommended
Feeding can be accomplished with drive-through for heifers younger than six months or bred heifers
feeding alleys sized for a feed wagon or feed cart. during the last three months of pregnancy because of
lack of cleanliness.
Bedded Pack
Bedded-pack housing, Figure 3-13 and 3-14, is Optional Outside Lots
commonly used in conjunction with an outside Optional outside lots sometimes can be incorpo-
feeding area. However, roofing the entire area rated into building design when desired. Outside lots
including the scrape and feeding alley has advan- help reduce manure accumulation in the building but
tages. Providing a roof over the bedded area keeps must be cleaned and managed properly. Outside lots
22
Chapter 3
Replacement
Housing
Open Ridge,
12 2"/10 of building width
4
Eave Opening Curtain (optional)
1"/10 of Building for Cold Climates
Width
Precipitation Gutter
with optional raftered
discharge from
drive through
min
Barn or to Alley
Freestalls
30 34 34 86 48
5 5 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8
W
W
W
7
12
Truss designed
for Cantelever Rafter
Overhang
for equipment clearance
for equipment clearance
Curtain for
14’ min
greater if needed
Curtain for
greater if needed
greater if needed
10’ min
Manger 12 12
Cantelevered Manger Overhang Clear Span Drive Through Raftered Drive Through
See Detailed
Wall Height
14 min.
10 min
Solid Fence
for Winter
Draft Control
(optional)
7 10 7 11
36
40 77 28 30 25
7
W
7
Truss Designed
for Cantelever Rafter
Overhang
for equipment clearance
for equipment clearance
Curtain for
greater if needed
greater if needed
Curtain for
greater if needed
10’ min
Manger 12 12
Cantelevered Manger Overhang Clear span Drive Through Raftered Drive Through
drive through
Curb
Curtain Sidewall
Truss designed
for Cantelever Rafter
Overhang
for equipment clearance
for equipment clearance
Curtain for
greater if needed
Curtain for
greater if needed
greater if needed
10’ min
10’ min
10’ min
Cantelevered Manger Overhang Clear Span Drive Through Raftered Drive Through
12 Curtain
4
10'
Manger
4'
Feed Driveway
(slope 1/2% - 1%)
Scrape Alley
Floor Slope
3' 8" (see note)
14' 12' 1' 18' to 24'
a. Building cross-section.
Note: For bedded pack rest area, use a 2% slope. For a self-cleaning floor rest area, use a
8% slope. Solid partition for self-cleaning sloped floors or 4' tubular steel gate for bedded
pack with adjustable height hinges or attach 4' x 8' plywood to gates. Extend every other
partition to ceiling to reduce wind swirl. Face open front away from prevailing winter winds.
Open front facing SE will provide afternoon shading in hot weather.
72'
6 pens @ 12'-0"
Optional Loading Chute
Tall wall
for wind
Sloped Resting Platform Fence control
18' to 24'
30' to 36'
Waterer
1'
Feed Barrier
Manger
Slope
(1/2 to 1%)
4' High
13'
Solid Partition
10'
3'-9"
10'
8“ Step
Curtain 8% Slope, 8% Slope,
Height
1"/ft 1"/ft
4"
4" 6"
3'-8"
4'
5'
9 7'
12"
19' 12' 5'
36'
6 Pens
20
w w w w w w
2% Slope, To
¼"/ft 12 Gate Manure
Scrape Alley and
9
Runoff
Storage
Feeding 12
7
Slab
Feed Bunk
may be of some benefit in reducing foot and leg enter the milking herd. Use dirt lots only when
problems in dry cows. weather permits. Cattle mounds can improve drainage
Pasture sometimes is used as part of the feed ration. of a dirt lot to help keep the surface dryer.
When this is the case, animal density must be kept Concrete paved exercise lots can be incorporated
low to allow the pasture to recover after grazing. into building designs either as exercise areas or as
Pasture can be rotated to provide rest and recovery of integral parts of the building design. Runoff from
vegetation. Pasture that is too heavily grazed becomes lots must be controlled and handled as part of the
a dirt lot over time and can cause problems when not manure handling and storage system. Additional
managed properly. labor is required to scrape lots and field apply
Dirt exercise lots tend to have a high animal manure. Consider the cost of a runoff control
density and typically have little or no vegetative system in the total system cost. Also consider water
cover. They become muddy in wet weather and can quality issues in the overall design of the housing
cause environmental mastitis in heifers before they option.
Chapter 4
Milking Herd Facilities
William G. Bickert, Extension Ag Engineer, Michigan State University
T he most common housing type being built in the Midwest is a freestall barn.
Freestall barns allow cows to be housed and managed as groups. There are
various barn layouts and stall designs. Before deciding on a barn layout or selecting
a stall design, weight the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. When
making this decision, consider labor, cow comfort, and personal preference.
maintenance of the stall is indeed important in each to the front of her knees.
of these situations, the willingness of cows to use ■ Head space — the space ahead of a cow’s body
stalls and the dryness of stall beds are directly linked occupied by her head.
to other elements such as poor ventilation and lack of ■ Lunge space — the additional space necessary
bed. The cow is free to enter and leave at will. The ■ Have minimum contact with her body.
stall must be wide enough for the cow to lie comfort- ■ Accommodate the cow’s natural lying and rising
ably, but narrow enough to keep the cow from turning behavior.
27
Limited length can reduce defecation in the rear of the freestall. See Figure 4-3a. In head-to-head
28
the stall, important to good udder health. But if freestall arrangements, the cow is able to lunge into
Chapter 4 limited length restricts the forward thrust of the head the opposite freestall. See Figure 4-3b. In a head-to-
Milking Herd then rising will be more difficult for the cow. head freestall arrangement provide as much open
Facilities lunge space as possible with a minimum of 24 inches
Freestall Types of open vertical space. This arrangement also requires
There are two types of freestalls identified by a brisket board, Figure 4-1.
where the cow places her head during rising: In a side-lunge freestall, the cow thrusts her head
■ Forward-lunge. into an adjacent stall space as she rises. The lower rail
■ Side-lunge. of the partition is either high enough in the front to
allow the cow to thrust her head under the lower rail,
The two freestalls differ in partition and stall base or low enough to allow the cow to thrust her head
design to account for the cow’s lunge during rising. over the lower rail without interference. If the cow
To reduce injury, both types of freestalls should thrusts her head under the partition rail, the bottom
provide space beneath the lower rail at the rear to partition rail should be a minimum of 32 inches
minimize contact with the cow’s hip and pelvic area. above the back curb, Figure 4-4a. If the cow thrusts
In a forward-lunge freestall, additional stall length her head above the bottom rail, the bottom partition
is needed to allow the cow to lunge forward. A brisket rail should be a maximum of 11 inches above the
board, Figure 4-1, is required to position the cow in back curb, Figure 4-4b. Side lunge stall dividers are a
a. Location in stall.
4" - 6" Max
above bedding
b. Construction.
2 x 8 or 2 x 10
Brisket Board
Lag Screw
Bedding
To Top of Stall
To Top of Stall
(A) (A)
Reference Point: 2" Reference Point:
Stall measurements Stall measurements
begin from this location.
2" begin from this location.
8" to 12"
8" to 12"
Mattress
Figure 4-2. Location from which to start measurements for sizing freestall cubicles.
30
Chapter 4
Milking Herd
Facilities
a a. Single loop
partition.
b. Head-to-head
partition
aPartition Height
Neck Rail and
8'' to 12''
curb
Partition Height
Neck Rail and
8'' to 12''
curb
(A)*
11''
14''
14''
(A)*
Body
Space
Hip
Space
Brisket Board
Body Space
Hip
Space
Brisket Board
Body Space
4-6''
max
Stall Length
Stall Length
Head
Space
Lunge
Space
Opening for
Air Movement
* Note: Top of curb on the alley side is used as the primary reference point for measurements except when the
stall bed is elevated. When the stall bed is elevated, the apparent top of the stall bed at the curb is the
Open Space for
Forward Lunge
reference point (See Figure 4-2). Dimensions are for a 1,400 lb cow. Refer to Table 4-1 for proper freestall size.
Post needed
for
each divider
a c. Lunge into
“doghouse”.
d. Lunge into
alley.
aa
Partition Height
Neck Rail and
8'' to 12''
curb
Partition Height
Neck Rail and
8'' to 12''
curb
14''
(A)*
14''
(A)*
Body
Space
Hip
Space
Brisket Board
Body Space
Hip
Space
4-6''
max
Stall Length
Brisket Board
Body Space
4-6''
max
Stall Length
Head
Space
Lunge
Space
Forward Lunge
Opening for
Forward Lunge
Opening for
Alley
10'-12'
Curtain
Chapter 4
31
Milking Herd
Facilities
32
Chapter 4
Milking Herd
Facilities
max
11''
14''
(A)*
14''
(A)*
Body
Space
Hip
Space
Neck Rail
Hip Space
Body Space
Stall Length
Neck Rail
Body Space
Stall Length
* Note: Top of curb on the alley side is used as the primary reference point for measurements except when the
stall bed is elevated. When the stall bed is elevated, the apparent top of the stall bed at the curb is the
reference point (See Figure 4-2). Dimensions are for a 1,400 lb cow. Refer to Table 4-1 for proper freestall size.
Head
Space
Side
Lunge
Space
Side
Lunge
Space
Partition for the base include concrete, clay, sand, and stone
Extend the stall partition horizontally toward the dust. Hardwood planks tend to rot. Rubber tires, if
33
rear of the stall to within 14 inches or less of the alley not firmly embedded, tend to come loose. Chapter 4
to prevent cows from walking from stall to stall. For Bedding material added on top of the base: Milking Herd
most mature cows, install the top rail of partitions 44 ■ Absorbs moisture and collects manure tracked Facilities
to 48 inches above the reference point to discourage into the stall.
turning around. The bottom rail should be high ■ Adds resilience.
enough at the rear to avoid injury to hips and ribs, ■ Makes the stall more comfortable.
yet low enough at the shoulder to prevent cows from ■ Reduces the potential for injuries.
lying under the partition. See Figures 4-3 and 4-4. ■ Provides traction.
Alley Slope
The design slope of alleys in freestall barns may
vary from 0 to 4%, depending upon circumstances.
Usually, some slope is desirable to control drainage
Figure 4-7. Homemade beveled groover.
in the event of an unexpected leak from a waterer.
This helps to ensure the leaking water flows to a
certain location where it can be managed (perhaps to
the manure storage). A small elevation difference
on center in a diamond pattern. Make grooves between the two ends of an alley (6 inches or so)
parallel to alley length when flush or alley scrape accomplishes this goal.
manure removal is used. Grooves are typically in a To drain concrete floor surfaces and avoid
diamond pattern. Grooving should be done shortly puddling of water, a minimum slope of 1.5 to 2% is
after concrete is placed and before it sets up too recommended. This amount of slope is generally
much. The finished grooving should leave the area required in order to overcome the birdbaths left in
between the grooves flat, and the edge of the groove concrete floor surfaces as a result of the inability to
should not have a ridge. Wide grooves make finish the surface as a perfect plane. Therefore, a
cleaning and disinfecting more difficult and can slope of at least 1.5% drains the majority of liquids
cause foot and leg problems in smaller animals. (urine, for example) from a freestall alley, resulting
With new floors, where disinfection is required and in drier alley surfaces.
grooves present a problem, aluminum oxide can be For manure flushing systems, slope may vary from
added to the surface when the floor is poured. Apply 1 to 4% depending upon the method of releasing
aluminum oxide grit (as in sandpaper) at 1/4 to 1/2 water onto alleys and related barn construction
pounds per square foot before the concrete sets. features. A sloped alley also places freestalls on a
Coarse grit (four to six meshes per inch) is slight slope across the stall width. This encourages
recommended. cows to lie with their legs in a down-slope direction,
Existing slick floors can be grooved with a which may reduce the likelihood of stepped-on teats.
mechanical saw (similar to ones used for sawing If the waterers in the barn are gravity fed, all
concrete) or painted with chlorinated rubber paint or waterers on a particular line must be at the same
exterior latex. For additional traction, sprinkle with level. Thus, there can be no elevation difference
sawdust or coarse ground cornmeal while paint is wet. between sections of the barn where these waterers are
Repaint annually. located.
Badly worn but sound floors can be resurfaced
with a concrete overlay. Bonding a thick overlay to
an existing floor requires special cleaning and
Feeding Fences, Bunks, Mangers,
concrete mixes. and Waterers
Several tasks should be completed prior to using A post-and-rail feeding fence is usually used for
the new flooring for livestock. First, any stalagmite fence-line feeding, as in a drive-through freestall
type roughness or sharp, very rough surfaces should barn. The animal reaches over a short concrete wall
be removed from the surface of the concrete. These for feed. Elevate the feed surface 3 to 6 inches above
stalagmites can be removed by scraping the new the cow alley. The rail, which defines the upper limit
accurate dimensions from the manufacturer of the type
36
of self-locking stanchions being considered.
Chapter 4
Milking Herd Manger Surfaces
Facilities Concrete used in dairy facilities must be resistant
to manure, freezing and thawing, expansion and
contraction, feed acids, and abrasion from animals
and equipment. To be strong and resistant, concrete
must be properly mixed, handled and cured. Concrete
must withstand forces from livestock, vehicles, soil,
and manure, Table 4-2.
In concrete, cement and water form a paste that
hardens and glues the aggregates together. Concrete
quality depends on the binding qualities of this
cement paste. The strength and durability of concrete
depend primarily on the water-cement paste. The
strength and durability of concrete depend primarily
Figure 4-8. Post-and-rail feeding fence for cows.
on the water-cement ratio. Enough water is needed for
*Reduce throat height for heifers and if using headlocks.
full curing, but excess water leaves voids when it
evaporates, which weakens the concrete. Strength
will likely be adequate when durability is adequate.
of this space, is made of pipe, plank or cable and is When a mix is too stiff to handle well, use a super
positioned as shown in Figure 4-8. plasticizer or add both cement and water to the mixer,
Design feeding spaces using Table 3-5. These then reduce the amount of aggregates in subsequent
space requirements can be met in open dry-lot batches. Do not just add water, which weakens
systems and are still recommended for situations concrete, Table 4-3. Adding one gallon of water to a
where mature cows are all expected to eat at once. cubic yard of concrete can:
However, freestall barns in colder climates typically ■ Decrease strength by 200 to 300 psi.
allow less feeding space per cow. While 18 to 24 ■ Increase shrinkage potential by approximately 10%.
inches feed space per cow appear adequate when a ■ Waste as much as a bag of concrete.
Table 4-4. Drinking water requirements. Freestall barn layout depends on the relationship
Animal gal/hd/day between the feed and stall alleys, Figure 4-9. With the
Calves trend toward feeding complete mixed rations and the
(1-1.5 gal/100 lb) 6-10 use of scale mixers for assembling these rations,
Heifers 10-15 feeding systems can be classified as stationary,
Dry cows 20-30 Figure 9-8, or as mobile, Figure 9-9, according to use
Milking cows 35-50a of the scale mixer. See Chapter 9, Feeding Facilities,
a
Design water supply to deliver 6 to 7 gpm per cow with cows for additional information on mixers.
drinking simultaneously. In a mobile feeding system, the scale-mixer is
mounted either on a tractor-drawn trailer or a truck.
Horizontal silos for corn silage and possibly grass
silage and bulk storage for dry grains and supplement
Waterers are compatible with this system. A tractor with a
Provide at least one watering space or 2 feet of front-end loader loads feed components into the
tank perimeter for every 15 to 20 cows, Table 4-4. At mobile scale-mixer. The scale-mixer itself is used to
least two waterer locations are needed for each group deliver the mixed ration to the bunk.
of cows. Provide more space and more locations when Mobile mixers are more flexible than stationary
two-year-olds are housed with older cows. Limit ones; feed storage location is less critical and animals
water depth to 6 to 8 inches for fresher water and less can be fed at remote sites. Mobile feeding systems are
debris accumulation. Provide drains in tanks or use time and cost efficient for herds of 100 cows or more.
tip troughs for ease of cleaning.
Access to adequate fresh water becomes more
important in summer as consumption per cow
increases. Provide space for extra water tanks in the
barn for use during hot weather. (See Cross Alleys, 12 to 14
page 40). Heaters will not be required as these tanks
are removed for cold weather.
Figure 4-10. A four-row tail-to-tail freestall barn with drive-through feeding and stalls along the outside walls.
Based on double-8 milking parlor. Dotted extensions indicate opportunities for expansion from 200 to
approximately 400 stalls. If this option is planned then size holding area to accommodate about 100 cows.
a
Stall length depends on type of partition used.
outside wall. High-tensile-wire, corral-type fence can the larger group’s area to get to the milking center. A
be used in the walls. Further, moving the freestalls
39
section of freestalls may be devoted to close-up dry
away from outside walls reduces problems with cows where they may be fed a special ration and will Chapter 4
incoming rain and sun in barns with full-wall likely be observed more often; or to a group of cows Milking Herd
ventilation for summer. A disadvantage is that cows newly-freshened. When subdividing groups, the Facilities
may not be locked away from all freestalls as is the resultant dead-end alleys are acceptable only for very
case when all cows are confined to the feeding alley, small groups.
Figure 4-10. The barn layout in Figure 4-12 is suitable for
The barn in Figure 4-11 has additional cross alleys 60- to 300-cow dairies with wings extended in both
in two of the quadrants, which enhances the ability to directions. For larger herds, similar barns may be
manage animals in groups. When desired, each of constructed parallel with the first. Separation
these quadrants may be subdivided for two groups by distances of at least 75 feet are recommended (more if
placing temporary gates across the alleys. For summertime prevailing winds are marginal or
example, a larger group of milking cows may be restricted).
further subdivided for feeding purposes. The group Figure 4-13 shows layout options for sites with
farthest from the milking center will travel through multiple buildings.
48
approx
approx
52
approx
88
102
Cross Alley
86
228 16 140
3 Overhang
Center
Drive-through
Alley
8 to 10 12 to 14 16 to 18
15 to 17 a
86 to 102
Figure 4-11. A four-row face-to-face freestall barn with drive-through feeding and alleys along outside walls.
Additional crossover areas allow for subdividing groups.
a
Stall length depends on type of partition used.
number of cows is less. Shorter alley length may be of
40
Open Ridge, 8" min advantage if mechanical alley scrapers are installed.
Chapter 4 Because manure accumulation per unit length of
Milking Herd alley will be greater because of the higher animal
Facilities density scraping frequency may need to be increased.
The same applies to a three-row barn.
Feed bunk space in six-row and three-row barns is
about 1-1/2 foot per cow. Research has shown
Feeding Floor Manger reduced bunk space to be of no problem if a total
mixed ration is fed. However, the most recent research
8 to 10 15 to 17 a 12 to 14 on reduced bunk space (1 foot vs. 2 feet) was done
32 to 40 with cows averaging about 82 pounds of milk per
day. The effect on groups of cows averaging 100
a. Two-row barn cross-section. pounds of milk or more has not been studied. High
a
Stall length depends on type of stocking density (more than one cow per stall)
partition used.
reduces bunk space per animal even further.
When headlock stanchions are installed along the
feed manger line in a six-row barn, the resulting
number of stanchions is less than the number of
36 stalls. This reduces the effectiveness of the stan-
approx chions when restraining cows for treatment purposes.
Ventilation is another concern with a six-row
approx
28
Milking Parlor
arrangement. With a given sidewall height and wind
speed in the summer, 50% more cows share the total
Holding Area
approx
Cross Alleys
A cross alley at each end of an interior freestall
row increases accessibility to feed, water and
freestalls and allows escape from aggressive cows.
See Figure 4-12. Also, a cross alley is a convenient
Layouts with Reduced Bunk Space Per Cow location for a waterer. Provide additional cross alleys
A six-row drive-through freestall barn has a center for groups larger than 60 to 80 cows or to allow
drive alley for feeding with a mobile scale-mixer, but subdividing a group, Figure 4-10. Cows should not
with three rows of freestalls on either side, Figure 4-14. walk more than 15 to 20 stall widths to a cross alley.
This barn is typically 104 to 116 feet wide. A Therefore, locate cross alleys every 30 to 40 stalls.
variation on this arrangement is a three-row freestall If a waterer is located in crossover, the minimum
barn with fenceline feeding, Figure 4-15. A three-row clear width should be 12 feet with 15 feet preferred.
barn is typically 44 to 48 feet wide. Elevate cross alleys above the cow alleys to reduce
The six-row arrangement results in lower building manure flowing into the cross alley during scraping.
cost, about 20% less per stall than a four-row barn. Crown the cross alley to promote self-cleaning by
However, costs for freestalls, waterers, and doors animal hoof action. In most arrangements, a properly
remain essentially the same. Also, in a six-row barn, elevated and crowned cross alley eliminates the need
building length (same as alley length) for a given to navigate the area with equipment.
