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UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY

GROUP: MT-1/ DN-1/ EH-1/ AS-1/BENG-1

MODULE: GENERAL CHEMISTRY I (CHY2021)
__________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 9: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Assigned Reading: Chapt. 15 Chemistry – The Central Science, 11th edition

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM: The condition where the concentrations of all reactants and
products no longer change with time is called chemical equilibrium
What is actually going on?
• At chemical equilibrium, the forward rate of the reaction, that produces product(s), and the
backwards rate of reaction, that produces reactant(s) are equal
• One condition for reaching equilibrium is that there is no process by which the reactant(s) or
product(s) are removed from the system
Familiar examples of equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is similar, but deals with rates of chemical reactions

I The Concept of Equilibrium

At equilibrium the rate at which products are formed from reactants equals the rate at which products
break down to form reactants
Consider the unimolecular elementary reaction process:
A -> B
The forward rate constant (kf) will therefore be different from the reverse reaction rate constant (kr)
Forward reaction rate = kf [A]
Reverse reaction rate = kr [B]
• At the beginning there is no B, therefore, the reverse reaction rate is 0 (since [B] = 0). At the
beginning there is a lot of A, so the forward reaction rate is high (since [A] = large)
• As time goes by (as it always does) the concentration of A decreases (as it is used up).
Therefore the forward reaction rate slows down. Also, the concentration of B starts to build up.
Therefore, the reverse reaction rate starts to increase.
• At some point, the forward and reverse reaction rates will balance out and equal each other.
Note that this does not necessarily mean the concentrations of A and B equal each other. For
the rates to be equal, the product of (kf * [A]) must equal( kr *[B]). Therefore, the
concentrations of A and B will be equal at equilibrium only if kf = kr.
Forward Rate = Reverse Rate
kf [A] = kr [B]
• This equation can be rearranged to relate the concentration of A to B at equilibrium:

What this means is that at equilibrium the ratio of the concentration of B to A will always have the
same value
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• Once equilibrium is established, the concentrations of A and B do not change
• This does not mean that all reactions have stopped. Rather it means that the rates of the
forward and backward reactions are equal to each other, and therefore, there is no net change
in the concentration of reactant and product
• This is known as a dynamic equilibrium. The forward and reverse reactions are represented by
a double arrow in the chemical equation:

At dynamic equilibrium:
• The concentrations of A and B are constant
• The forward and reverse reaction rates are equal

II The Equilibrium Constant

The Haber Process
• In the Haber Process, N2 and H2 are placed together in a high-pressure tank (at several hundred
atmospheres pressure), and at a temperature of several hundred °C (and in the presence of a
catalyst also).
• Under these conditions the two gases react to produce ammonia:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)
• The reaction seems to stop at a certain point, and some N2(g) and H2(g) remain in the sample
(along with the ammonia that is produced)
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Expressing Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp
• Kc indicates that the equilibrium constant is in terms of concentration (in molar units)
• When reactants and products in a reaction are all gases we can use partial pressures in the
equilibrium equation

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants

Given the following general equation for a reaction, and the associated equilibrium expression

To summarize the interpretation for the magnitude of the equilibrium constant:

K >> 1 Products favored
K << 1 Reactants favored
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K
By definition, equilibrium implies that we have both a "forward" and a "backward" reaction in a
balanced chemical equation.
• "Forward" and "backward" are thus relative terms
Consider the following reaction:

• Experimentally, the value of Kc for this expression equals 0.212 (@100°C)

We could, however, just as equally valid, consider the reaction to be the following:

• The equilibrium expression in this case would be:

• The value of Kc in this case would be (1/0.212) = 4.72

The equilibrium expression for a reaction written in one direction is the reciprocal of the one for the
reaction written in the reverse direction
Therefore, an equilibrium constant, in the absence of information about the direction of the reaction, is
ambiguous (i.e. meaningless)

Calculating Equilibrium Constants

In one experiment a mixture of H2, N2 and NH3 was allowed to reach equilibrium conditions at 472°C.
The concentration of gases at equilibrium was analyzed and found to contain 0.1207M H2, 0.0402M N2
and 0.00272M NH3. What value did Haber come up with for the equilibrium constant, Kc?