41
Chapter 4
Milking Herd
Facilities
a. Barns in a separate row to the Milking Center. b. Milking Center and barns in the same row.
Milking
Center
Barn 4 Barn 3 Barn 2 Barn 1
Milking
Center
Prevailing
Winds
Milking
Center
Milking
Center
Figure 4-13. Farmstead layouts for multiple freestall barns on single site.
Ventilation and the movement of animals, feed, and manure are important considerations.
42
Alley
Chapter 4
Alley
Milking Herd
44'-48'
Alley
104'-116'
Drive Through
Facilities
Alley Alley
Drive-by 228'
Alley
228'
Figure 4-14. Six-row barn with drive-through feeding. Figure 4-15. Three-row barn with drive-by feeding.
Transition
Approximately two to three weeks prior to
12'' to 14'' Clear expected calving date, move dry cows and heifers to
the pre-calving group. The pre-calving management
program calls for more careful attention to nutrition
and sanitation since cows and heifers near, during,
and after giving birth to offspring are at greater risk
for infectious diseases and non-infectious disorders.
Housing for pre-calving cows and heifers should
allow for frequent observation and be convenient to
the maternity area. Freestall housing is recom-
mended to reduce exposure of the udder to mastitis-
causing organisms. Restricting access to outside dirt
lots reduces risk of mastitis.
Calving
Figure 4-16. Personnel or safety pass. Immediately prior to calving time, move cows
and heifers to individual pens that are separate from
other animals, especially younger calves. The
Personnel Passes location of this area and assignment of responsibili-
Personnel passes are narrow vertical openings in ties to personnel should encourage frequent observa-
gates or fences that allow a person to pass through. tion. Then, the animal that has just calved should be
Personnel passes are typically 12 to 14 inches observed frequently for problems before moving her
wide, Figure 4-16. Locate personnel passes wher- to the milking herd. The newborn calf, having
ever it is anticipated that workers would otherwise received about 2 to 4 quarts of high-quality colos-
need to climb over a fence or open a gate on a trum, a dry haircoat, a disinfected naval, and other
regular basis. medical treatments, should be moved to a calf hutch
or individual pen until weaning.
■ Stanchions or headgates for restraining animals A barn with multiple pens as shown in Figure 4-18
to enhance safety. may be used for cows needing special attention.
■ Provisions for lifting cows unable to stand. Combine two or more pens for groups of pre-calving
■ Good lighting and convenient electrical outlets. cows and cows that have just recently calved; use
■ Observation aids such as video cameras and individual pens for cows at time of calving. Or, place
noise monitors. cows in individual pens from two to three weeks
■ Access for veterinary treatment. prepartum through calving.
■ Access for removing dead animals. Each pen has a waterer and a stanchion. Cow
■ Access for cleaning pens. traffic is along the outside walls; the center aisle is
reserved for personnel. Gates serve as pen dividers,
Example Barn Layouts allowing two or more pens, each intended for one
The freestall barn plan illustrated in Figure 4-17 cow, to be combined into a larger pen for a small
shows housing for dry cows, bred heifers, and heifers group. A small storage room for supplies and portable
of breeding age. A particular group may be subdi- milking equipment as well as an area in which to
vided using temporary gates across the alleys, sanitize equipment and utensils could be added.
allowing greater flexibility in using the barn to Advantages of this layout include:
accommodate a variety of management strategies. For ■ The barn provides individual pens for calving.
example, the dry cows may be divided into two ■ Pre-calving cows and cows that have just calved
groups—one group for the early dry cows, the other may be housed as a small group by shifting
for the pre-calving cows. Various group sizes may be gates to form a larger pen.
created merely by shifting the temporary gates. Cows ■ As an alternative, a pre-calving cow could be
Figure 4-17. Freestall barn for dry cows, bred heifers, and heifers of breeding age.
allowing her to adjust to new surroundings and ■ With frequent observation, animals will spend a
44
isolation. minimum amount of time in the individual
Chapter 4 pens, reducing labor.
Milking Herd Disadvantages include:
Facilities ■ Housing cows in individual pens or small group Disadvantages include:
pens requires more labor than in freestalls or ■ Moving pre-calving cows and heifers to
other group arrangements, especially if a cow is individual pens only a few hours before
moved to this barn two to three weeks ahead of calving requires frequent observation; this
expected calving. observation task must be an assigned responsi-
■ Because calving dates cannot be predicted with bility.
sufficient accuracy, moving cows to this barn ■ The bedded pack in the group pens may increase
just three to four days ahead of calving is exposure of udders to mastitis-causing organ-
impractical. So, moving cows to the barn when isms. To minimize this risk, frequent removal of
calving is imminent seems to be the best manure and soiled bedding followed by
strategy, and the barn should be located near additions of clean bedding is essential.
housing for pre-calving cows.
■ Frequent observation of pre-calving cows must The layouts in Figure 4-20 and Figure 4-21
not be left to chance but be an assigned provide freestalls for a group of pre-calving cows
responsibility to assure that cows will, in fact, and heifers, and individual pens are provided for
be in the calving barn at calving time. calving. The layout of Figure 4-20 is more readily
expandable; additional freestalls and pens could be
Group pens for pre-calving cows and individual added to either end. The layout of Figure 4-21
pens for cows at time of calving are shown in allows dividing the freestalls into two groups; e.g.,
Figure 4-19. Pre-calving cows and heifers can be early dry and pre-calving, using temporary adjust-
moved to this barn into a group setting 2 to 3 weeks able gates across the two alleys.
ahead of calving. Then they are near the maternity Advantages of these layouts include:
area, which allows an animal to be easily moved to an ■ All important design criteria are met.
individual pen just ahead of calving. ■ An animal can be readily moved from the
Advantages of this layout include: freestall area to an individual pen when calving
■ Housing for pre-calving cows and heifers is is imminent, lessening labor for caring for
close to the maternity area. animals in the individual pens.
Figure 4-18. Separate handling/treatment barn. Figure 4-19. Barn with bedded group and
Cows requiring additional observation, treatment, or individual pens.
having other special needs can be separated from the Group pens used for pre-calving cows and individual
milking herd and housed in a separate barn. Include a pens used for individual cows at calving time. This
small storage room for supplies and portable milking layout is easily expanded by adding on to either end.
equipment.
45
Chapter 4
Waterer Milking Herd
Freestalls
Facilities
12 x 12 Pens
38
Temporary Gate Waterer Stanchion
Figure 4-20. Barn with head-to-head freestalls Figure 4-21. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and
and individual pens. individual pens at the end of the building.
Freestalls used by pre-calving cows, pens used by Freestalls used by pre-calving cows, pens used by
individual cows at the time of calving. This layout is individual cows at the time of calving. Given sufficient
easily expanded by adding on to either end. stalls, the freestall area could be divided into one
group for early dry cows, and the other for pre-calving.
T he milking center is more than a place to milk cows, especially on farms where
milking occupies less than a majority of the day. A milking center for freestall
housing can include a milking parlor, holding area, utility room, milk room, lounge
area, office, and treatment area. Consider providing for the capability of sorting
cows as they leave the parlor, and install handling and treatment facilities in the
area alongside or opposite the holding area. On smaller dairies, the time remaining
after milking allows for using the holding area and cow lanes in the milking center
for other purposes
On larger dairies, milking may occupy most hours of the day. Handling and
treatment (and even sorting) operations are usually apart from the milking center
opposite the holding area.
Milking center dimensions depend on milking parlor type, cow size, milk tank
size, type, equipment location, and type of washing and milk handling equipment.
Coordinate construction with the building contractor and equipment supplier
The U.S. Public Health Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires
approval of a milking facility prior to operation. Obtain approval of a plan for
each farm before construction or remodeling begins. Contact the milk buyer
about approval procedures before building. Approval agencies usually require an
overall plan drawn to scale and dimensions, showing electrical lighting, ventila-
tion, insulation, waste disposal, and water supply
■ Group size.
■ Initial mechanization. Note the only segment of chore time the parlor
■ Plans for future improvements. itself affects directly is the time spent actually
■ Number of cows milked. milking. Keep this in mind when comparing how fast
■ Available labor and capital. parlors milk. Milking performance figures for milking
■ Milking time available. parlors, expressed in cows per hour on a steady-state
■ Milk production level. basis, are useful for comparing and estimating
milking time. But the total labor required to accom-
Parlor selection depends on: plish milking is a more important figure to have in
■ Herd expansion. mind when selecting a milking parlor.
■ Initial investment. To estimate total chore time and overall labor
47
efficiency, sum up the times estimated to be spent on Do not invest a lot of money in developing this
48
each aspect of the milking operation. For estimating system. Flat barn parlors are low cost and are in-
Chapter 5 purposes, assume 20 minutes for parlor setup, 30 to tended to be used until cash flow supports the
Milking Center 45 minutes for parlor cleanup, and 15 minutes per construction of a more efficient parlor design.
100 cows for changing groups (although numerous
factors affect actual time spent on each task). To Side-opening
estimate actual milking time for herringbone and Side-opening parlor layouts are usually double-2
parallel, assume 4 to 5 cows per hour per milking to double-5, Figure 5-2. The advantage of side-
stall. Estimate the time required for milking in an opening parlors is more individual cow attention, but
assumed milking parlor of a given size and with a there is a greater distance between udders compared
given degree of mechanization by dividing the total with the herringbone. This distance becomes impor-
number of cows to be milked by the quoted through- tant when the parlor is mechanized and more cows are
put in cows per hour. But be aware that a quoted needed in the parlor to keep the milker and the
throughput can be considered only an approxima- equipment busy. Pit length increases by 8 to 10 feet
tion. Numerous factors affect parlor performance, for each pair of milking stalls.
effective utilization of labor, and quality of the
milking operation. Herringbone
On small dairies, actual milking time is a smaller Herringbones are the most common elevated
part of the total chore time than on larger dairies. So parlor. They often range from double-4 to double-24,
investing in larger parlors and in more mechanization Figure 5-3, although some dairies use larger herring-
to achieve higher throughput affects a smaller bones.
percentage of the total time required for milking. In Herringbone stalls are adaptable to mechanization.
other words, smaller dairies benefit less from added The walking distance between udders varies from 36
investments in larger parlors and mechanization than to 45 inches depending on the manufacturer.
do those with more cows. Also, the annual costs of Cow movement improves when cows are handled
buildings and equipment have to be borne by fewer in groups compared with being handled individually
cows. in side-opening and rotary parlors. A slow-milking
cow, holding up an entire group, can seriously affect
Parlor Types cow throughput in larger herringbones. Slow-milking
When choosing a parlor type, evaluate the cows may be culled or may be segregated in a group
investments in a milking parlor in terms of benefits by themselves.
and cost per cow. While initial investment and annual
cost are important to parlor selection, the least-cost Parallel
parlor system may not always be the best alternative Parallel parlors, Figure 5-4, range in size from
when available labor, milking time, and expansion double-6 to double-50. Cows stand parallel at a 90
potential are considered. degree angle to the operator’s pit, requiring the
operator to attach teat cups from the rear by reaching
Flat-barn between the hind legs. Some designs have cows
Flat-barn parlors with 6 to 16 stalls have been used physically separated from each other by dividers
as an alternative to more expensive elevated parlors, activated as individual cows enter. Walking distance
Figure 5-1. A flat-barn parlor can serve well until an between cows is 27 to 30 inches.
elevated parlor can be afforded.
When making the transition from a tie stall to a Swing Parlor
freestall system, consider converting a section of the Swing parlor designs are an attempt to minimize
stanchion or tie stall facility to a flat-barn parlor for the investment in a parlor. Purchased herringbone or
milking only. Install lever-lock stanchions or walk- parallel stalls or home built stalls are used for the cow
through stanchions and a proper pipeline milking platform. A high line milking system is installed over
system. Automatic take-off units improve throughput the operator area. One milking unit is used on two
labor efficiency and reduce work effort. Adapt a stalls and is swung from one side of the parlor to the
portion of the barn for a holding area, and use the other side.
flat-barn arrangement much like an elevated parlor.
Moving cows through the flatbarn as a stall becomes Rotary Parlor
available gives higher throughput than moving cows Rotary parlors—tandem, herringbone, turnstile—
in groups. have received some attention. Rotary parlors have up
to 80 stalls on a rotating platform. The large number
of stalls is necessary to achieve reasonable through-
49
put rates with high-yielding cows. Cows usually Chapter 5
stand radially facing the center. Rotary parlors Milking Center
promote a regimented, assembly-line-like work
routine. But this may result in less desirable working
conditions. Operators of a rotary must meet frequent
deadlines in order to maintain the pace set by the
rotating platform. If the pace is too fast and the
Figure 5-1. Flat-barn parlor. operator falls behind, elements of the work routine
Cows move to the milking unit rather than the must be skipped or platform rotation must be
milking unit moving to the cow.
interrupted. Also, a full pre-milking udder prepara-
tion routine will suffer in a rotary parlor because of
the natural tendency of the operator to attach the
milking machine to the cow soon after she enters. In
fact, since current rates of rotation are often less than
15 seconds per stall, a single operator cannot both
prepare the udder and attach the milking machine.
More than one person is required to prep and install
units. Extra people will be required. Platform rotation
is often interrupted because of balking cows at the
entrance, milking not being completed as cows arrive
at the exit, operators falling behind in their work
routine due to machines dropping off or other
Figure 5-2. Double-2 side-opening parlor. malfunctions, and other delays. Actual throughput in
rotary parlors is about 80% of the calculated theoreti-
cal throughput.
Parlor Layout
A straight entrance from the holding pen into the
milking parlor and a straight exit from the parlor are
preferred for good cow flow. Turns at the entrance can
slow cow movement, interrupting the operator. When
cows must be turned, make the turn at the exit rather
than at the entrance. Avoid steps or ramps at the
parlor entrance.
Provide return lanes from the parlor to the housing
Figure 5-4. A parallel parlor. unit. A single return lane is common—one group of
cows crosses over the front of the parlor to exit.
50 28, approx
Return lanes outside the building should be wide
d-4
Chapter 5 enough to scrape with a tractor. Make clear openings
Milking Center of the inside lanes 33 to 36 inches wide to prevent
exiting cows from turning around. Lanes can be MilkRoom Operator Pit
44,approx
cow can be easily removed. Allow for sorting and Restroom Return
catching cows for treatment from the return lane. 34"clear
Storage
Figures 5-5 and 5-6 show some examples of milking or 5 to8
44,approx
With a rapid-exit herringbone or parallel parlor, Return
cow exits usually lead to return lanes along both MilkRoom UtilityRoom 34" clear
or 5 8
sides of the holding area (Figure 5-6). Thus, any
provisions for sorting cows must be duplicated on
Office Rest-
both sides. 7x11', approx room Storage 8 OverheadDoor
Because of the two return lanes, rapid exit is not 42, approx
desirable where sorting, handling, and treatment are
incorporated into the milking center. A single return
d-6 d-8
lane from the herringbone parlor permits sorting cows
into a catch lane with a sorting gate controlled from
OperatorPit
the pit and allows the cow to be held or moved into a
pen having self-locking stanchions. With gates to
44,approx
42, approx
Parlor Mechanization
Milking parlor mechanization depends on parlor 42 , approx
size, available labor, initial investment, and personal 35 , approx
preference. Increase parlor size as mechanization is 28 , approx
d-4 d-6 d-8
added to better use labor and equipment. Automatic
detachers are usually standard equipment in large
parlors. Other mechanization to consider includes crowd OperatorPit
gates, cow I.D., sorting gates, and power-operated 28,approx
44, approx
Milk UtilityRoom
Holding Area Room
Rest- Storage
room 8 OverheadDoor
The holding area confines cows prior to their
entering the milking parlor. Usually this area is 42, approx
40 , approximately
Equipment
and
Operator Pit
Storage
Storage Restroom
Office
54 , approximately
61 , approximately
74 , approximately
Summer Winter
Heat Heat
Out In
Insulated
Doors or
Louvers
Winter Heat In
Milkhouse or Utility Milkhouse or Utility
Insulated
Milking Parlor Overhead Door Insulated
Milking Parlor Overhead Door
R R
Underfloor Ducts
R
Radiator
R
Downdraft
R
Furnace Milk Room Water Hot Water
Heater Storage
Milk Room Utility Room
Utility Room
Rest-
Office Storage room Office Storage Rest-
room
R R R
8' Overhead Door
Outside Air Intake 8 Overhead Door
(Located Above Door)
Figure 5-12. Parlor forced-air central-heating system. Figure 5-13. Hot water central-heating system.
Heat also directed to office, storage, and restroom.
each room. Use a water heater or a boiler for supple- the parlor. A timer should operate until the floor is
mental heat when needed. Local regulations may not dry before shutting off the fan.
55
allow this system if the same heat exchanger is used Chapter 5
in preheating the washwater. Summer Ventilation and Cooling Milking Center
Regardless of the methods of using the waste heat The preferred option for summer ventilation is a
in winter, provide a thermostatically controlled positive pressure system. Provide 1,000 cfm per cow
exhaust fan that turns on at a preselected temperature. occupying the space at 1/8-inch static pressure for
Select a fan to provide one air exchange per minute minimum summer ventilation. An alternative design is
from the utility room. Provide 1 square foot of air to provide 6 to 9 room air changes per minute. A fan
inlet area for each 600 cfm of fan capacity. Cover the and duct system is an option that has been used
air inlets with gravity or motorized louvers that open successfully in milking parlors, Figure 5-14. Locate
when the fan turns on. Locate the inlet so the air from the fan in the gable end, and duct the air to the parlor.
the inlet is not drawn out of the room immediately by Provide 1 square foot of cross-sectional area of duct for
the exhaust fan (a conditon known as shortcircuiting). each 1,000-cfm fan capacity. Use two or more open-
ings to the parlor. Provide a total net discharge area
Holding Area Environment that is 30% less than the duct cross-sectional area.
The ventilating system for the holding area must Increasing air movement in the pit area provides
remove animal moisture and heat. With natural additional summer operator comfort. Ceiling fans
ventilation, provide an open ridge and open eaves mounted to move air down across the operator or fans
for winter moisture removal. Open sidewalls fully in to blow air through the pit area are an alternative.
summer; cover with sidewall curtains or fabric in
winter. With a mechanical ventilating system, base fan Winter Ventilation and Heating
capacity on the animal holding capacity and recom- Ventilate the parlor for operator comfort and
mended ventilating rates. See Chapter 7, Building moisture removal. Winter ventilation can be designed
Environment, for information on ventilation system as a negative pressure system if doors remain closed
design. Install proper air inlets and controls. Consider most of the time. Use exhaust fans to remove heat and
positive pressure where mechanical ventilation is used. moisture given off by cows, and use circulating fans
This avoids drawing contaminated air from the barn for air movement in the operator pit and heaters.
when holding areas are attached to the barn. Also, Provide an exhaust fan capacity of 100 cfm per cow
avoid moving air from the holding area into the occupying the space at 1/8 inch static pressure for
milking parlor area. Pay particular attention to the air minimum winter ventilation. An alternative design is
conditions during hot humid weather. Extra fans and/ to provide 0.1 to 0.15 room air changes per minute.
or sprinklers may be required to keep high producing Locate the exhaust fans on the leeward side of the
cows from overheating. parlor, and exhaust directly outdoors, away from any
milk room, holding area, or office air intakes. Provide
Treatment Area Environment 1/2- or 3/4-inch mesh screened air inlets with a total
When the treatment area is adjacent to the holding net area of 1 square foot for each 400-cfm of fan
area, use the holding area’s ventilating system. When capacity. Locate the air intakes to ensure air move-
the treatment area is a separate room, provide a separate ment through the entire parlor area. Use heaters to
mechanical or natural ventilating system. Design the maintain room temperature.
system to accommodate varying animal densities. Supplemental heating is affected by building
Consider supplemental heat (individual space location, insulation and operator preference. In most
heater or central heating system) when water freezing cases in a well insulated parlor, cows will produce
or worker comfort are concerns. enough heat during the milking period to maintain
desired inside temperature above freezing. Use
Milking Parlor Environment supplemental heat during milking on the coldest
Because the milking parlor and seasonal condi- days. When not milking, proper insulation is impor-
tions vary, the milking parlor requires a very versatile tant for efficient use of supplemental heat. Use
ventilation system. Consider using fans with an radiant, floor, unit space, or central heat to heat the
interval timer and manual switch in parallel for parlor. Use radiant heaters for warming the operator
greater flexibility. During summer, use the manual without heating the air. Hang heaters from the ceiling
switch for continuous operation during milking and and direct them toward the cow’s udder and the
cleanup. During winter, use a timer to provide milker’s hands. Additional heaters can be installed
ventilation after milking and wash down to dry out over other work areas.
56
Chapter 5
Milking Center
When possible, use heat removed from the milk to The most common milking system is the pipeline
heat the milking center. A central forced air or hot system. With a pipeline system, milk flows through a
water heating system can allow for this option. Install milker claw into a stainless steel pipeline and travels
underfloor ducts to the milker’s pit at 8 inches above by gravity through the pipeline to the milk receiver
the pit floor with the hot air directed toward the floor. from which it is pumped into the bulk tank.
Use insulated plastic or clay bell tile 8 to 12 inches The location of milk and vacuum lines can be
in diameter for the ducts. Locate cold air returns high either high or low. A high line is usually more than
on the wall to provide an airflow path back to the 4 feet above the cow platform, and a low line is below
furnace. Size the cold air return area larger than the or at the cow platform. Low milk lines are preferred
warm air discharge area. Do not use the air from this so milk flows down to the pipeline requiring a lower
system to heat the milkroom, office, or lounge area. vacuum level (11 to 13 inches Hg). With a high line,
the milk must be lifted to the milk line requiring a
high vacuum level (13 to 15 inches Hg). Low lines
Milking Equipment reduce vacuum fluctuations that can cause damage to
A milking system includes all equipment to the teats and udders.
collect, cool, and store milk. Milk quality cannot be Install milk lines in a complete loop with a double
improved, but can be maintained with properly inlet at the receiver to reduce vacuum fluctuations.
functioning milking equipment. Malfunctioning Install vacuum and pulsation lines in a complete loop
equipment can reduce milk harvest, cause mastitis, with both ends attached to the distribution tank.
and diminish milk quality. Slope milk lines according to Table 5-2. Milk line
slopes of less than 0.8% (1 inch per 10 feet) increase Table 5-2. Maximum number of units per slope for
the risk of milk line flooding and vacuum fluctua- milklines with LIMITED AIR admission. 57
Looped milklines. Guidelines based on a mean milking rate
tions. Check with the milk inspector before installing of 12 lbs per minute per cow. Steady air admission of 0.35 Chapter 5
any milking equipment. to 0.70 cfm per unit through claw air vents and air leaks. Milking Center
Consult milking equipment dealers or manufactur- Transient air admission of 3.5 cfm per milkline slope. Pipe
fittings do not substantially reduce the cross-sectional area
ers, state extension engineers, veterinarians, or of the milkline. Designs assume that units are attached
consulting engineers for more details on selecting, simultaneously by an operator using CAREFUL attachment
installing, and operating the milking system equip- procedures. Based on ASAE S518.2 JUL96.
ment. See Milking Machine Installations–Construc- Milk diameter Milkline Slope
tion and Performance, ASAE S518.2 JUL 96, for (inches) 0.8% 1.0% 1.2% 1.5% 2.0%
minimum system design requirements. 2.0 2 3 3 4 5
2.5 6 6 7 9 10
Vacuum Pump Sizing 3.0 11 13 14 16 19
Size vacuum pumps to have adequate capacity to 4.0 27 30 34 38 45
meet the operating requirements for milking and
cleaning, including all ancillary equipment operating
during milking. In addition, there must be enough Table 5-3. Maximum number of units per slope for
parlor milklines admitting EXCESSIVE AIR.
vacuum pump capacity to provide sufficient effective
Looped milklines. Guidelines based on a mean milking rate
reserve capacity so that the vacuum drop in or near of 12 lbs per minute per cow. Steady air admission of 0.35
the receiver does not exceed 0.6 inches Hg during the to 0.70 cfm per unit through claw air vents and air leaks.
Transient air admission of 7 cfm per milkline slope. Pipe
course of normal milking. In most conventional
fittings do not substantially reduce the cross-sectional area
milking systems this will be achieved with a vacuum of the milkline. Designs assume that units are attached
pump capacity of 35 cfm plus 3 cfm per milking unit. simultaneously by an operator using TYPICAL attachment
Some systems may be fitted with components such procedures. Based on ASAE S518.2 JUL96.
as air lubricated regulators, and air sweeps on some Milk diameter Milkline Slope
(inches) 0.8% 1.0% 1.2% 1.5% 2.0%
backflush systems, that require greater pump
2.0 1 1 2 2 3
capacity.
2.5 4 4 5 6 8
If more than one vacuum pump is installed, the
system must be able to isolate the pumps not in use. 3.0 9 10 12 13 16
4.0 24 27 31 36 41
Milkline Sizing
Milklines should be designed so the milk flows in Some milk cooling devices are the following:
the lower part of the milkline and air flows in a clear ■ Conventional compressor/condenser bulk tank
continuous path above the milk under normal cooler. Size compressors according to the milk
milking conditions. A vacuum drop of more than flow per hour entering the tank.
0.6 inches Hg from the receiver to any point in the ■ Combination of heat exchanger and bulk tank
milkline is an indication of slugging in the milkline. cooler. Plate coolers and tube coolers are
Slugging is caused by sudden air admission to the between the receiver jar and the bulk tank. Well
milkline during unit attachment or detachment, or water runs countercurrent to milk flow through
by unit falloffs. Using the design guidelines in the heat exchanger. Milk temperature decrease
Tables 5-2 and 5-3 should achieve this requirement depends on heat exchanger surface area, water
in most conventional milking systems. temperature, and water and milk flowrates. A
bulk tank cooler completes the cooling process.
Milk Cooling ■ Heat exchanger plus ice bank. Well water
To maintain milk quality, cool milk from the first circulates through one heat exchanger, and ice
milking to 40 F or less within 30 minutes. Keep the water is circulated through another heat
blend temperature on subsequent milkings below exchanger to finish the cooling process. Milk is
50 F. The maximum blend temperature permitted by stored in an unrefrigerated tank truck, or milk
Federal and State agencies is 50 F. Store milk at 36 to enters the bulk tank at about 36 F. The bulk
38 F. Regularly verify the bulk tank thermometer is tank maintains milk temperature and does not
registering the correct temperature. Storage tempera- cool the milk.
tures less than 35 F will lower fat tests and cause
rancid flavor due to freezing of a thin layer of milk Plate and tube precoolers usually are installed
on the cooling plate. between the milk pump and refrigeration system.
Milk and water pass through the precooler simulta- 110 F for sanitize, pre-rinse, and acid rinse cycles,
58
neously, with heat being transferred to the cooler and 120 F to 160 F for the detergent wash cycle. Two
Chapter 5 water from the warmer milk. Because milk is cooler separate water heaters are recommended. Water
Milking Center upon entering the bulk tank, milk cooling costs may heaters should provide water at temperatures 10 F to
be reduced by 20 to 60%. To maximize the benefit of 20 F warmer than is required by each cycle. Insulate
a precooler for energy savings, utilize the warmed all hot water pipes with preformed insulation.
water to the fullest extent (e.g. to partially supply the Pipe hot and cold water to all wash and rinse vats
cow waterer system). Consult the precooler and sinks in the milk room. Provide a mixing faucet
manufacturer’s literature for optimum water-to-milk with a hose and nozzle for cleaning the bulk tank,
flow ratio, and design the system to reuse this water floor, and walls. Dispense acidified water and/or
accordingly. sanitizer through this hose and nozzle to improve
sanitation and milk quality.
Milk Heat Recovery For some installations, an insulated and covered
Heat recovery equipment is practical for almost all wash vat is required to help maintain water tempera-
dairies. Potential cost savings derive from two ture, especially during cold weather.
sources: Check local regulations when designing the water
1. Using heat recovered from milk to offset energy supply system. A tendency is to size too small.
costs for heating water. Carefully evaluate hot water requirements. The water
2. Reducing energy for operating mechanical heater needs to be sized to wash equipment, pipe-
refrigeration systems that cool milk. lines, and any other equipment requiring hot water.
Use a water softener to protect the water heater and to
To maximize the benefits of heat recovery reduce cleaning chemical cost where minerals cause
equipment, do the following: hardness. See Chapter 10, Utilities, for additional
■ Determine the hot water and space heating information on water requirements.
needs of a particular milking center.
■ Select appropriate equipment to maximize
sanitize udders. For clean-in-place milking equip- ■ Resistant to cleaning detergents, acids and
Floors
Concrete floors are durable, cleanable, waterproof,
and safe. A compressive strength of at least 4,000 psi
is necessary for the milking center floor. High quality
concrete is more resistant to deterioration from milk
and cleaning compounds. When placing concrete, do
not overwork the surface. Embedding a piece of slate
or tile under milking equipment and bulk tank drains Figure 5-15. Deep-water-seal trap drain.
can reduce chemical damage. (Plastic pipes or
stainless drains can solve this problem) Embed a
black tile in the floor of each milking parlor stall to
check foremilk for clinical mastitis.
Where a non-skid surface is needed for cow and
human traffic, trowel carborundum or aluminum oxide
chips (1 pound per 4 square feet) into the surface. A
stiff broom finish is a common alternative. Groove the
concrete in the holding areas and return lanes.
Install curbs at doorways to prevent water from
flowing between rooms. Use preformed stainless or a. Two-slope floor to b. Two-slope floor
galvanized steel curbing on the cow platform to wall gutter. to center gutter.
reduce splashing.
If frozen manure is a concern in the holding area or Figure 5-16. Milk room floor slopes.
return lanes, consider installing hot water floor heat. Slope floors a minimum of 2% (1/4"/ft).
The amount of solids the waste disposal system
60
can handle affects the design of the cow platform
Chapter 5 drainage system. A flat floor without gutters is easier Gutter
Lighting
Milking center lighting requirements vary
depending on the task carried out. Recommended
illumination levels, in Table 10-4, range from 50
footcandles (fc) in the operator pit of the milking Overhead
parlor and in office areas to 10 fc in storage rooms. Gutter Gutter Door
Stray Voltage
2% Slope, ¼"/ft
Stray voltage is a voltage difference between two Restroom
Treatment
contact voltages should be kept below 1 volt, a level Key:
Run line to pit floor drain channel.
Covered Drain
which has been shown to cause no harm to dairy Open Drain Milk can be seen if bulk tank valve is
left open during milking.
cows. When stray voltage problems occur, a thorough
investigation using proper equipment will locate the
Figure 5-18. Milking center drainage system.
sources and allow the problem to be corrected. If a
stray voltage problem is suspected, contact the local
power supplier and a licensed electrician who is
familiar with wiring for livestock facilities. ■ Reluctance to enter the parlor.
■ Reluctance to use waterers.
Symptoms of Stray Voltages ■ Reluctance to consume feed.
Small shocks or tingles associated with detectable ■ Poor milk letdown.
high cow-contact voltages can result in animals
altering their behavior. These voltages are generally These changes in animal behavior also can occur
not large enough to directly harm the animal. Some due to problems with milking equipment, changes in
of the changes in animal behavior are: milking routine, spoilage of feed, or pollution of
■ Nervousness during milking. drinking water. Therefore, investigate all potential
61
Chapter 5
Milking Center
sources of behavioral changes. If dangerous levels of Equipotential Plane and Voltage Ramp
voltage are present, then a safety problem exists; In new milking parlors and/or holding areas,
contact a licensed electrician to correct the problem install an equipotential plane and voltage ramp,
immediately. Figure 5-20. A properly installed equipotential plane
maintains all floor surfaces and parlor equipment at
Causes of Stray Voltage the same voltage. As a result, no voltage difference
Stray voltage may occur from on-farm and off-farm can occur across cow-contact points. A properly
sources. Off-farm stray voltage sources can be dealt installed equipotential plane provides the greatest
with by the electric utility. Off-farm sources of stray insurance against future stray voltage problems in
voltage can be created by these conditions: new milking centers. An equipotential plane and
■ Voltage on the primary neutral. voltage ramp can be installed in an existing milking
■ A ground-fault at a neighbor’s electrical system. center, but at great expense. Equipotential planes are
■ Problems with the off-farm electrical distribu- not needed in freestall barns because freestall barns
tion system. are not wired to the extent of milking parlors. Check
with an extension engineer to determine the local
Common on-farm sources of stray voltage on dairy requirements for installing equipotential planes.
farms include the following: Use the following procedure to construct an
■ Ground-faults. equipotential plane in the parlor and/or holding area.
■ Equipment ground used as a circuit neutral or a ■ Use 6x6, 10-ga welded-wire mesh, or weld
circuit neutral used as an equipment ground. together #3 reinforcing steel bars in a grid
■ Large voltage drop on the secondary neutral. pattern, 15 inches on center. Where fibre mesh
■ Electric fencer or cow trainer wires short- concrete is used, lay #4 copper wire spaced
circuiting to or inducing a voltage in pipes and 18 inches on-center on the compacted base
equipment. before placing the concrete. Bond all metal
structures together and to this copper wire.
All of these sources of stray voltage can be Connect this system to the electrical grounding
corrected. Finding and correcting sources of stray system for the building.
voltage requires complete investigation by qualified ■ Weld all parlor equipment supports to the
Note:
Install voltage ramps in parlor entrance and exit.
45o
ne
Pla 6x6, 10 ga Welded-wire Mesh a
ntial
te
ipo
Equ
p
am Locate in the center of the slab
ageR
t
Vol
#3 Bar
12"
B uildings and equipment serve as tools for carrying out essential management tasks.
Well-planned facilities with proper handling, restraint, and treatment facilities
make it possible to implement a management program. Regardless of herd size or
housing type, properly designed facilities promote calf, heifer, and cow care.
A complete handling, restraint, and treatment management plan includes areas
for the following:
§ Observation. § Maternity.
§ Separation. § Loading/receiving.
§ Treatment.
Herd size, expected treatment types, and handling frequency determine needed
facilities. Provide handling and treatment facilities for each group of animals. When
planning new facilities or evaluating existing ones, plan for and consider the
following features.
§ Areas that are easy to clean
§ The ability for one person to easily and maintain.
observe and move a single cow or § Suitable heat and ventilation.
group of cows. § Good lighting.
§ Animal handling lanes that § The ability to separate or discard
promote smooth cow traffic flow non-salable milk.
with maximum safety for handlers § Parking space for a veterinarian’s
and cattle. truck, possibly inside.
§ Restraint facilities for medical § Convenient feeding and
examinations, treatment, artificial bedding.
insemination, calving, and routine § Access to assist down cows
hoof trimming. when necessary.
§ Access to water, medical supplies,
and records.
Handling and Observation Groups calving cycle is the animal separated and handled
Develop a management plan based on separate differently. Cows that may require separate manage-
handling and observation areas. Management groups ment groups can include:
are typically based on the opportunity to house and § Close-up cows (2-3 weeks prepartum).
view animals as a group because of similar character- § Maternity (calving).
istics and needs. These cows are usually housed, fed, § Freshened cows (0-7 days postpartum).
and handled as a group. Only when an animal § Cows recently dried off.
becomes an exception due to illness, injury, or § Ill or injured cows.
65
Close-up cows require a clean, dry environment. be driven along familiar resting or feeding alleys that
66
Feeding facilities should allow for preparing cows for open into sorting or treatment pens. Proper gate
Chapter 6 the high energy ration they will receive upon location can block a cross alley and direct cows into
Special Handling entering the milking herd. Freestall housing close to treatment pens. Position gates to gradually funnel
and Treatment the maternity area allows frequent observation. cows toward the opening. Attempting to direct a cow
Facilities Locate maternity pens away from other animals, through an open gate along a sidewall or feeding
especially young calves, and sick cows to minimize fence can be difficult.
the spread of disease. Use individual maternity pens Fenceline (headlock) stanchions, Figure 6-6, can
for calving to provide individual attention to and be used for separating individual animals or groups
observation of cows during calving. Keep pens clean, of animals from the larger group. The necessary
dry, and well-bedded. Feed and water may be needed provision is that the array of stanchions be furnished
in maternity pens. with individual cow release mechanisms.
Freshened cows need frequent observation before Provide separate pens for maternity and treatment
being moved into the milking herd. Freestalls or a to reduce disease transmission. Recommended
large well-bedded pen can be provided for this group. maternity and treatment pen size is at least 12 x 12
For a large herd, a separate hospital/maternity barn, feet. Large pens provide more room to assist calving
possibly equipped with a pipeline or portable milker, and are easier to keep clean and dry. Depending on
could be provided, Chapter 4. Monitor individual the farm and management situation, provide up to
feed intake and milk production to determine five calving pens for every 100 cows. On farms where
whether or not each cow is progressing normally. the management plan calls for a cow to be moved to
Cows recently dried off also require special attention. the calving pen when calving is imminent, only two
Separate these cows from the milking herd for feeding. pens per 100 cows may be necessary.
Provide a freestall area or bedded-pack group pen to Provide one or more stanchions in pen sides to
observe regularly, conduct necessary medical treat- restrain cows for examination or treatment. Diagonal
ments, and monitor progress. Provide a separate area for lockup stanchions can limit access to the head and
animals with long-term illnesses or injuries. neck. Stanchion pens used for calving must allow for
adequate space behind the cow. Consider providing
at least one lifting ring centered over the pen capable
Observation of supporting a cow. A dirt floor in the pen may
In any housing system, the operator should be able enable cows to move easier.
to observe all animals easily. Dairy cattle that are Gates can be used within pens to form a funnel to
observed easily receive better and more immediate direct a reluctant cow into a stanchion or other type of
care. Common observation points include the lockup, Figure 6-1. Gates also can become part of a pen
milking center, feeding fences, exercise lots, resting area for breeding or rectal examination. Use sturdy, well
areas, and calving areas. House animals needing more constructed gates. Gates that are too weak or improperly
regular observation in areas where they can be sized can break and cause injury to animals and
checked conveniently. A drive-through freestall barn operators. Use gates that have no more than 10 inches
with a center alley allows more regular observation between rails and that are at least 66 inches high to
than a converted, loose-housing dry lot system. discourage jumping. Hang them 16 to 18 inches from
the ground so animals will not crawl under them.
Separation
Plan handling facilities to provide for separation Treatment Areas
of an entire group or an individual animal. Animals Provide a treatment area for confining cows for
housed in dry lots, freestalls, corrals, or pastures can artificial insemination, postpartum examination,
present a difficult separation challenge. The milking pregnancy diagnosis, sick cow examination, and
center provides a convenient place to separate surgery. Sorting, handling, restraint, and treatment
animals housed in loose or freestall housing. An area can be incorporated into an existing or remodeled
alongside the holding area can provide a convenient barn without difficulty, Figure 6-2. Use a crowding
place to sort and separate animals for medical pen to direct cows toward a headgate. Provide a
examination and treatment. Allow easy access for blocking gate in the animal handling lane to keep
feeding and manure removal. other animals away from the operator working behind
Separation also can be achieved along feeding a restrained animal. Provide a storage cabinet and
areas. Using a feeding alley with gates allows cows to table for veterinary supplies.
Treatment Stall risk of choking if the cow goes down. Use a sturdy
A single stall can be used for treatment, Figure 6-3. ring in the wall in front of the stall for further
67
Locate the stall so there is access to both sides of the restraint. Provide three rings in the ceiling over the Chapter 6
cow during examination. An existing stall barn can centerline of the stall for lifting points. Locate one Special Handling
be converted to a treatment area during the transition lifting point above the cow’s shoulders, another and Treatment
to freestall or loose housing. A separate handling above the tailhead, and a third 4 to 6 feet behind the Facilities
facility for easier restraint, examination, treatment, cow. The lift rings and the ceiling must be strong
and surgery can be added later. enough to support the cow’s weight. In barns with
Restrain the cow’s head with a swing stanchion gutters, place a removable, 6-foot long cover over the
that can lock into position with a removable bar. gutter behind the stall. Partitions help prevent the
Position the bar above the cow’s head to reduce the cow from moving sideways.
Figure 6-2. Handling and treatment area Figure 6-3. Treatment stall.
in a barn corner.
Crowd pen, headgate, treatment pens and supply storage
located in the corner of existing or remodeled barn.
68
Chapter 6
Special Handling
and Treatment
Facilities
c. Treatment pen.
Equip with self-locking stanchion and gates
to restrain cow.
Foot Bath
Return Lane
Catch Lane
Vet Room
Observation Treatment 12'x12' Treatment Pens
Window Alley
Waterer
Stanchions
Figure 6-5. Milking center treatment area with treatment stall and headgate.
is used primarily for the lactating herd or cows § Place a hydrant and adequate storage for
70
exiting the milking parlor, this area can be used for ingredients nearby.
Chapter 6 replacement animals and dry cows. § Make provisions to contain the material emptied
Special Handling Milking parlor type affects decisions when from a footbath. A good plan is to discharge to
and Treatment planning and incorporating sorting, handling, and the manure storage facility.
Facilities treatment into the milking center. A single return lane
from the milking parlor permits sorting cows into a Fenceline (Headlock) Stanchions
catch lane using a sorting gate controlled from the Headlock stanchions provide another option for
pit. Cows to be treated are moved into a treatment handling and treatment. Headlock stanchions can be
pen with self-locking stanchions. used along a feed manger to restrain animals for
Automatic sorting gates used in combination with examination or treatment. Headlock stanchions also
a cow identification system can be used to separate provide a convenient method for restraining and
cows. Careful planning will help ensure ample pens examining cows in dry lots or pastures.
and other facilities for handling and treating sorted In group housing, fenceline stanchions along a
groups of cows. feed manger can restrain animals for heat detection,
With a rapid-exit parlor, cow exits lead to return lanes breeding, and pregnancy-checking. Fenceline
along both sides of the holding area. Provisions for stanchions near pastures and other feeding areas
sorting cows must be duplicated on both sides of the provide convenient access to animals. A lever
holding area. Some rapid exit parlors are constructed mechanism opens or closes all stanchions simulta-
with single return lanes for more convenient sorting. neously.
Handling and treatment areas are needed on each side of Desirable features of fenceline stanchions include:
the holding area and may not be feasible or practical. § Individual or group cow release.
Sorting and handling after the animals reconverge at the § Self-locking mechanism as a cow lowers her
rear of the holding area is an option. A separate han- head after entering.
dling facility may be more effective for meeting cattle § A quick release for downed cows.
sorting, restraint, and treatment requirements. § A method to lock animals away from feed.
§ A method to lock out animals when not in use.
Footbaths
Many dairy producers use footbaths to help For mature cows, place stanchions at least 2 feet
maintain healthy feet and to treat problems such as on center. Provide at least the same number of
foot rot and hairy or strawberry warts. The most stanchions as cows in the group.
appropriate treatment product will depend on the
problems in the herd. Producers need to check with Separate Handling Facility
their veterinarians for the preferred product and On dairies where milking occupies most working
mixing instructions. hours, a separate veterinary facility may be desirable,
To be effective, the treatment solution must be Figure 6-7. A separate facility allows greater
kept clean. One way to help ensure cleanliness is to efficiency.
have two footbaths in a series. The first contains only
water to clean the cows’ feet; the water in this bath
needs to be changed frequently. The second footbath
contains the treatment solution.
Portable and permanent footbaths have been used
successfully. Typically footbaths are 6 to 8 feet long
and 6 to 8 inches deep. Usually they are the same
width as the alley in which they are installed.
Following are other suggestions for footbath use:
§ Locate them where all cows must walk through
them, for example, in a return/exit lane from the
milking parlor.
§ Construct them of durable materials such as
concrete, plastic, fiberglass, or treated wood.
§ Make them so they are easily cleanable. For
example, install a 2-inch drain in the corner of
permanently installed units. Figure 6-6. Fenceline stanchion.
12 -6“ 48 71
Chapter 6
Special Handling
and Treatment
Facilities
Restraint
Stalls
Headgate
Holding Area
32
Hoof Trimming Mobile Veterinary
Table Unit Area
Lead-up Blocking
Alley Gate
Blocking Gate
Loading Chute
Facilities
Stanchion
Small Group
Alley
Alley
Feed Manger
Loading Chutes
Well-designed animal loading facilities reduce
loading time and the likelihood of injury to cattle
and operator. Required ramp dimensions are deter-
mined by the transport equipment popular in the area.
Low-bed trailers, less than 12 inches from the ground,
require only a drive-in alley and side gates to funnel
the cows.
Provide a chute with solid sides for receiving and
shipping cows. Provide a holding pen to hold cows
before loading. Provide steps or cleats on the chute
floor so the cows do not slip.
Unloading large numbers of animals is easier with
wide docks. Some trucks may require wide platforms
because of wide, built-in unloading ramps. Include
combination swinging and telescoping gates to close
Figure 6-9. Commercial headgate. off areas between permanent loading dock sides and a
truck. Solid sides 5 to 6 feet high prevent distraction
of animals.
Provide a catwalk on one side of the ramp for the
operator. A catwalk can be a 20-degree incline with
grooves or steps 1 foot wide and 3 to 4 inches high to
reduce the chance of slipping or falling.
Safety
Safety passes are similar to personnel passes,
Figure 4-16. Safety passes typically provide 12 to 14
inches of clear space for people to pass through.
Provide at least one safety pass in each pen and one
every 25 to 30 feet in animal movement and handling
alleys to allow an operator to exit quickly. Avoid
locating safety passes where animal flow is directly
73
at the pass. Excited animals may try to use the safety Personnel Pass Chapter 6
pass for an escape route and become trapped. Wider Special Handling
passes are more convenient, but require a self-closing 34'' 5' and Treatment
offset Workspace
gate or a third guard post. A 16- to 18-inch opening Facilities
between the bottom rail of the fence or gate and the
floor will allow a person the opportunity to roll away 4'
from an aggressive animal.
A separate alley for people allows movement
4'
through facilities without animal contact. 2.5 ft per cow, up to 30 ft total length
a. Plan view.
Herringbone Palpation Facility
A herringbone palpation facility is a simple,
inexpensive way to handle cows in groups and is
easy to construct, Figure 6-10. The palpation facility
provides the worker with a comfortable, safe environ-
ment, and places the group of cows at ease. The
palpation facility should be located adjacent to
animal traffic lanes between the milking center and 66'' (optional)
housing facilities. Swing gates in return alleys are
39''
24''
the most common method used to create the herring-
42''
30''
bone palpation facility. The length of the facility
18''
determines the size of the group that can be handled.
After the separated cows are checked, bred and/or
treated, they can be returned to housing facilities.
A herringbone palpation facility can also be used b. Isometric view.
in conjunction with a central workstation for record
collection and access. The record system would
provide the operator with complete health history
quickly when the cows are being examined to help
during the examination. Figure 6-10. Herringbone palpation facility.
74
Chapter 6
Special Handling
and Treatment
Facilities
Chapter 7
Building Environment
Kevin Janni, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Minnesota,
and Richard Stowell, Extension Ag Engineer, The Ohio State University
D airy animals need a clean, dry environment with plenty of fresh air. They
perform very well over a range of temperatures. Cool temperatures that are
comfortable to dairy cows may not be as comfortable to humans, but it is necessary
to put cow comfort first.
A ventilating system must exchange air and maintain an acceptable environment
uniformly and economically all year-round. Proper ventilation is key to providing
cows with fresh air and maintaining a dry environment.
■ Picks up heat, moisture, and air contaminants. As the ventilating system exchanges air, it brings
■ Exhausts warm, moist, contaminated air from the in oxygen to sustain life. It removes and dilutes
building, Figure 7-1. harmful dust and gases, undesirable odors, airborne
disease organisms, and moisture.
Failure to provide for any step of this process
results in inadequate ventilation, which can create an
unhealthy indoor environment. Types of Ventilating Systems
The purpose of ventilation is to provide a healthy Ventilating systems can be either natural or
environment for the animals. Ventilating system mechanical. Natural ventilation is commonly used for
design and management should be based on animal housing dairy animals in freestall barns and open
requirements. When operator comfort is considered front buildings. It relies on wind and differences
and adjustments made to the ventilating system, the between inside and outside temperature to move air
resulting environment may not be best for livestock. through the building. A mechanical ventilating
Ventilating systems affect: system uses fans to provide air exchange. Both
■ Air temperature. naturally and mechanically ventilated buildings need
■ Moisture level. properly sized openings for fresh air to enter and
exhaust air to exit. Ventilating system control can be
accomplished either automatically or manually.
Mechanical ventilating systems almost always use
thermostatic control while natural ventilating
Moisture Gases
systems are commonly adjusted manually.
Mixing
Fresh
Air
Stale
Air
Ventilating Dairy Facilities
In Out
Dairy animals perform very well over a wide range
Dust Pathogens Heat
of air temperatures. In cold weather it is important to
provide plenty of fresh air without drafts and avoid
high humidities and condensation or frost formation.
Figure 7-1. A basic ventilating process. In hot weather it is important to provide shade and
75
plenty of fresh air, and to avoid excessive tempera- move air through the building. Naturally ventilated
76
tures that lead to heat stress. Supplemental cooling buildings are best ventilated with a continuous ridge
Chapter 7 can be used to minimize the effects of hot weather. opening, large continuous sidewall openings, a
Building Dairy animals can be housed in buildings in which smooth roof underside, continuous eave openings,
Environment there is no temperature regulation. The indoor and a roof slope with a pitch of 4/12 to 6/12.
temperature is about the same as the outside tempera- Wind blowing across the open ridge and through
ture all year. These buildings are usually uninsulated sidewall and endwall openings and indoor/outdoor
and naturally ventilated with curtain sidewalls. The temperature differences move air through the
building protects the animals and their resting area building to provide the air exchange. Fresh air enters
from cold winds, rain, and snow in inclement weather through eave or sidewall openings, Figure 7-2. Heat,
and provides shade in hot sunny weather. When kept moisture, and contaminant-laden air exits through the
dry, adequately ventilated, and properly fed, dairy open ridge and down wind sidewall opening. Some
animals do very well in these barns. Proper equipment ventilation occurs even on calm days because warm,
selection and management minimize the inconve- moist air rises, causing a chimney effect. Large,
niences associated with freezing weather. Cooling adjustable or full sidewall openings allow increased
systems can be included and used during hot weather. air movement due to wind in summer. Continuous
Uninsulated barns will have problems with openings help provide good fresh air distribution.
condensation and frost formation in cold climates
where wintertime outdoor temperatures drop below Location and Siting
zero for extended periods of time, and managers want Building location is critical for natural ventilation
to keep indoor temperatures above 10 F to minimize to work well. Locate buildings on high ground, where
problems with frozen manure. Uninsulated barns in trees or structures do not disturb airflow around or
such cold climates cannot provide both adequate air through the building.
exchange to remove moisture given off by the Trees, silos, tall growing crops, and other struc-
animals and keep the indoor temperature raised tures disrupt airflow for a distance of 5 to 10 times
enough to prevent manure from freezing without their height downwind. Locate naturally ventilated
adding supplemental heat. Installing insulation under buildings at least 75 feet (in any direction) from such
the roof or an insulated sloped ceiling with a con- obstructions. See Table 7-1. As a rule, greater
tinuous open ridge can reduce condensation and frost
formation. Attic or ceiling insulation does not reduce
the need for air exchange. Adequate air exchange is
essential even in very cold weather to provide fresh
air and to remove airborne contaminants and mois-
ture. The insulation needs to be installed properly
and protected from damage by birds for it to be
effective. The insulation adds to the initial cost of the
building. Roof and ceiling insulation has little effect
in hot sunny weather on animal heat stress compared
to that available from supplemental evaporative
cooling system.
Dairy animals can also be housed in insulated
barns designed to be kept at 40 F or above using an
automatically controlled ventilating system and
supplemental heat. The insulation prevents conden-
sation and reduces building heat loss during cold
weather. Insulated barns require a well designed and
managed ventilation system that will include inlets,
fans and controls. Insulated barns are typically
mechanically ventilated year round.
Building Orientation
o o
Building orientation affects natural ventilating 45 -60
system performance. Orient naturally ventilated
buildings to provide maximum wind exposure, Open Ridge,
especially for summer winds. Greater and more 2"/10 of Building
uniform wind driven air exchange occurs when the Width
wind enters through the continuous sidewall or eave
opening rather than through the smaller endwall.
Cross ventilation, from side to side, is especially
important during warm weather. Orient buildings so Figure 7-3. Raised ridge cap.
prevailing summer winds are perpendicular to the
ridge openings.
In the Midwest, buildings with the long axis east-
west usually have the best summer cooling, winter
sun penetration, and winter wind control. Consider
local wind conditions and terrain when orienting
naturally ventilated buildings.
Ventilation Openings
Properly sized ridge and eave openings and large
adjustable sidewall openings are important parts of a
natural ventilating system.
Ridge Openings
Provide a ridge opening of at least 2 inches
Figure 7-4. Upstand.
(measured horizontally) for each 10 feet of building
Upstand or baffle is 1-1/2 to 2 times ridge width to help
width. For example, a 75-foot wide building would keep out wind and snow and increase chimney effect
have a 15-inch wide ridge opening. Protect exposed when the wind is blowing perpendicular to the ridge.
connection. Provide 3 inches of opening per 10 feet Eave Openings
78
of building width when designing overshot ridges. Construct continuous eave openings along both
Chapter 7 When possible, locate manure alleys or other less sides of the building. Size each opening to have at
Building critical areas under the ridge. In four- and six-row least half as much open area as the ridge opening.
Environment drive through freestall barns, the driveway is nor- Eave openings can be provided at the open spaces
mally under the open ridge. Slope the driveway so between trusses or on the underside of the roof
that precipitation drains away from the feed manger. overhang, Figure 7-6.
When the amount of precipitation coming through In severe climates, adjustable eave vents reduce
the ridge is objectionable, it is better to protect areas airflow and snow blow-in. Close eave vents only part
below the ridge than to build a cap. Cover critical way and then only during severe winter weather
components, such as a feeder motor or feeder belt, or (blizzard conditions). Open them immediately after
place an internal gutter 2 to 3 feet below the open the storm passes. Do not leave the vents closed all
ridge to collect rainwater and channel it out of the winter. A fascia can protect eave openings from direct
building, Figure 7-5. Upstands can be used to help wind gusts and reduce drafts in rest areas.
guide precipitation to the gutter.
Sidewall Height and Openings
Open buildings as fully as possible in the summer
so that the building acts as a sunshade during hot
weather. Large sidewall openings increase warm
weather cross ventilation. Make sidewalls a minimum
of 10 feet high. Use 12- to 14-foot sidewalls for drive-
through barns, high animal density, or situations
where prevailing winds are obstructed. Higher
sidewalls are sometimes needed for maneuvering
equipment and can partially offset obstructed
prevailing winds.
The sidewall opening should be at least 8 feet
high, continuous the entire length of the building.
Open sidewalls fully to provide maximum summer
ventilation. With large sidewall openings, provide a
3- to 4-foot overhang at the eave to shade and
partially shield the opening from blowing rain and
Figure 7-5. Interior trough with an open ridge. snow piles and drifts.
¾" x ¾"
Hardware Cloth Eave Vent
Fascia
Fascia
¾" x ¾"
Eave Vent, Hardware Cloth
Door Optionala
At Least ½ of
Ridge Width
3' Overhang
3 Overhang
Building Post
Removable 2x2
Fabric Curtain,
raised position
Figure 7-7. Split or two-curtain sidewall opening. Figure 7-8. Full wall curtain system.
To open sidewall, roll up fabric curtain and tie to
permanent horizontal 2x4s.
Endwalls and moisture to the building. To prevent excess
80
Endwall openings can provide additional ventila- moisture from accumulating, remove manure from
Chapter 7 tion to supplement sidewall openings in the summer. alleys more often during cold weather using an
Building Additional openings in the gables of endwalls automatic or rubber tire scraper. Scrape the barn
Environment improve summer ventilation, Figure 7-9. Provide immediately after cows are moved to the holding
removable ventilating panels, wall sections, or area, at least twice a day. In extremely cold weather,
curtain endwalls. Alley doors alone do not provide scrape in the afternoon when conditions are slightly
adequate ventilation. warmer. A heavy tractor scraper or bucket with steel
blade and down pressure helps remove frozen
Roof Slope manure. Bedded packs do not require extra manure
Roof slope affects wind flow across the open ridge management in cold weather.
and the chimney effect (warm air rising). Roof slopes Inadequate winter ventilation (air exchange) and
of 4/12 to 6/12 work very well in naturally ventilated high humidity can cause fog, condensation, or frost
dairy barns. Condensation and high interior summer to form in the building, leading to animal health
temperatures are more likely with roof slopes less problems. Eave and ridge openings must be open for
than 4/12 because of reduced air movement. Build- air exchange. Attempts to warm the building by
ings with roof slopes steeper than 6/12 have greater closing eave inlets, wall openings, or ridge openings
chimney effect but are generally not needed. Slopes with baffles increase the problem. Do not completely
of 3/12 are acceptable for open front buildings less close eave openings; leave them open at least one-
than 30 feet wide. half inch per 10 feet of building width. Eave open-
Avoid using exposed purlins that extend more ings could be closed temporarily during severe
than 4 inches below the roof line. Keep the underside storms. Attempts to raise building temperature by
of the roof smoother to enhance airflow. closing ventilation openings during cold weather
often result in a building being left closed through
Facility Management milder temperatures, which can result in poor air
Management of facilities changes as weather quality. During normal winter weather, open sidewalls
conditions change. Managing the ventilation system to provide increased air exchange as average outside
is often the key in maintaining an acceptable temperatures rise.
building environment. Poor building environment
can lead to corrosion of metals and deterioration of Hot Weather Management
wood and can decrease cow comfort and health. Hot, muggy summer weather is one of the most
critical times for animal health, comfort, and produc-
Cold Weather Management tivity. When winds are calm and there is little air
Preventing water and manure from freezing and movement, providing adequate air exchange to avoid
controlling building humidity are the main concerns heat stress is difficult. (See Supplemental Cooling).
during extended periods of cold weather. Use waterers Continuous large openings are important for good
and pipes that are heated or protected from freezing. summer ventilation. Sidewall and endwall openings
Fresh manure deposited in a cold building adds heat allow for better airflow. Summer sidewall openings
8 to 12
Operator Area Holding Pen
10 x fan diameter
Prev
ailin
g Su
Operator Area Holding Pen
mm
er W
inds
8 to 12
Avoid excessive sprinkling. Excess sprinkling can feed bunks. Consider installing a pressure regulator
increase chances of wetting the udder, feed, and to keep the water pressure within operating limits.
bedding and can increase the amount of water that Excessive pressure may produce a mist or smaller
runs off into the manure storage. droplets that do not wet the cow’s skin but cling to
Use either 180 degree (half-circle) or 360 degree the outer regions of the haircoat effectively insulat-
(full-circle) low pressure (20 to 40 psi) sprinkler ing the cow. Sprinkler systems can be automatically
nozzles that produce large droplets, which readily controlled using a thermostat and 30-minute cycle
wet the cow’s skin. A fine mist should not be used. timer in series. Sprinkler systems are usually set to
Irrigation nozzles and solid-cone coarse droplet spray turn on when air temperatures exceed 78 to 80 F. If
nozzles with flow rates between 0.2 and 0.5 gallons water is being blown onto feed then either droplet
per minute work very well. Along a feed manger, the size is too small or fans need to be repositioned.
180-degree nozzles mounted next to the bunk to
spray away from the feed bunk minimize wetting of High-pressure Misters
the feed. The 360-degree nozzles work well in High-pressure misters (sometimes called foggers)
holding areas. operate at pressures around 200 psi and are designed
Use information from a sprinkler supplier to to create very fine droplets that evaporate in the air.
determine nozzle spacing based on water pressure. As the droplets evaporate the air temperature is
Space nozzles so that the system provides a uniform reduced a few degrees. The cooler air is blown past
distribution. Size water lines adequately to provide the cows. The amount of cooling achieved depends
sufficient water flow and minimal pressure drop to on the air temperature and relative humidity and the
produce a more uniform spray, especially along long amount of evaporated water. Misting systems work
83
Chapter 7
Building
Environment
3’
3’ to 4”
Clearance Height
8’ Min.
Cow Alley Feeding Alley
a. Front view
Cow Alley
b. Plan view
c. Side view
A= Height above floor to avoid contact by animals and equipment (see Figure 7-11a)
Figure 7-11. Supplemental cooling fans in the cow alley and freestall areas.
best in dry climates. Adequate ventilation (air Troubleshooting Natural Ventilation
84
exchange) is required to remove the humidified and Proper siting, design, construction and manage-
Chapter 7 heated air. ment will prevent most problems with natural
Building High-pressure misting systems run continuously ventilating systems. Check the following items when
Environment when cooling is needed. Equipment suppliers have planning a naturally ventilated building.
misting systems that can be mounted directly on ■ Locate building with clear access
cows without wetting the cows or their surroundings. buildings close by that limit airflow to the
This means that misting systems can be used in areas building.
where sprinklers cannot be used. However, improp- ■ Manage inlets and outlets properly. Do not
erly operating units can quickly wet a considerable close openings to increase inside temperatures.
area. Incomplete evaporation of the droplets results The result is usually severe moisture buildup,
in wet stalls, inefficient water use, and ineffective condensation on the roof and walls, high
cooling. Again, small water droplets cling to the levels of ammonia odor, animal respiratory
cow’s haircoat, creating an insulating layer. Misting illness, and a temperature rise. Do not totally
systems suffer from nozzle plugging. Water filters close ventilation openings.
reduce plugging but add to the maintenance required. ■ Do not block inlets or outlets by attaching
Use piping and connectors that can handle the water sheds or roof extensions.
pressure required by the nozzles. Size pipes to ■ Provide proper sanitation and housekeeping.
provide adequate water flow and minimal pressure Remove wet bedding and manure regularly.
drop. Misting systems can be automatically con- Control extra moisture sources (manure, wet
trolled using a thermostat. Misters are usually set to bedding, leaky waterers).
turn on when air temperatures exceed 78 to 80 F. ■ Select equipment and systems (i.e., waterers)
openings can often reduce bird numbers. Cover the Remove dirt and debris. Raise or remove
openings with 3/4-inch hardware cloth or plastic a ridge cap that restricts the ridge opening.
netting and increase the opening size proportionally ■ Check recommended animal stocking density.
to account for the blockage by the screen. Screened Overcrowding can cause problems.
ridge openings may freeze shut in cold weather and ■ Keep insulation protected and in good repair.
disrupt the natural ventilation. Remove ice when it ■ When summer ventilation openings cannot be
area. Vertical screening above the siding may be less See Figure 7-6.
susceptible to plugging. Choose the screen location
by ease of installation and maintenance or by cost of More detailed trouble shooting recommendations
installation. The framing system dictates these choices. for naturally ventilated buildings are available in
Selecting structural designs that provide fewer Natural Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing,
nesting and resting locations can reduce bird MWPS-33.
numbers, nesting, and the mess from droppings. Wild
bird hunting and poisoning is regulated. Federal
statutes protect all wild birds, except sparrows, Mechanical Ventilating Systems
starlings, and pigeons. Permits are required to hunt or Mechanical ventilating systems have fans, controls,
poison grackles and black birds. Attracting natural and either air inlets or outlets. A well-designed system
predators like owls and American Kestrels can reduce provides greater control over room temperature and air
bird numbers. movement than natural ventilation. Mechanical
ventilation works well to ventilate the milking parlor, Ventilating Rates
milk room, utility/mechanical room, office, confer- Ventilating rates for good environmental control
85
ence room, break room, and restrooms in the milking depend on many factors. Simple tables are commonly Chapter 7
center. See Chapter 5, Milking Center, for ventilation used to account for number of animals, animal size Building
recommendations. and age, and weather (i.e., cold, mild, or hot). For Environment
Mechanical ventilation is used to ventilate barns warm barns, base ventilating rates on Table 1-9 and
or rooms with flat ceilings and buildings that are the expected animal occupancy for the room or
blocked from good natural ventilation by existing building. Ventilating rates for different weather are
buildings and obstructions. See Mechanical Ventilat- used for selecting fans and sizing and adjusting inlets.
ing Systems for Livestock Housing, MWPS-32, for For cold barns, air exchange requirements range from
more complete design information. no less than 0.17 air changes per minute in winter to at
least 1 air exchange per minute in summer.
Types of Mechanical Ventilating Systems
Mechanical ventilating systems types can be Negative Pressure (Exhaust)
broken into three general categories, negative Ventilating Systems
pressure (exhaust), positive pressure, and neutral In negative pressure ventilating systems, fans
pressure. In negative pressure systems, the exhaust exhaust air from a building, creating a vacuum or
fans blow air out of the building and create a nega- negative pressure inside the building. The slight
tive pressure inside the building. In positive pressure vacuum pressure difference between inside and
systems, the fans blow air into the building and outside the building causes airflow through designed
create a positive pressure inside the building. Neutral inlets and other openings. Inlets need to be sized
pressure systems have fans that blow air both into and properly, well distributed, and adjusted as the ventilat-
out of the building and maintain a neutral pressure ing rate changes to get uniform fresh air distribution
inside the building. and mixing. It is critical that a clear path exist for
Negative pressure systems are commonly used ventilating air to follow between the outside and the
for animal facilities because they avoid problems inlet for a mechanical ventilating system to work
with moisture being blown into the wall and ceiling properly. If winter ventilation air is taken from the
insulation through small cracks. Positive and attic, adequate openings from the outside into the attic
neutral systems can be used to correct ventilation are necessary. Use 3/4-inch screen on attic or eave
problems in existing buildings. See Mechanical openings to exclude birds and minimize screen
Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing, plugging, which will reduce opening area and airflow.
MWPS-32, for design information on other types of Size long narrow slot inlets based on 1 square foot
ventilating systems. (144 sq in) of inlet area for each 540 to 750 cfm of
fan capacity. Continuous slot air inlets in both
Mechanical Ventilating System Elements sidewalls work well for buildings up to 38 feet wide.
Mechanical ventilating systems use fans, inlets or The inlets should be continuous along the length of
outlets, and controls to distribute and mix fresh the building, except over individual fans or fan banks
outside air uniformly in the ventilated room or and 8 feet on either side of the fans. Group fans in
building. The fans, usually mounted in a wall, one bank for barns up to 150 feet long. Use two or
ceiling, or duct connected to the outside, force air to more fan banks for longer barns. See Mechanical
flow and create a static pressure difference between Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing,
inside and outside of the building or room. Mixing MWPS-32, for more complete design information.
fans hung inside a room increase air circulation, but For inlets to perform properly, seal doors, win-
they do not cause the air exchange required by a dows, and unplanned openings so fans develop the
ventilating system. Inlets provide a place for fresh air desired negative pressure. Fresh air infiltrating
to enter and are key to fresh air distribution and through unwanted openings reduces the amount of
mixing in a negative pressure ventilating system. air entering through planned inlets and disrupts air
Controls can provide automatic adjustment to the distribution. Unwanted openings include:
ventilating rate by turning fans on and off or chang- ■ Open doors, windows, manure system dis-
ing fan speeds. Controls can also be used to adjust charges, feed conveyors, and hay chutes. Ridge
inlet opening size to improve air distribution and and eave openings for naturally ventilated
mixing. Together the fans, inlets or outlets, and buildings are unwanted openings for mechani-
controls make up the ventilating system for a cal ventilation. Too much air entering one area
building or room. can leave other areas stagnant.
■ Cracks in walls, ceilings, and around doors and single-speed, multiple-speed, and/or variable-speed
86
windows. Even small openings can interfere fans to provide mild and hot weather ventilating
Chapter 7 with good air distribution, especially at low rates. Purchase fans that have an Air Movement and
Building winter ventilating rates. Control Association (AMCA) certified rating seal or
Environment ■ Flush or scraper openings, or manure pits/ equivalent testing and rating.
channels to the outside or between rooms. Close Use fans designed specifically for animal housing.
these large openings with removable doors or Buy totally enclosed, split phase or capacitor-type
weighted curtains. farm-duty fan motors. Wire each fan to a separate
circuit to avoid shutdown of the entire ventilating
Positive Pressure Ventilating Systems system when one motor blows a fuse. Protect each fan
In positive pressure ventilating systems, fans blow with a time-delay-fused switch at the fan. Size time-
air into a building creating a positive pressure inside delay fuses at 25% over fan amperage.
the building. The positive pressure difference Select fan motors with thermal overload protection
between inside and outside the building causes air to with manual reset switches. Manual reset switches
exit the building through designed outlets and other reduce the safety hazard of a fan starting while being
openings. Fresh air is usually distributed through checked and reduce on-off cycling that can damage
designed area inlets or ducts. Positive pressure the motor.
ventilating systems generally provide good air Proper maintenance is important for good ventila-
distribution and mixing, but can force moist air into tion. Keep fans, shutters, and other equipment clean
walls and attic spaces. This is a critical problem in and properly lubricated. Adjust and replace belts as
climates where the moisture can condense or freeze required. Use belt tighteners on fans to reduce
on insulation in the walls or attic. A properly in- maintenance time.
stalled and well-protected vapor retarder will
minimize moisture problems but not eliminate them.
Frost may freeze doors and windows shut. Fans Ventilating System Controls
mounted in the endwall of a parlor blowing in during Various controllers are available to automatically
summer with air leaving through the holding area is a adjust fans, heaters, inlets, sidewall openings, and
good application of a positive pressure system. See sprinklers. The controllers can turn devices on and
Mechanical Ventilating Systems for Livestock off or make incremental changes (i.e., change variable
Housing, MWPS-32, for more complete design speed fans or adjust inlet opening) depending on the
information. device being controlled. Check controller settings
and performance every six months. Replace damaged
Neutral Pressure Ventilating Systems or corroded units.
In neutral pressure ventilating systems, similarly Thermostatic control is the most common type of
sized fans blow air into and exhaust air from the control used. Temperature control is done using
building at the same time. The two or more push-pull single or two stage thermostats or solid state control-
fans create a near neutral pressure inside the building. lers and computer systems. Thermostatic controllers
Exhaust fans are usually sized slightly larger to can be used to control heaters, cooling system
create a slight negative pressure. Like positive sprinklers and mixing fans, ventilating fans in
pressure systems, fresh air is distributed through mechanically ventilated systems, and sidewall
designed area inlets or ducts to provide good air opening size in naturally ventilated buildings. Sensor
distribution and mixing. Neutral pressure systems are location is important for obtaining a representative
more expensive to build and operate because they temperature. Avoid placing thermostatic sensors in
have twice the number of fans. See Mechanical inlet or heater air streams, sunlit areas, on exterior
Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing, walls, and where animals can damage them. See
MWPS-32, for more complete design information. Mechanical Ventilating Systems for Livestock
Housing, MWPS-32, for information on fan and
Fan Selection Guidelines heater staging to avoid wasting supplemental heat.
Select fans to move the required air flow against at Timers turn devices on and off based on time.
least 1/8 inch (0.125 inch) static pressure. Consider Interval or cycle timers are the most common.
the reduction in fan capacity due to screens, shutters, Common periods are 5, 10, 30 minutes, and 1, 2, 4
and hoods when selecting fans. Provide the cold and 24 hours. During an interval, the timer can turn a
weather ventilation capacity with single-speed or device on and off for one or more periods of time.
two-speed fans. Provide additional capacity with Interval timers can be used to control lights,
sprinklers in a supplemental cooling system (i.e., on ventilation air. Regular and proper maintenance is
3 out of 15 minutes), and exhaust fans in milking required to maintain efficient and safe operation. See
87
parlors for moisture control after cleanup. Timers are Heating, Cooling and Tempering Air for Livestock Chapter 7
not recommended for providing the minimum Housing, MWPS-34, for design information for sizing Building
ventilating rate in mechanically ventilated barns. supplemental heating systems. Environment
Static pressure sensor/controllers are available for Unvented heaters add both heat and products of
automatically adjusting inlets for mechanically combustion into the building. The products of
ventilated buildings and rooms. Locate the pressure combustion include gases that can create health and
sensors to minimize wind effects and protect the outside safety problems within the building if concentrations
sensor. Set the sensor to maintain a static pressure accumulate. For this reason unvented heaters are not
difference of between 0.04 and 0.08 inches of water. recommended.
R24+ Insulation
Metal Siding
2 x 4 Nailer
2 x 4 Girt
6 x 6 Post
1 x 4 Nailer
Interior Liner
Vapor Retarder
Concrete Block
Vapor Retarder
Concrete Block
Metal Tiles
Glazed Tiles
2” Rigid Insulation
Metal Tiles
A manure management system includes these of manure nutrients could adversely affect air, water, and
components: land resources.
■ Collection. Degraded stream water quality and fish kills can result
■ Transfer. from manure and feed waste entering from surface runoff.
■ Storage. Improperly designed or constructed waste storage
■ Possible treatment. facilities, or over-application of nitrogen or phosphorus
■ Land application. can lead to groundwater pollution. Many livestock
■ Nutrient utilization and sampling. owners and operators are conscious of manure’s pollution
potential and have taken steps to control it.
Intensive, more specialized, concentrated animal Proper design and management are essential to
production systems have altered the nutrient cycle and pollution control when operating animal facilities.
balance between crop production and animal production. Choose a manure handling system that most nearly
Independent of operation size, a proper manure manage- matches a producer’s resources, including abilities and
ment system and plan are essential. A complete manure desire to operate the system.
management system has the following goals: Beyond the concern for pollution control and compli-
■ Maintain good animal health and milk quality by ance with local, state, and federal standards, livestock
providing sanitary facilities. producers benefit from the manure’s fertilizer value.
■ Avoid pollution of soil, groundwater or Using manure nutrients in crop production wisely is a
surface water. practical method of controlling pollution. The value of
■ Reduce odors and dust. manure as a source of plant nutrients needs to be given
■ Control insect and rodent (other pest) reproduction. strong consideration in a manure management system.
■ Balance capital investment, cash-flow requirements, A complete manure management plan includes:
labor, and nutrient use. ■ Estimate of annual manure production.
■ Comply with appropriate state and local regulations ■ Estimate of annual nutrient production.
pertaining to manure and effluent handling. ■ Estimate of annual crop nutrient utilization potential.
■ Cropping rotation.
Failure to provide adequate manure collection, ■ Land available for application during the year.
handling, and storage facilities in conjunction with ■ Adequate collection, handling, and storage
91
■Analysis of animals’ rations to avoid overfeeding ■ Milking center effluent and recycling wash water.
92
nutrients. ■ Precipitation on open storage area.
Chapter 8 ■ An emergency action plan to quickly deal with ■ Evaporation from open storage area.
Manure accidental manure spills or other environmental ■ Flushing water from the freestall barn, parlor, or
and Effluent emergencies. holding area.
Management ■ Runoff from roofs and outside lots.
No single manure management system is best for ■ Seepage from stored silage.
all operations. Each system has advantages and
disadvantages. Proper implementation and manage- Use Equation 8-1 to determine the size of manure
ment are the keys to a successfully operated manure and effluent storage for the desired storage period.
management system. When selecting a manure See Manure Management publications from MWPS
management system for a specific operation, for more on sizing storages.
consider these factors: Dairy cattle produce 1.2 to 1.6 cubic feet (69 to
■ Animal, age and size. 103 pounds) of manure per day per 1,000 pounds of
■ Feed. body weight. Fresh manure, a mixture of urine and
■ Housing. feces, is 12 to 14% solids (86 to 88% moisture
■ Bedding. content, wet basis). Actual manure volume and solids
■ Cropping practices. content of fresh manure vary depending on the ration
■ Topography of farmstead. fed, animal age, and level of milk production. Table
■ Proximity to waterways and neighbors. 8-1 gives approximate daily manure production
■ Labor and equipment. values for dairy cattle of various weights. If possible,
■ Personal preference. use site specific data in designing a storage unit
■ Future expansion. instead of the values shown.
Bedding
Manure and Effluent Volumes The type and amount of organic bedding used
Estimating the amount of manure and effluent that depends on housing type, Table 8-2. Manure from
must be collected and stored is an important step in a loose housing or bedded pens is typically handled
management plan. To calculate manure and effluent and stored as a solid. Manure from freestall barns is
volumes on a dairy, consider the following: handled as a semi-solid or slurry. Adding organic
■ Manure from livestock. bedding, such as straw, to manure increases the solids
■ Bedding. content.
Most dairy manure storages that use an organic encrusted surface is small; do not include evapora-
bedding form a crust due to the high fiber content of tion in sizing calculations.
the manure. If a large amount of dilution water is
added to the storage unit, then a crust does not form. Runoff
Examples of manure storage units that do not form a Polluted runoff from outside lots must be collected
crust are storage units used with flush systems and and disposed of in an environmentally safe manner.
anaerobic lagoons. The rate of evaporation from an Polluted runoff comes from several sources:
95
Chapter 8
Manure
and Effluent
Management
Liquid
Additionally, sand-laden manure has special Liquid manure has a solids content of less than
handling needs. 4%. Liquid manure is typically the effluent from
liquid-solid separation equipment, milking centers,
Solid or lagoons. Without solid separation, about 250
Solid manure can be stacked easily and is ob- gallons of dilution water must be added per 100
tained when the manure is dried sufficiently or gallons of fresh manure to reduce the solids content
bedding is added to increase the solids content to to less than 4%. With proper management and
18% or more. About 12 pounds of bedding needs to screening, liquid manure can be handled with liquid
be added per 100 pounds (1.67 ft3) of fresh manure to pumps. However, a slurry or trash pump is more
handle dairy manure as a solid. (This is roughly the trouble-free. Liquid manure can be spread using direct
amount of manure produced per day from a 1,400 lb injection, tank wagons, or irrigation equipment.
Sand-laden Manure blade or bucket, or a skid loader. To reduce polishing
Sand bedding improves herd health and milk of the concrete floor, many producers use a rubber
97
quality by reducing mastitis and somatic cell counts. scraper fabricated from half of a large tire. The tire is Chapter 8
However, moisture from the manure is not retained or bolted to a metal frame that can be mounted to the Manure
absorbed in the sand when compared to organic front of a tractor or a skid loader. The curved shape of and Effluent
types of freestall bedding. The consistency of sand- the tire also results in less manure flowing out along Management
laden manure is similar to a slurry when wet and can the edges. During sub-zero weather, remove frozen
not be stacked on concrete areas like manure contain- manure with a hydraulically operated metal-edged
ing straw, paper or wood shavings. While sand’s bucket or blade.
abrasiveness decreases the life of equipment during Large, tractor-mounted loaders are suitable for
handling, many producers feel that improvements in removing manure from outside lots and scrape alleys
herd health offset this disadvantage. with straight runs and few turns. Wide front wheel
spacing is desirable for stability. A loaded bucket
reduces rear wheel traction, so limit use to relatively
Collection and Transfer flat areas. Avoid using tractor-mounted loaders in
Several collection and transfer methods are buildings that require backing down long alleys or
possible. Selection considerations include: that have restricted turning areas.
■ Facility type. Skid loaders can be used to clean manure from
■ Labor requirements. cramped areas, such as resting areas in bedded-pack
■ Investment. heifer barns. Most loaders have a low height and a
■ Manure management system. turning radius of their own length, so they can be
used in tight quarters. One disadvantage is that some
Collection Methods have a relatively low lifting capacity. Another
Freestall housing, loose housing, and open-lot disadvantage is the damage caused by maneuvering
systems have different requirements and options for into the structure and equipment.
collection systems.
Before removal, freestall manure is usually a semi- Mechanical Alley Scrapers
solid and can be stored in an outdoor storage. With A typical alley scraper has one or more blades, a
outdoor storages, remove manure from the building cable or chain drive to pull the blades, a 0.5- to
with a mechanical or tractor scraper, front-end loader, 1-horsepower electric motor and controls. The cable
flushing gutter, or gravity-flow gutters or channels. or chain is typically recessed into a groove in the
Clean freestall alleys each time the cows are center of the alley. The blade is wide enough to
moved to the parlor. Frequent removal of manure scrape the entire alley in one pass. A time clock can
from the barn keeps cows clean resulting in a be used to operate an alley scraper several times per
probable decrease in somatic cell count due to day. Continuous operation is needed in cold weather
environmental mastitis. Clean cows also increase the to prevent the blade from freezing to the floor and to
throughput rate of the parlor because less time is keep frozen manure from building too deep. Alley
required to clean udders before milking. scrapers are not effective at removing frozen manure.
An open-lot system requires two manure-handling Therefore, they do not perform well in cold barns
systems. Lot scrapings and sheltered-bedded packs when the outside temperature falls below 0 F. Tractor
are semi-solid or solid. Lot runoff is liquid. Solid or scraping must be used as the backup manure collec-
semi-solid manure from shelters or lots can be moved tion system during extreme winter weather.
to storage with a tractor scraper or front-end loader. Mechanical scrapers can reduce daily labor
Lot runoff contains manure, soil, chemicals, and requirements. However, maintenance requirements
debris and must be handled in the manure manage- can be high because of corrosion and deterioration
ment system. Runoff from roofs, drives (not animal due to the environment.
alleys), and grassed or cropped areas without animal
traffic are relatively clean; divert clean runoff from Slotted Floor
the manure handling system. Concrete slotted floors provide a means by which
manure is quickly removed from the animal environ-
Tractor Scrape ment with minimal labor cost. Manure either falls
One of the most common methods of manure through the slotted floor or is worked through the
collection from freestall alleys, outside lots, and floor by animal traffic. Manure is stored in a pit
loose housing is scraping with a tractor-mounted beneath the floor or removed with gravity-flow
channels, flushing systems, or mechanical scrapers. typically used for design. The level floor and the dam
98
Mechanical alley scrapers are not recommended for conserve liquid in the system to facilitate flow. If no
Chapter 8 use beneath slotted floors because equipment repair dam is present, liquids will tend to flow out of the
Manure or replacement is difficult. Operations using deep pit system leaving a build up of solids, and flow will
and Effluent storage and gravity flow channels should avoid using stop.
Management sand in the freestalls. Sand that accumulates in the pit This system usually does not work well for dry
tends to settle to the bottom of the pit and is difficult cows and heifers because of the thick consistency of
to remove. The result is a decrease in storage capacity. their manure. The required depth of the channel
Storage of manure and milking center effluent in a depends on the length of the channel, the slat
pit beneath a slotted floor combines manure collec- thickness, and the required freeboard. See Equations
tion, transfer, and storage. However, manure pits can 8-3 to 8-6 to calculate channel depth.
lead to a buildup of manure gases and moisture in the Equation 8-3 shows the initial channel depth
animal environment. The increased concentrations of needed for a length of 80 feet is 3.9 feet or 47 inches.
corrosive gases and moisture can lead to premature The maximum practical channel length recommended
deterioration of metal gusset plates on trusses. Manure between steps is 80 feet; however, lengths up to 132
gas concentrations can become dangerously high feet have been used. Table 8-6 summarizes some
inside buildings during agitation and pumping. common gravity-flow designs.
Therefore, evacuate all people and livestock from the The overflow dam can be concrete blocks, poured-
building, and maximize the ventilation rate while in-place concrete, a steel plate, or pressure-treated
emptying the pit. Proper management of the ventila- wood. A removable dam and an access port allow for
tion system (natural or mechanical) is critical to the total clean out if desired.
safe operation of a slotted floor over a manure pit. Pits Before putting cows in the building, fill the
large enough to accommodate eight months or more of channel with 6 inches of water to form a lubricating
storage can be difficult to agitate to ensure adequate layer. Limit the use of finely chopped bedding to
solids removal and are expensive to construct. 1 pound per cow per day. Do not use long straw. Do
Manure collected beneath a slotted floor also can not use sand. Avoid adding milking center effluent
be removed by flushing. The channel beneath the containing disinfectants to channels in the freestall
slotted floor should have straight sides, and the flush area because it may kill desired biological organisms.
parameters are similar to those given in Table 8-6. Three conditions typically slow or stop the flow of
Flushing beneath slotted floors has these primary manure in gravity-flow channels:
advantages: ■ Drying of the manure surface during the summer.
■ Animals are separated from the flush water ■ Freezing of manure in winter.
less slipping problems for cows. Provide a convenient way to add water to all
channels at the end opposite the dam to restart the flow
However, using slats with a flush system signifi- of manure. During sub-zero weather, the channel serves
cantly increases the capital investment. as temporary storage for two to three weeks. Restart the
flow of manure when the weather moderates.
Gravity-flow Channels
Gravity-flow channels beneath a slotted floor or a
grate can be used to collect manure and milking
center effluent. Manure continuously flows slowly to
Table 8-6. Gravity-flow step height.
a reception pit, cross channel, or discharge pipe so Based on level channel bottom and 3% manure slope.
minimal labor is required to collect or transfer Reception pit depth should be 2 ft minimum, Figure 8-2.
manure to storage. Biological activity helps liquify Channel Initial channel Step
manure and maintain flow. length, ft depth a, in height b, in
The basic elements of a gravity-flow channel, 40 32 20
shown in Figure 8-2, include a flat, level bottom; a 50 36 24
6-inch high dam at the discharge end; and a designed 60 40 28
depth and length. The 6-inch dam is required to hold 70 43 31
back a lubricating liquid layer. The manure assumes a 80 47 34
slope ranging from 1.5% to 3%, depending on the a
Includes 6" freeboard, 6" dam and 6" slat thickness
moisture content of the manure. A slope of 3% is b
Includes 6" dam.
Equation 8-3. Initial gravity flow channel depth.
99
Initial Channel Depth (feet) = (Length, feet) x (0.03 ft / ft ) + (1.5 feet) *
Chapter 8
*Includes 6'' freeboard, 6'' step dam, and 6'' slat thickness for a total of 18'' or 1.5'. Manure
and Effluent
Management
Equation 8-4. Total gravity flow channel depth.
Total Channel Depth (feet) = (Initial Channel Depth (feet)) + [(Number of Steps) x (Step Height (feet))]
Cross Channel Depth (feet) = (1 foot) + [(Number of Steps) x (Step Height (feet))] ≥ 2 feet
Total Depth (feet) = (Total Channel Depth (feet)) + (Cross Channel Depth (feet))
Slotted Floor
6 Dam
Gravity Flow Channels
2 Pipe to Storage
3% Slope on
Manure Surface
80
Depth, ,up to
gth
see Table 8-7 Len
8 10
Depth
Table 8-9. Flowrate for floor heating system for pipes 12" o.c. (gpm).
Numbers right of the dark line have a head loss greater than 40'. Numbers in shaded area have a head loss
greater than 80'. Avoid designs in the shaded area.
Temperature Estimated Required Total effective length of one circuit (feet)
Difference Heat Loss Output
F BTU/hr-ft 2 BTU/hr-ft 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
5 1.9 1.9 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
10 4.7 4.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9
15 8.1 8.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6
20 11.8 11.8 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4
25 15.9 15.9 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.2
30 20.3 20.3 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.1
35 24.9 24.9 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
40 29.7 29.7 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 5.9
45 34.8 34.8 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.0
50 40.0 40.0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.0
55 45.4 45.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.4 7.3 8.2 9.1
60 51.0 51.0 1.0 2.0 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.2 9.2 10.2
65 56.7 56.7 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.5 5.7 6.8 7.9 9.1 10.2 11.3
70 62.6 62.6 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.0 6.3 7.5 8.8 10.0 11.3 12.5
75 68.6 68.6 1.4 2.7 4.1 5.5 6.9 8.2 9.6 11.0 12.3 13.7
80 74.7 74.7 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 14.9
85 81.0 81.0 1.6 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.1 9.7 11.3 13.0 14.6 16.2
This will minimize the design temperature operating temperature of the system is kept low,
difference for a circuit. Also, insulation will not heat loss into the soil will be negligible since
be required under the heated alley floors and deep soil temperatures are typically 55 to 60 F.
around most piping. Minimizing the operating 5. The flow rates required for a given piping circuit
temperature of the system tends to minimize the are in Tables 8-8 and 8-9. The length of a circuit
total size of the boiler system required. depends upon piping layout. The design
4. The heating system assumes heat loss from the temperature difference depends upon location
top of the floor surface only. As long as the and is the difference between the estimated
inside barn air temperature and an average floor provide a very wide push-off ramp (20 to 100 feet) so
102
temperature of 40 F. Flow rates causing 80 feet of manure can be pushed into the storage at multiple
Chapter 8 circuit head loss are generally not acceptable. locations. A concrete stacking slab along the edge of
Manure 6. The layout of circuit piping depends upon barn the push-off ramp also may be used during periods of
and Effluent layout, manifold piping design, other site freezing weather. In the spring, the thawed manure is
Management considerations, and location of boiler for heating. pushed or flows into the storage.
7. Total boiler size is estimated as the sum of 50
BTU/hr per foot of total manifold piping, plus Gravity-flow Pipes
the larger value of either 50 BTU/hr-foot of Gravity-flow transfer pipes use the hydraulic head
total circuit piping or the required BTU/hr exerted by liquid manure to force it to flow. The
output of circuit pipe, Table 8-8 or Table 8-9. required transfer-pipe size depends on the manure
8. Pumping requirements and manifold piping are characteristics. Liquid manures, such as milking
designed on a case-by-case basis. center effluent, flow well through small-diameter
(6- to 8-inch) pipes. Larger (24- to 36-inch diameter)
Tractor Scrape pipes with smooth interiors work well with dairy
Scraping animal manure from freestall alleys manure with well-mixed bedding and solids content
directly into a below ground storage structure is an of up to 12%. The required pipe diameter depends on
effective transfer method. Push-off ramps are common the total flow rate and the solids content. Gravity-
for herds of 200 cows or fewer; these ramps provide flow pipe systems are compatible with:
inexpensive manure transfer for sites that do not ■ Tractor scraper.
accommodate gravity flow. Use pipe fencing on all ■ Mechanical alley scraper.
sides of the push-off ramp for the safety of the tractor ■ Gravity-flow channels.
Drop Structure
min
4'
Clean Outs at
100 Intervals
3'
42" min
Loadout Ramp.
Diagonal grooves
To drain precipitation 40 min
toward picket fence.
2x6s, spaced
¾" apart
Post spacing
Drain to Concrete
Holding Ramp and c. Picket dam.
Pond Flow Bottom
From Piston
or Pneumatic
Pump
Figure 8-10. Grass filter strip. Figure 8-11. Two grass filter strips with
alternate dosing.
drains back when the pump stops. In cold climates,
112 elevate the discharge end of the pipe at least one foot
Chapter 8 above the gravel or concrete spreader to prevent ice
Manure from blocking the end of the pipe.
and Effluent Grass filter strips may not be allowed in some
Management areas. Contact the NRCS about regulations and/or for
assistance in designing grass filter strips.
Holding Pond usually after the runoff has been through a settling
A holding pond temporarily stores runoff water unit, or from lagoon overflow.
from a settling basin, Figure 8-14, or the effluent from ■ Interior banks of earthen dams that usually
a mechanical separator. A holding pond does not are no steeper than 2.5:1 (run:rise), depending on
receive roof water, cropland drainage, or clean water soil type. To maintain sod and mow weeds, limit
from other sources. Use state requirements to deter- exterior slopes to no steeper than 3:1.
mine minimum storage time (usually 180 days). Base ■ The ability to empty the pond by pumping,
capacity on inches of rainfall on a drained area, such usually through irrigation equipment.
monthly basis.
■ Correct or repair necessary components of the
practical and economical when land is available. A in an organized area such as a filing cabinet or
settling basin to remove solids is essential. The book binder.
infiltration area is a long, 10- to 20-foot wide channel
or a broad, flat area. For uniform distribution, slope For all outdoor storages:
the first 50 feet 1% to move the runoff rapidly away ■ Inspect gravity and recycle lines for signs of
from the lot and settling unit before further settling dead vegetation that may indicate a discharge.
occurs. The rest of the area should be nearly flat (less ■ Prevent any excess surface runoff water from
than 0.25%) with just enough drainage to prevent entering the storage.
water from standing. The runoff must travel through ■ Maintain the appearance area around the
be allowed in some areas. Inquire of the proper surface waterways or tile inlets) on or near the
regulatory agencies before installing one. See the operation.
Manure Management publications from MWPS, or ■ Study the drainage patterns on and near the
more information on manure land application and note any evidence of wet spots that may
utilization. indicate leakage.
■ Maintain adequate vegetation on the berm to The written Emergency Action Plan should be
prevent erosion. posted prominently in each building, in the em-
115
■ Check for berm damage from burrowing ployee area, and next to all phones. Train and Chapter 8
animals. periodically review the procedures listed in the plan Manure
■ For lagoons, install pumpdown stakes that with all personnel working with the operation. The and Effluent
clearly indicate pump start and pump stop plan should be reviewed and undated annually to Management
levels. reflect any changes in the operation. The written
format of the Emergency Action Plan should describe
For manure application: procedures and/or methods to do the following:
■ Verify adequate land area is available for 1. Eliminate the source of the spill. For example,
manure application each year. if a lagoon overflows due to a heavy rainfall
■ Test nutrients in manure every 2 to 3 years and event then action needs to be taken to stop any
soils receiving manure every 3 to 5 years, then discharge. One possible action would be to
calculate application rates based on soil and increase the elevation of the top of the berm.
manure tests, and crop utilization. 2. Contain the spill, if possible, and minimize
■ Inject to reduce odor, decrease the chance for manure movement off the farm or down-
runoff and help conserve nutrients. If surface stream. If manure has leaked from a lagoon
applying then till manure into the soil within 24 then a berm may have to be constructed to
hours. prevent manure from flowing to areas that
■ Identify and provide protection for could affect ground or surface water.
environmentally sensitive areas, such as streams, 3. Provide contact information for key individu-
and tile inlets. als who can assist in implementing the
■ Monitor application closely and stop emergency action plan. These individuals can
application before runoff occurs. assist personnel unfamiliar with the plan or
■ Do not apply manure before, during, or personnel needing assistance to implement the
immediately after a rainfall event. plan. In addition to implementing the Emer-
■ Equip pumps handling manure with an gency Action Plan, these individuals can help
automatic shutdown if pressure drops in the determine the amount of personnel and equip-
piping system. ment necessary to correct the problem.
■ Never leave a pump unattended, especially 4. Assess the extent of the spill. Note any obvious
when irrigating effluent. damages.
■ Document application area and rates. 5. Contact appropriate agencies as soon as
■ Document crop yields. possible. In many states the Department of
Natural Resources is the contact agency. The
state may require individuals to report any
Developing a Written Emergency Action Plan spills that could affect ground or surface water.
Liquid manure or effluent has the highest If a spill that affects ground or surface water is
potential to negatively affect surface or ground water not reported promptly, regulatory fines are
during the time of a spill because of the difficulty in usually higher.
containment. An Emergency Action Plan is a common 6. Clean up the spill and make repairs. Keep
sense plan that will help personnel make the right written records on the method of clean up and
decision during an emergency. Having a written the type of repairs performed to prevent future
Emergency Action Plan is important because a spills. The contact agency may offer sugges-
written plan: tions on clean up procedures and repair
■ Communicates clearly to family and/or methods.
employees specific actions to be taken in
case of an emergency. Figure 8-15 shows an example of an Emergency
■ Shows responsible preparation. Action Plan. Contact an extension engineer or a
■ Protects the producer and others against consulting engineer for more information on
environmental damage. developing Emergency Action Plans and emergency
■ May be required by the state. action strategies.
116 Date:
Chapter 8
Manure
and Effluent Emergency Action Plan
Management
Emergency
Situation:
Farm Name
& Location:
In Case of an Emergency:
1. Implement the following first containment steps:
2. Assess the extent of the emergency and determine how much help is needed.
3. Contact the farm’s emergency response team leader:
Name: Phone:
Name: Phone:
■ Description of emergency ■ Estimate of the amounts, area covered, and distance traveled.
■ Is there any obvious damage: employee injury, fish kill, or property damage?
■ Reducing labor.
■ Reducing feeding time.
■ Increasing feeding flexibility.
■ Improving animal nutrition.
■ Reducing feed loss.
■ Group size.
■ Ration(s) fed.
■ Type of handling and mixing equipment.
■ Design, location, and size of the feed storage structures.
Feed ingredients change with time; provide some flexibility in storage and han-
dling facilities to accommodate changes in rations and future expansion.
Generally, the greater the degree of mechanization, the larger the initial cost and
operating costs for repairs and energy. However, mechanization helps improve the diet
delivered and reduces physical labor.
Knowledge of dry matter intake is essential to provide a nutritionally balanced
ration. If feed is not weighed as it is delivered, only an estimate of dry matter intake
can be made. If only grain is weighed, forage intake must be estimated. But, if forage
and grain are weighed, the dry matter intake is known if all of the feed is consumed
and moisture content is known.
Cows have individual preferences for different feedstuffs, and given the opportu-
nity, cows will consume feedstuffs based on those preferences. Thus, individual cows
may or may not consume a balanced ration if left to their own preferences. The highest
assurance cows will consume a balanced ration comes when feedstuffs are delivered as
a total mixed ration (TMR). The lowest assurance that cows will consume a balanced
ration occurs when feedstuffs are fed separately
Cows on pasture selectively graze an uncontrolled pasture. The quantity or quality of
forage consumed is unknown, making it difficult to balance the grain ration. However,
rotational grazing of pastures improves the knowledge of forage quality consumed, and
estimates of DM intake can be made. Challenges still exist for balancing the ration.
117
■ Drainage patterns. Silo design and management affect the quality of
118
■ Structures. ensiled forage. Measuring storage losses is difficult;
Chapter 9 ■ Roads/drives. values shown in Table 9-1 are estimates. In some
Feeding Facilities cases, little dry matter loss occurs, but substantial
Determine the fate of existing buildings (use as is, feeding quality loss can occur.
remodel, tear down, replace) and equipment (use as is, Size the silage storage unit to ensure adequate
modify, upgrade, replace in the future). face removal can be achieved. Silo bags, tower silos
Allow room for future expansion; a system based and silage piles are appropriate for small to interme-
only on present needs is difficult and expensive to diate size dairies. Consider bunker silos, and larger
expand. A rule-of-thumb for planning is to project piles for intermediate to larger dairies. Operator
needs five years into the future and then double. preference, ration, annual costs, and feeding circum-
stances affect storage selection.
Silage Bags
Horizontal plastic silage bags can be used for
long-term storage or for emergency storage,
Figure 9-3. Bags vary in length from 100 to 300 feet
Figure 9-2. Unloading horizontal silos.
depending on diameter and the manufacturer. Bags Unload bunker silos for minimal spoilage losses.
can be partially filled, closed, and later completely Keep face vertical.
filled. Portable bagging machines fill 8-, 9-, 10- and
12-foot diameter bags. Keep bags tightly closed
because billowing plastic pumps air over the silage,
increasing losses. Moisture content of silage ranges
from 50 to 70%. Higher moisture content can cause
freezing problems.
Bags are not reusable and must be protected from
punctures. Common causes of spoilage are tears or
holes made by rodents or animals or impact by
equipment, splits at the seam, punctures from objects
on the ground, and weather damage. Use tape
supplied by the bag manufacturer to seal any Figure 9-3. Horizontal plastic bags.
punctures to reduce spoilage. Plastic may be sides include using silage bags, round bales, and
120
recyclable. adjacent horizontal silo walls. When using silage bag
Chapter 9 A firm, well-drained site is essential for year-round walls, remove silage from the pile and from the
Feeding Facilities access. Orient bags north-south to promote melting of adjacent bags uniformly. The silage between the bags
snow and drying on sides. Provide a 5% slope away should be the same material as that in the bags. It is
from the bags for good drainage. A fenced and paved difficult to remove the silage between the bags
storage area is recommended for self-feeding, without damaging the bags and causing the silage in
loading, and unloading in poor weather. A specially the bags to spoil prematurely. Using an adjacent
designed feeding fence can be used to self-feed bags. horizontal silo wall for one wall of a pile improves
A prepared and paved site may be used for bags and the ability to pack the pile. The slope of the silage
later converted to bunker storage by adding walls. pile wall should allow packing in both directions
parallel and perpendicular to the horizontal silo wall.
Upright Silos Round bale walls should be avoided. They can shift,
Upright silo types include poured concrete and possibly causing a tractor rollover.
concrete stave silos with top unloaders or air limiting
silos with bottom unloaders. They are commonly Dry Hay Storage
used to store forage and grains. Upright silos with Indoor hay storage preserves quality and reduces
unloaders offer protection from the weather and dry matter losses compared to outside storage,
possible complete mechanization of silage handling. Figure 9-5. Provide indoor storage in areas with more
Upright silos require tight walls and sealed doors. A than 20 inches of annual rainfall.
roof and plastic seal over the silage reduces storage For outdoor storage, provide a gentle slope and at
losses. least a 1-foot space between stacks or bales to
Upright silos with top unloaders cause feeding to promote drainage and air movement. Divert surface
be interrupted during filling so the unloader can be runoff away from storage areas. Locate haystacks near
raised. feeding areas. The amount of spoilage (as much as
Air limiting silos offer more flexibility because 50%) depends on the stack or bale quality, storage
refilling does not interfere with the unloader or method, and local rainfall. Elevate bales off the
feeding. Air limiting silos usually have lower storage ground to prevent wicking of moisture into the bale.
losses but higher field losses because of low harvest-
ing moisture content. Close the unloading hatch
between unloadings to prevent air entry and silage Grain and Concentrate Storage
spoilage. Top spoilage that occurs between filling Grain is the second largest proportion of feed in
will be hidden as the sludge mixes together with the ration. Store dry grains in bins. Use upright silos
silage during unloading. This loss may be difficult to to store high moisture grains such as shelled corn or
detect. Many air limiting silos are being converted to ground ear corn. Use roller mills to roll shelled corn
top unloading silos or are being abandoned due in or cob corn. Silo bags also can be used to store high
part to the high maintenance cost and replacement of moisture grains. Horizontal silos can be used for
the unloaders. large volumes of high moisture grain. Dry feeds such
as commodity feeds are stored in commodity barns.
Silage Piles
Silage piles, Figure 9-4, work well for emergency, Bins
temporary, or long-term storage. For silage piles with Grain can be stored at harvest or bought when
no walls, keep the slopes on the sides shallow enough needed. To allow storing different grains, using
to drive and pack in both directions. Poorly packed fresher grain, and having more flexibility, the biggest
sides result in large spoilage losses when packing is bin should not exceed half of the total volume of the
only done in one direction. They can be used as a annual grain requirements of the operation. For
short-term solution prior to building permanent freshly harvested grain, equip storage bins with
horizontal structures. Corn silage piles are fairly aeration to cool grain. Smaller bins are needed if
successful with material at 70% moisture. With silage grain and other feed ingredients are purchased as
piles, use the management practices recommended for needed. Feed stored in commodity bins experiences
horizontal silos. Provide a firm base and access to the less shrink (loss) than feed stored in sheds. See Grain
pile to provide year-round access to the feed when Drying, Handling and Storage Handbook, MWPS-
used for long-term storage. 13, and Managing Dry Grain in Storage, AED-20, for
Several other methods for retaining silage pile more information on bins and grain handling.
Hopper bottom bins permit gravity unloading of
stored materials before and after processing, Figure
121
9-6. Side draw hoppers are for materials that tend to Chapter 9
bridge, such as concentrates and ground feeds. Steep Feeding Facilities
side slopes allow these materials to flow more freely.
Center draw unloading can cause a dent to form in
the sidewall because of uneven distribution of
material. Limit bulk feed tank capacity for off-center
unloading bins to 20 ton.
Commodity Storage
Many commodity feed ingredients flow to some
degree and can be handled with conventional convey-
ors and hopper bottom bulk storage bins. Pelleted
feeds have improved handling characteristics.
Whole cottonseed, in particular, does not flow and
cannot be moved with augers or stored in conven-
tional bins where gravity flow is required. Cottonseed
can be transported with belt or pneumatic (vacuum)
conveyors, but these are relatively expensive and not
practical for most farms.
The characteristics of commodity feeds vary from
time to time depending on moisture content, type of
processing at the originating plant, and length and
type of storage. Due to the inconsistency and
unpredictability in handling characteristics of by-
product ingredients, flat storage is often the best
choice.
Feed costs can be reduced by purchasing commodities
and by-product feeds. Many of these feeds can be
Figure 9-4. Silage pile. purchased in 10- to 20-ton loads at a substantial
Drive-over silage pile for temporary storage. savings on cost and trucking. Losses from commodity
Provide a firm base and access. sheds have been higher than losses from bins.
Rectangular Bales
Figure 9-5. Dry hay storage. Figure 9-6. Hopper bottom bins.
Do not stack bales against sidewalls unless building is Center draw-off bins work best for whole grain and
designed for the loads imposed. Indoor hay storage free flowing materials. The steeper sloped side
helps preserve quality and reduce dry matter losses. draw-off bins are for ground feed.
Commodity storage sheds, such as the one shown Provide a 20 to 24 foot wide concrete slab the
122
in Figure 9-7, are a popular method of storing feed length of the building in front of the building for
Chapter 9 ingredients in bulk. Commodity storage sheds are traffic. The size of the concrete slab should be large
Feeding Facilities divided into storage bays. Each bay will typically enough to unload a semi-trailer load of feed and have
hold 1 to 2 trailer loads of ingredients. For example, room to push the feed into one of the bays with a
the storage shed shown in Figure 9-7 can hold tractor or skidsteer loader.
approximately 1 1/2 trailer loads of cottonseed and Design these buildings to withstand the loads of the
most other loose by-products, and 2 trailer loads of product and the loads caused by loader tractors
pelleted ingredients. Plan for enough space to receive pushing into walls. Wall construction consists of a
a load of feed ingredients before the bays are com- 4- to 8-foot high poured concrete retaining walls with
pletely empty. The number of bays required will an additional 4 to 6 feet of stud or post frame wall clad
depend on the quantity of feed that is purchased on a with plywood or tongue and groove plank on top of
regular basis. the concrete stub wall. Other wall construction options
To properly design the commodity shed, check include poured concrete walls or concrete precast
with the hauler on the type of trucks or semi-trailer movable wall panels of any desired height. The wall
being used to deliver feed materials and the method can be constructed with post frame or stud wall clad
of unloading the feed from the vehicle. There are with tongue and groove planking or plywood but is
four main methods of unloading from a truck or subject to damage by the loading operation.
semi-trailer: Another popular option for walls is the use of heavy
■ Dumps. The front end of the box raises out the precast concrete blocks. Local concrete suppliers may
back allowing the feed material to slide into the have available 2- by 2- by 4-foot precast blocks that
bay or onto the pad in front of the commodity weigh approximately 1 ton each. These blocks are
shed where the feed material is pushed into the formed to allow some interlocking between blocks and
bay. If the vehicle is backed into the shed, then are stacked up to 3 or 4 high to form walls 6 to 8 feet
enough space must be provided to allow the high. Caution must be taken not to stack the blocks
front end of the box to tip up. This may require too high since the blocks may not provide enough
an eave height of 20-feet or more. horizontal loading support for walls over 8 feet high
■ Walking bottoms. The vehicle is backed into and could tip over. Low-cost bin walls can also be
the shed. A conveyor on the trough floor moves made from precast highway dividers.
the feed material into the bay.
■ Hopper bottoms. The feed material is dumped
from underneath the trailer onto the concrete Feeding Total Mixed Rations
pad in front of the shed. The feed material is The continuing trend has been toward feeding
then pushed into the bay. Feed also can be Total Mixed Rations (TMR) to individual groups of
dumped directly into a portable conveyor animals. All forages, grain, and supplements are
that transfers the feed into the commodity mixed into a homogeneous mixture prior to feeding.
shed. When feeding TMR, provide for feeding separate
■ Unloading ramp. A fixed unloading ramp is groups according to their nutritional requirements.
used to allow a front end loader to drive into a For example, a milking herd can be separated into
van box. production level groups with each group receiving a
different ration.
Designs similar to Figure 9-7 have been used High initial capital investment and problems with
successfully by many producers. These designs use a animal grouping may preclude retrofitting an
monoslope building with an open front. Buildings existing facility unless major remodeling/expansion
are typically 30 to 36 feet wide, but buildings should is planned. For extensive remodeling and new
be no less than 24 feet wide. Bays are typically 16 facilities, TMR can:
feet wide, but should be no less than 12 feet wide. ■ Maintain the ratio of feed components
floor slopes 2% toward the building front. An ■ Improve palatability of low quality
protection from wind blown snow and rain. ■ Allow mechanized feeding.
Prepare the TMR with a stationary or mobile
30 36 24 20 min)
weigh/mixer as part of the total feeding system.
123
Weighing allows for accurate selection of the right Chapter 9
amount of each feed ingredient and for maintaining a Feeding Facilities
feed inventory.
4 6 Overhang
Stationary Systems
Figure 9-9 shows a stationary mixer for TMR
12 feeding where the mixing or blending equipment is at
3
a specific site. All feed ingredients must be conveyed
20
Slope 2%
The stationary system is common for small herds (less
than 90 cows) that depend on upright silos and
mechanical conveyors for moving feed, Figure 9-13.
Figure 9-7. Commodity storage sheds.
The size of each bay depends on the quantity of feed
stored. Front opening height is dependent on loader
reach height.
Feed Bunk Feed Bunk Feed Bunk Feed Bunk Feed Bunk
Heifers Dry Cows Milking Milking Milking
Herd #3 Herd #2 Herd #1
Figure 9-8. Mobile TMR flow chart with scattered feed storages and animal feeding areas.
124
Chapter 9 Haylage Corn Silage High Moisture Shell Corn Liquid Mineral Protein
Fat Premix Supplement
Feeding Facilities
Roller
Tank
Silo Silo Silo Bags Bin
Pump and
Unloader Unloader Unloader Meter By Hand Auger
Feed
Conveyor Cart
Feed
Feed Manger
Bunk
Scales
Scales are required on a mixer to weigh the ration. b. Tumble.
Electronic digital readout scales use load cells to
weigh ingredients in the mixer and are accurate to
0.25% when properly calibrated. Dust and moisture
can cause malfunctions if the unit is not sealed
properly. Beam scales, a mechanical means of
weighing, are accurate to 1% and can withstand the
building environment. Fluid scales are simple, but
not as accurate, and can be used to read at remote
locations from the mixing site as can electronic
scales. Elevate the mixer 6 to 12 inches off the floor c. Reel.
to prevent dirt and feed buildup from causing
inaccurate scale readings. Spring scales for small
amounts of ingredients such as salt, vitamins, and
additives can be used to weigh these materials before
adding them to the batch.
Platform scales should also be considered on large
farms. They are used to maintain data on feed invento-
ries. Trucks and wagons are run over the scale to record
all feeds entering and leaving the farm. Reconciling d. Ribbon.
feed inventory becomes very important as farms
increase in size and purchase more feeds or sell back Figure 9-10. TMR mixers.
total mixed rations to other farms in the area.
Horizontal
120
Silage Bags
Silos
150
40 40 30
Concrete Slab
Scale
Concrete Slab
Overhead
Hopper Bin
HMC
Silo
Mixed Feed Tractor and
Storage Loader
Commodity Barn
Figure 9-12. Cross-section of an adequate roadway. Figure 9-13. Feed center for stationary mixer
Note: Layers placed individually then compacted. system.
Conveying Forage chain and flight conveyors are low cost and often
Forage is the largest proportion of the ration. The used to convey forage from a silo unloader or elevate
volume of forage fed must be considered in the feed over a short distance. A reversing motor on the
system design. Handling forages, including dry hay conveyor offers the ability to move feed in opposite
or silage, requires large quantities of material to be directions.
moved in a short amount of time. A variety of A bunk feeder or mechanical cart/wagon delivers
conveyors and bunk feeders are on the market, each forage to the cows. A scale under the belt conveyor
with its own characteristics. weighs forage and/or grain prior to delivery. Grain
also can be metered through a calibrated tipping
Belt Conveyors bucket or auger. The ration is blended, but there is
Belt conveyors handle forage gently, but are little control of the proportions. Little to no physical
expensive and generally unsuitable for steep labor is required.
inclines. Textured belts allow conveyors to be A chain and paddle similar to a gutter cleaner
inclined up to 40 degrees. Belt conveyors have moves forage around the bunk. Feed can be delivered
higher capacity per horsepower than augers. Belt to any point on the feeder. The amount of feed
speed can be as high as 300 fpm moving large delivered is controlled by allowing the chain to make
volumes of feed quickly. several trips around the bunk or manger. For cows
Belt feeders are filled from the end, and a plow with neck chains, there is a hazard of chains becom-
attachment pushes feed off the continuously running ing entangled in the chain or paddle if the system is
belt into the bunk or manger. There are several styles operated while the cows are eating.
of plows including a floating plastic blade and a
rotating brush. Plows can be set to push feed off one Shuttle Feeder
or both sides of the feeder. The belt feeder can be Several types of shuttle feeders using belts, chains,
mounted close to the ceiling for in-barn feeding. or a moving trough are available. The shuttle feeder
Automatic controls can move the plow to feed up to uses a reversing motor and conveyor to move feed
12 lots. Distribution is uniform along the bunk back and forth from a central fill point. Distribution
length with little separation of the feed. is uniform over the length of the bunk, and there is
little separation of fine and coarse material. The unit
Chain and Flight Conveyors/Feeders can be used in either an outside feed bunk or sus-
Double chain flight conveyors, like those for ear pended from the ceiling for in-barn feeding. This type
corn or baled hay, are low cost. Capacity decreases as of feeder would be best used in barns where cows face
flight depth or speed decreases and as flight spacing in and have a common feed alley because only one
or conveyor incline increases. Chain and flight feeder would be needed. In outside feed bunks, the
conveyors have speeds of 150 to 200 fpm. The conveyor can be designed to feed several lots of
conveyors are typically 25 to 60 feet long. Single cattle by splitting the bunk.
Auger Conveyor and Feeder controlled feeders can be used to feed all or part of
128
U-trough augers are used for horizontal conveying the required concentrate.
Chapter 9 of large volumes. Consider them for hard-to-maintain Selective feeding systems have individual
Feeding Facilities locations, such as overhead augers. They operate at feeding stalls. Each cow wears a device that identi-
slower speeds, which increase auger life. U-trough fies her to a computer as she approaches the feed
augers do not work well at inclines over 15 degrees dispenser. A computer, programmed to the portions
because the enclosure does not hold feed in the of the cow’s daily concentrate, apportions the cow’s
flights. Open auger feeders distribute feed unevenly daily concentrate allotment. When the cow leaves
along the bunk length. Enclosed augers distribute the stall or eats the allotment, the feeder stops. The
feed more uniformly and provide a mixing action as dispensing rate is slow enough to allow the cow to
the material moves through the tube. eat all the feed that is delivered. The computer
records any unused allotment which is made
available the next time that cow enters the feeding
Auger Conveyors for Grain stall. Some feeders divide the daily allotment
Augers convey grain at any angle from horizontal among four or more periods to ensure multiple
to vertical and can be stationary or portable. They are feedings. Daily feed consumption data can be
relatively low cost and come in many diameters and printed out for each cow, assisting the producer with
capacities. Compared with other conveyors, augers record keeping.
generally have low capacity per horsepower, espe- Advances in electronic technology in the past 10
cially for wet grains. For example, compared with dry years have provided the opportunity to control and
shelled corn, high moisture shelled corn requires monitor the concentrate intake of individual cows
nearly twice the horsepower for half the capacity. housed and fed in groups in freestall barns. A number
Augers are commonly used to remove high moisture of available systems can allocate up to three concen-
grain from a silo. trate sources or ingredients to each cow. An elec-
The flex auger or coreless auger is a high tensile tronic feeder:
spring auger that rotates in an enclosed PVC tube. It ■ Permits control and allocation of concentrate
is used to move high and low moisture grains and to each individual cow based on her
concentrates. A variation of the flex auger is a device requirements.
in which the auger is pushed along the tube length by ■ Provides a system of monitoring the actual
ors. Carts can be used to deliver forage or concen- supplements and varied proportions of
trate. The self-propelled carts dispense feed using three concentrates to individual cows
augers or chain aprons. Unloading can occur at the in the herd.
bottom or top of the cart depending on the bunk or ■ Can be used to gradually increase or
rate accurately to one-tenth of a pound. Also avail- calibration to monitor and adjust concentrate
able is a computerized dual feed cart that can meter delivery rates for individual cows based on
feed accurately to one-tenth of a pound and can be milk production, body condition and age.
programmed for a capacity of 400 cows. Feed carts ■ Bases concentrate feeding schedules on
with a capacity of 30 bushels that weigh and mix a assumed forage intake, which may, in fact,
TMR also are available. be less than desired.
■ Requires time and labor to formulate
Supplemental concentrate feeding is needed for ■ Allows individual cows to select the ratio of
operations where dividing cows into feeding groups forage to grain consumed.
is not possible. A computer-controlled concentrate ■ Cannot force a cow to eat her daily allotment
Table 9-14. Commodity storage densities and Example 9-1. Sizing commodity storage.
storage requirements. Determine the commodity storage required for a semi
Based on Proceedings: Alternative Feeds for Dairy load of soybean meal.
and Beef Cattle, and American Feed Industry Associa-
tion publications. Solution:
Description Density, Storage Assuming the semi capacity is 24 ton, storage need per
lb/ft 3 Vol., ft 3/ton ton of soybean meal is 48 ft3/ton, Table 9-14. Allowing
25% extra storage, the storage required for soybean
Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 13% 16-18 111-125
meal is:
Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 17% 18-22 91-111
Barley, ground 24-26 77-83 24 ton x 48 ft3/ton x 1.25 = 1,440 ft3
Barley, malt 30-31 65-67
Blood meal 39 52 A 16-foot wide by 30-foot long bay will be filled about
Bone meal 50-60 33-40 3 feet deep (1,440 cu ft/(30 ft x 16 ft)).
Brewers dried grain 14-15 133-143
Brewers grain, spent, dry 25-30 67-80
Brewers grain, wet 55-60 33-36
Calcium carbonate 75 27
Corn distillers dried grains 18 111
Sizing Grain Storages
Corn distillers dried soluble 25-26 77-80
Grain can be stored at harvest or delivered when
Corn, whole shelled 45 44
needed. The biggest bin is not always the least costly
Cottonseed hulls 12 167
per bushel of storage. Bins should not exceed half of
Cottonseed oil meal 37-40 50-54
the total volume of the operation. Size the bin using
Cottonseed with lint 18-25 80-111 Table 9-14. See Grain Drying, Handling and Storage
Cottonseed, delinted 25-35 57-80 Handbook, MWPS-13, and Managing Dry Grain in
Dairy, concentrates 43 47 Storage, AED-20, for more information on drying,
Dried beet pulp 11-16 125-182 storing and aerating grain. Ground shelled corn,
Dried citrus pulp 21 98 ground ear corn and whole-shelled corn can also be
Hay, loose 5 400 stored in upright silos. Select silo size from Tables
Hay, pressed 8 250 9-16 and 9-17.
Limestone 68 29
Malt sprouts 13-16 125-154
Table 9-15. Storage capacity for round grain bins.
Milo, ground 32-36 56-63 Capacity does not include space above eave line.
Oats, rolled 19-24 83-105 Based on 1.25 cu ft per bushel.
Oats, whole 25-35 57-80 Depth of grain, ft
Phosphate, tricalcium 21 95 Diameter
Diameter,, ft 1 11 13 16 19
Rice, hulls 20-21 95-100 - - - - - - - - - - - - Bushel - - - - - - - - - - -
Sorghum, grain 32-35 57-63
14 125 1,375 1,625 2,000 2,375
Soybean hulls, ground 20 100 18 203 2,200 2,635 3,250 3,850
Soybean hulls, unground 6-7 286-333 21 277 3,050 3,600 4,400 5,300
Soybean meal (solvent) 42 48 24 362 4,000 4,700 5,800 6,900
Soybean oil meal (Expeller) 36-40 50-56 27 458 5,050 5,950 7,300 8,700
Soybeans, grain 46-48 42-43 30 565 6,215 7,345 9,040 10,735
Wheat middlings (std) 18-25 80-111 36 814 8,950 10,600 13,000 15,450
Wheat, ground 38-39 51-53 40 1,005 11,050 13,050 16,100 19,100
Table 9-16. Upright silo capacity for ground shelled corn.
For 30% moisture grain and 68 lb/bu (1.25 ft3/bu) density. Capacities allow for 1' of unused depth and are 135
rounded to the nearest 5 ton and 10 bu. Capacity increases 5% with moisture contents between 25%-35%.
Capacity also varies with fineness of grind and filling procedures. Values based on no settling or compaction of Chapter 9
material. Because some settling and compaction will occur, these values should be considered minimums. Feeding Facilities
DM = dry matter.
Silo Unit of Silo diameter
diameter,, ft
height, ft measure 10 12 14 16 17 18 20
20 Wet ton 40 60 80 105 — — —
Ton DM 30 40 55 75 — — —
Bushel 1,200 1,730 2,370 3,100 — — —
28 Wet ton 60 85 115 150 170 190 230
Ton DM 40 60 80 105 120 135 160
Bushel 1,700 2,470 3,330 4,370 4,930 5,530 6,830
36 Wet ton — 110 145 190 215 245 300
Ton DM — 75 100 135 150 170 210
Bushel — 3,170 4,330 5,630 6,370 7,130 8,800
44 Wet ton — — 180 235 265 300 365
Ton DM — — 125 165 185 210 255
Bushel — — 5,300 6,900 7,800 8,770 10,800
52 Wet ton — — — 280 315 355 435
Ton DM — — — 195 220 250 305
Bushel — — — 8,200 9,270 10,400 12,830
60 Wet ton — — — 325 365 410 510
Ton DM — — — 230 255 285 355
Bushel — — — 9,570 10,800 12,100 14,930
Table 9-17. Upright silo capacity for ground ear and whole shelled corn.
For 30% moisture shelled corn and 27% kernel moisture (32% blend moisture) ear corn and 60 lb/bu (1.25 ft3/
bu) density. Capacities allow for 1' of unused depth and are rounded to the nearest 5 ton and 10 bu. Capaci-
ties increase approximately 5% with moisture contents between 25%-35%. Capacities also vary with fineness
of grind and filling procedure. Values based on no settling or compaction of material. Because some settling
and compaction will occur, these values should be considered minimums. DM = dry matter.
Silo Unit of Silo diameter, ft
height, ft measure 10 12 14 16 17 18 20
20 Wet ton 35 50 70 95 — — —
Ton DM 25 35 50 65 — — —
Bushel 1,200 1,730 2,370 3,100 — — —
28 Wet ton 50 75 100 130 150 165 205
Ton DM 35 55 70 90 105 115 145
Bushel 1,700 2,470 3,330 4,370 4,930 5,530 6,830
36 Wet ton — 95 130 170 190 215 265
Ton DM — 65 90 120 135 150 185
Bushel — 3,170 4,330 5,630 6,370 7,130 8,800
44 Wet ton — — 160 205 235 265 325
Ton DM — — 110 145 165 185 230
Bushel — — 5,300 6,900 7,800 8,770 10,800
52 Wet ton — — — 245 280 310 385
Ton DM — — — 170 195 215 270
Bushel — — — 8,200 9,270 10,400 12,830
60 Wet ton — — — 285 325 365 450
Ton DM — — — 200 230 255 315
Bushel — — — 9,570 10,800 12,100 14,930
136
Chapter 9
Feeding Facilities
Chapter 10
Utilities
Joe Zulovich, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Missouri
A ll the planning and designing that goes into a dairy facility can be wasted if
the utilities are not properly designed to meet the needs. Utilities for dairy
facilities include:
Provisions must be made for times of drought, high water usage, and power
outages. Always check with the insurer, milk inspector, power supplier, local
building official, and electric power supplier, where applicable, for information
on approved construction practices before making major changes or installing
new utilities.
137
Table 10-2. Safety characteristics of water sources.
138 Water treatment may be needed to remove undesirable minerals.
Chapter 10 Treatment usually
Utilities recommended to
be safe for
Source Primary uses Safety DOMESTIC use
Drilled well (properly located) Domestic and livestock Usually best of all sources None, unless subject to
contamination
Dug, jetted, driven, or bored well Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination
Spring Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination
Cistern (untreated water) Domestic, livestock, and Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination
fire protection and filtration
Farm pond Livestock and fire protection Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination
and filtration
Stream or lake Livestock and fire protection Subject to contamination Stream not
recommended for
domestic use without
extensive treatment
Controlled catchment Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination
and filtration
Hauled water Domestic Good if hauled from safe None if safely stored,
source in safe but chlorination is
containers desirable
Community water system Domestic, livestock, and Good if properly None by user, but if
fire protection maintained stored underground,
chlorinate
Consider intermediate water storage under these storage and forces it into a pressure tank. Size the
conditions: second pump to provide the peak use flow rate. If the
■ Water source and pressure tank cannot deliver water source tends to decrease or dry up for short
the required peak flow rate. periods, size the storage to meet the operation’s
■ Water sources do not sufficiently meet peak minimum requirement for one day’s total water usage.
two-hour capacity (the largest volume of water Fire protection requires large quantities of water to
needed in any two hours). be available on short notice. For fire protection,
■ Standby power is not available. In this instance, provide 1,200 to 6,000 gallons of intermediate water
elevate the water storage tank for gravity feed storage to maintain 10 to 50 gpm of water flow for
to waterers. two hours.
Hot
Commercial Waterer
Neutral
Float Valve and Cover
Ground
See Mfg's Instructions
Rain tight Fused For Wiring Waterer.
Switch box
Bolt Ground Wire To Frame
Secure Ground Wire of Waterer and Grounding
to Frame of Waterer, Terminal in Switch.
26"
Neutral Conductor,
Shell of Switch, Optional Step,
Ground Rod, and 6" to 8" Wide x 6" to 8" High x
Equipotential Plane 5" Platform.
in Concrete Pad
Wire in Non-metalic Conduit Heating Cable for
Cold Climate, 30 to 40
Ground Rod Clamp 4% Slope
watts/sq.ft. Locate 1"
(½"/ft) Below Surface.
Type "UF" Wire or
18"
Non-Metalic Schedule 40
Conduit, 2 conductors 6"x6" #10 Wire Mesh Connected
Plus Ground Wire. 4" min Insulation to Electric Grounding System
4" to 6" Gravel Fill
Lay slack to avoid
Frost Damage. Provide stop 6" Tile in Southern States,
and Waste 12" Tile in Northern States,
Valve to Drain Extend 3 Min. Below Frost Line.
8' Ground Rod Line in Severe
Climate.
Pressure Water Supply with
Shut Off Valve.
requirements.
■ Local building officials where applicable.
Table 10-4. Recommended illumination levels
Wherever possible, provide service through a (ASAE, 1997)
single service entrance panel with enough circuit W ork Area or TTask
ask Illumination level (fc)
breakers to meet present needs and some future Freestall feeding area 20
expansion. If multiple service entrance/distribution Housing & resting area 10
panels are required to meet the needs of the installa- Holding area 10
tion, install a separate main disconnecting switch Treatment and maternity areas
ahead of the multiple panels. Each distribution General lighting 20
Surgery 100
panel is then wired as a subpanel from the main
Milking parlor
disconnects.
General lighting 20
Article 547 of the National Electrical Code Operator pit 50
requires all electrical equipment used in livestock Milk room
facilities to be corrosion resistant, waterproof, and General lighting 20
dustproof. Light fixtures must be watertight. Use only Washing area 100
Type UF cable or appropriate conductors in non- Bulk tank interior 100
Loading platform 20
metallic conduit. Surface mounting (i.e., not recessed
Utility or equipment room 20
into or concealed in walls or ceiling) of all electrical
Storage room 10
equipment is recommended and is required by some
Office 50
insurance companies.
followed by 8 hours of darkness results in: Table 10-5. Color characteristic temperature and
142 color rendition index values for common lights.
■ A 5 to 16% increase in milk production.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lights Table 10-6. Typical mounting heights and horizontal
Metal halide, high pressure sodium, and mercury separation distances for select lights to produce
vapor lights are part of a group of long lasting high an illumination level of 20 fc.
intensity discharge lights. They are used to light Lamp Mounting Separation
large areas for extended periods of time. Type heights (ft) distance (ft)
HID lamps require time to start and warm up before Standard fluorescent
becoming fully lit. Start time varies from lamp to (32 W, T-8) 7 to 8 10 to 16
lamp, but the average warm-up time is 2 to 6 minutes. HLO fluorescent
HID lamps also have a “restrike” time, which means (32 W, T-8) 9 to 12 12 to 20
the lamp cannot restart for several minutes (5 to 15 Metal halide and High
minutes) after a momentary power interruption that pressure sodium
175 W 11 to 14 24 to 28
extinguishes the lamp. HID lamps are used where 250 Wa 14 to 24 24 to 30
lamps are left on for extended periods of time (not 400 Wa 20 to 35 25 to 40
switched on and off intermittently). a
Typical for 96- to 112-foot wide freestall barns with 12 foot
Metal halide lights put out a fairly white light sidewalls and a 4:12 roof slope.
mount fluorescent lights below structural members Lighting Design
144
and other equipment to minimize shadows. Select lamps that have appropriate mounting
Chapter 10 Metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps can heights for the area being lit, Table 10-6. Use Table
Utilities be either mounted directly (i.e., hard-wired) to a 10-7 to determine the number of lamps need to
structural member or suspended on a sturdy chain light an area needing either 10 to 20 fc (i.e.,
using a hook, cord, and plug (HCP). HCP mounting is feeding area, resting area, holding area, equipment
customary in freestall barns and allows height room, and storage room). Use uniform separation
adjustment to improve light distribution and unifor- distances to increase light uniformity. Energy
mity. An eyebolt is preferable to a simple hook when efficient high wattage lights can provide the same
attaching the chain to the building to prevent the average light level with fewer fixtures than lower
chain from unhooking and the lamp falling. A safety wattage lights. Frequently this reduces equipment
clip on the lamp is also recommended. and installation costs, but increases separation
Consider installing extra light fixtures, such as distance, which can decrease light uniformity and
protected compact fluorescent lights, at waterers and increase shadowing.
leaving these lights on 24 hours per day to encourage Provide at least two lighting circuits in each
drinking during both light and dark periods. Also building. Install light switches near building and
consider installing a standby lamp with battery room entrances. Provide at least one light fixture for
backup in freestall barns to provide emergency light each maternity or calf pen. Locate switches outside
for employees during a power failure. the pen.
Other factors generally not considered in lighting In the milking parlor provide 50 fc of light in the
system design include building surface reflectivity, operator pit and 20 fc of general lighting in the
light loss through open sidewalls (nighttime), light milking parlor. The operator pit lighting can be
loss due to dust and dirt accumulation, and decreased provided with a continuous row of fluorescent light
light output with increasing lamp age. Prompt light (32W - 4 lamps) along the length of the operator pit
replacement and periodic cleaning will minimize mounted 8 feet over the pit floor. Select bulbs with a
light loss over time. color rendition index of 80 or above. Avoid mounting
other equipment below the lights to reduce shadow-
Lighting Controls ing and interference with the lighting. The 20 fc of
Lights in naturally ventilated freestall barns can general lighting can be designed using lamp informa-
be controlled automatically with a timer and a tion and data in Table 10-7. Use watertight lights.
photocell in series or a timer alone to provide the 16 In the milk room provide one fluorescent lights
hours of continuous light recommended for the (32W -4 lamps) over the outer edge of each wash vat
milking herd. The timer and photocell in series is the and an additional light (32W - 4 lamps) per
most energy efficient. The timer turns the lights on 174 square feet of floor area. Install lights near the
and off at set times, while the photocell overrides the bulk tank to light the tank interior but away from
timer (turns the lights off) when there is sufficient bulk tank openings to minimize chances of broken
natural sunlight. glass falling into the tank. All lights must be water-
Naturally ventilated freestall barns often have tight with gasketed, shatterproof diffusers. Consult a
ample natural light during midday. Light levels milk inspector for special lighting regulations of
during early morning and evening hours will bulk tanks.
typically fall below the 10 footcandle minimum. Set
the timer so that the lamps come on during early Safety And Electrical Codes
morning, late evening, and nighttime hours. The Lights installed in dairy barns should meet
photocell needs to be shielded from both interior and National Electric Code (NEC) requirements
exterior lighting to work properly. Position the (NFPA 70, 1996) for use in agricultural buildings.
photocell so that sunlight does not strike it directly Be sure to follow all applicable state electrical
at daybreak. If the freestall barn is oriented so that the codes too. Use UL approved fixtures not UL listed
sidewalls run from east to west, then position the fixtures. Dairy barns are damp and dusty so lights
photocell below the overhang on the northwest installed should be watertight and constructed of
corner. Two-phase timers allow for a manual override. corrosion resistant materials (Article 547). Wiring in
A timer alone can be used to turn the lights on and dairy facilities should also meet NEC requirements
off to provide 16 hours of light. In this case the lights for agricultural buildings (Article 547). To minimize
are on even if there is plenty of sunshine. the potential for fire and stray voltage, a knowledge-
able and qualified electrician should do all wiring.
Table 10-7. Indoor lighting design values.
145
Lamp TType
ype Lamp Size Floor Area (sq ft) per Fixture Floor Area (sq ft) per Fixture
to provide 10 fc to provide 20 fc Chapter 10
Incandescent a
100 W 52 26 Utilities
a
Fluorescent 32 W – 1 lamp, 4' long 87 44
32 W – 2 lamps, 4' long 174 87
32 W – 4 lamps, 8' long 348 174
High Pressure Sodium 150 W b 656 328
(Reflector + Refractor) 250 W b 1,128 564
400 W c 2,050 1,025
High Pressure Sodium 150 W b 512 256
(Refractor only) 250 W b 880 440
400 W c 1,600 800
Metal Halide 150 W b 250 125
(Reflector + Refractor) 250 W b 828 414
400 W c 1,350 675
Metal Halide 150 W b 201 101
(Refractor only) 250 W b 667 333
400 W c 1,088 544
a
Mounting height is 8 feet above the feed manger surface.
b
Use with mounting heights of 10 to 15 feet.
c
Only use 400 W lamps if mounting height is over 15 feet.
at the outlet and via a 2-inch cross connection cross minute of electrical ignitor operation, the fuel
line above the tanks. The tanks must be at least 5 feet and fan should shut off.
from the flame of any heating device and must be ■ If the gas supply is depleted, a manual reset
installed so as to not obstruct access to safety or flame sensor should shut down the heater.
shutoff switches, valves, etc. Install the tank on rigid, ■ If no air is moving through the unit before
non-combustible supports. Slope the tanks towards ignition, a sensor that detects air movement
the outlet end at least 1/4 inch per foot. A shutoff should deactivate the ignition circuit.
valve is required immediately adjacent to the burner ■ If airflow through the unit stops during opera-
supply pipe connection at the bottom of the tank. A tion, the main fuel valve is closed.
vent with at least a 2-inch diameter must extend from ■ If the temperature at the air discharge or at the
the tank to the outside of the building. The fill pipe burner becomes too high, the main fuel valve is
must extend to the outside of the building. closed.
■ If the blower motor becomes overloaded,
air. Unvented heaters include salamander kerosene be a full shut down of the burner.
heaters, hanging unit heaters, gas-fired radiant or
catalytic heaters, etc. To ensure continued safe and efficient operation,
Minimum requirements are: install items properly and then maintain them well.
■ Mechanical ventilation system providing a Use a totally enclosed motor on the heater fan. Place
CONTINUOUS airflow of at least 4 cfm per flame arrestors on the gas lines that lead to heating
1,000 BTU/hr of heater capacity. units or generator engines. Mount regulators 18
(NOTE: Timer controlled fans do not satisfy this inches or higher above ground with the vent facing
requirement.) down.
Establish a regular maintenance schedule. Clean the electrical boxes before restoring power. Inspect electri-
heating elements, fan blades, and output louvers to cal wiring and fuel line connections annually. Check LP
149
enhance complete fuel combustion and heating gas regulators, usually mounted on the exterior of Chapter 10
efficiency. Totally disconnect electric power before buildings. Make sure debris, or snow and ice are not Utilities
cleaning, and be sure no moisture remains in the covering the device or plugging the vent opening.
150
Chapter 10
Utilities
Index
A F H
Alleys Feed Center 125-126 Hay and Straw 122, 129-133
Cross 1, 37, 40 Feeding Headgates 71-72
Drive 1, 38, 83 Alleys 1, 38, 83 Heating
Feeding 1, 38, 83 Bunks 35-36 Devices 147-148
Width 1, 37 Electronic 128 Rejected Heat 54-55
Facilities 117-136 Heaters 87, 147-149
B Fences 2, 13, 35-37 Holding Area 50-52
Bedded Pack 21 Mangers 35-37 Holding Pond 113-114
Bedding 16, 33-34, 92-97 Mobile 38-40, 123, 126 Horizontal Silos 118-119, 131-132
Bins 120-121, 134-136 Stationary 123, 126 Housing
Bird Control 84, 90 Space 2, 13, 35-36 Calf (up to weaning) 14-17
Brisket Boards 29 Total Mixed Rations (TMR) 117, Dry Cows 42-45
Bunks 35-36 122-125 Heifer (6-24 months) 20-26
Fences Milking Herd 27-35
C Electric 146 Replacement 11-26
Calf Housing 14-20 Feeding 2, 13, 35-37 Transition (3-5 months) 17-20
Calf Hutches 14-15 Filter Strips 110-112 Hutches 14-15
Chutes 72 Floors
Commodities 134 Construction 59 I
Commodity Storage 121-122, 133-134 Slip-resistant 34-35 Infiltration area 114
Concentrates 120-122 Slopes 35 Insulation 87-89
Concrete 34-37 Flushing, Manure Handling 100
Construction, Building 58-63, 87-90 Footbaths 70 J, K
Conveyors 127-128 Four-Row Freestall Barns 39-42
Cooling Freestalls 27-35 L
Facilities 81-84 Base and Bedding 33-34 Lighting 60, 141-143
Milk 57-58 Neck rails 33 Lightning 146-147
Counter-slope Barns 21 Partitions 33 Liquid-Solid Separation 112-113
Cross Alleys 1, 40 Reference Point 29-32 Lot runoff 94-96, 112-114
Sizing 1, 13, 29-32
D Types 28-29 M
Doors 90 Freestall Housing 20-26 Management Groups 3, 7-8, 12-13,
Drains 59-60 Four-row 38-40 65-66
Dry Cow Housing 42-45 Limited Bunk Space (Six-row) 40 Mangers 35-37
Two-Row 38-40 Manure Handling
E Two-Row (Heifer) 20-21 Collection and Transfer 97-104
Electric Fence 146 Two-Row Graduated (Heifer) 21 Flushing 100
Environment Two-Row Gated (Heifer) 21 Gravity Flow 98-99, 102-104
Building Ventilation 75-90 Dry Cows 42-45 Land Application 114-115
Cold Housing 14-15 Fuel Scraping 97, 102
Hot Weather Management 80-81 Heating Oil 148 Slotted Floors 97-98
Warm Housing 14 Natural Gas 147-148 Manure Management 91-116
Cold Weather Management 80 Propane 147 Manure Production 3, 92-96
Electrical Manure Spills 114
Fences 146 G Manure Storage 93-94, 104-110
Grounding 60-62 Grain Storage 120-122 Maternity Area 42-43
Lighting 60, 141-143 Gravity Flow Channel 98-99 Milk Heat Recovery 58
Stray Voltage 60-63 Groups, Management 3, 7-8, 12-13, Milk Room 53
Emergency Action Plan 114-116 67-68
151
Milking Center Replacement Housing 11-26 Stray Voltage 60-63
Facility 47-53 Roads 126-127 Super Hutches 17-19
Holding Area 50-52 Rodents 90
Milk Room 53 Roofs 80 T
Office 53 Runoff 94-96, 112-114 Total Mixed Rations (TMR) 17,
Parlors 47-50 122-125
Storage Room 53 S Transition Housing 17-20
Utility Room 52 Safety Passes 72-73 Treatment Areas
Milking equipment 56-58 (See also Personnel Passes) Facilities 13, 66-71
Milking parlors Scraping, Manure Handling 97, 102 Pens 67-68
Flat Barn 48 Separation Facilities 66 Stalls 67-68
Herringbone 48 Septic Tank 53-54, 110 Toilets 53-54
Parallel 48 Settling Basin 112
Rotary 48-49 Settling Tank 110-112 U
Side Opening 48 Silage Bags 119-120 Upright Silos 120, 130-131
Others 49 Silage Piles 120 Utilities 137-149
Silos Utility room 52
N Horizontal 118-119, 131-133
Neck Rails 33 Upright (tower) 120, 130-131 V
Site Ventilation
O Selection 6-8 Attic 87
Observation Areas 66 Layouts 6-8, 37-42 Eave, ridge, wall openings 77-80
Operators Pit 51-52 Six-Row Freestall Barns 40 Manure Pit 87
(Limited Bunk Space) Milking Center 55-56
P Slip-resistant floors 34-35 Mechanical 14, 84-86
Palpation Facility 73 Slopes Natural 76-84
Parlors 47-50 Alleys 39 Troubleshooting 84
Pasture 45 Floor 59
Pens Space Requirements W
Heifer 2, 20 Resting 2, 13, 27-34 Walls 58-59, 88-90
Maternity 2, 42-43, 71 Feed and Water 3, 15, 37-38, Water Supply 58, 94, 137-141
Special Needs 2, 66-71 140-142 Waterers 37
Personnel Passes 42 Special Handling Areas 65-73 Windows 90
Separation Facilities 66
Q Stall Base 33-34 X, Y, Z
Standby Power 145-146
R Storage
Rapid Exit Stalls 50 Feed 117-122, 129-136
Reception Pits 104 Grain 120-122, 134-136
Remodeling 8 Hay 120, 133
Manure 93-94, 104-110
Silage 118-120, 130-136
152
References