Kc = (0.00272)2/(0.0402)(0.1207)3 = 0.105
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(equilibrium lies to the left, not much ammonia will be present at equilibrium conditions)

Often we do not know (or are not easily able to determine) the concentration of all products and
reactants at equilibrium
• However, if we know the concentration of reactants and products at the start of the experiment,
and the concentration of at least one product or reactant at equilibrium, and we know the
stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation, we can determine the values of the other
reactants and products
The steps in this method are as follows:
1. List the known initial and equilibrium concentrations of all reactants and products involved in
the equilibrium
2. For those reactants or products, for which both the initial and equilibrium concentrations are
known, calculate the change in concentration that occurs as the system reaches equilibrium
3. Use the stoichiometry of the reaction to calculate the predicted changes in concentration for all
the other reactants and products in the equilibrium
4. From the initial concentrations, and the changes in concentration, calculate the equilibrium
concentrations (and Kc)

Example:
In one of Haber's experiments, 0.025 mol of H2(g) and 0.010 mol of N2(g) are combined in a 2L vessel
at 472°C. The mixture is allowed to come to equilibrium and the concentration of NH3(g) is observed
to be 3.18 x 10-5M. Calculate Kc for the Haber reaction at this temperature.
1. The known initial and equilibrium concentrations for the different compounds are:
Initial concentrations:
H2(g) is 0.025 mol / 2L = 0.0125M
N2(g) is 0.010 mol / 2L = 0.005M
NH3(g) is 0M initially
Final (equilibrium) concentrations:
H2(g) ?
N2(g) ?
NH3(g) is 3.18 x 10-5M
2. Initial and final concentrations are known only for NH3(g):
∆[NH3(g)] = Equilibrium concentration - Initial concentration
∆[NH3(g)] = 3.18 x 10-5M - 0M = 3.18 x 10-5M = the amount of ammonia produced in
the reaction
3. Stoichiometry of balanced equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g), therefore, stoichiometry is:

[N2] 3[H2] 2[NH3]

Thus, if 3.18 x 10-5M of NH3 is being produced,
(3.18 x 10-5M NH3) * (1 N2 / 2 NH3) = 1.59 x 10-5M of N2 must have been consumed
and
(3.18 x 10-5M NH3) * (3 H2 / 2 NH3) = 4.77 x 10-5M of H2 must have been consumed
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4. Calculation of concentration of all reactants and products at equilibrium by knowing initial
concentrations and how much was consumed:
N2 started with 0.005M, and 1.59 x 10-5M of N2 was consumed, therefore, at
equilibrium there was (0.005M - 1.59 x 10-5M) = 4.98 x 10-3M of N2
H2 started with 0.0125M, and 4.77 x 10-5M of H2 was consumed, therefore, at
equilibrium there was (0.0125M - 4.77 x 10-5M) = 1.245 x 10-2M of H2
NH3 concentration at equilibrium was given as 3.18 x 10-5M
Kc = [NH3]2/[N2][H2]3 = (3.18 x 10-5)2 / (4.98 x 10-3)(1.245 x 10-2)3
= (1.01 x 10-9) / (4.98 x 10-3)(1.95 x 10-6)
= 0.104

Relating Kc and Kp
For a gas we can express the equilibrium constant in terms of concentration (molarity) or in units of
pressure. How are these related?

• Molarity relates the number of moles per unit volume (n/V)

• The ideal gas law, PV = nRT, includes terms for both number of moles and volume
PV = nRT
P = (n/V)RT
P = MRT
For a gaseous substance, A, the partial pressure of A is equal to the molarity times the gas constant R
and temperature T in Kelvin
PA = [A](RT)
Note: P = MRT can be manipulated to solve for R, the gas constant: R =P/MT. This provides an
interpretation for the meaning of the gas constant - it is a way to relate the molarity of a gas sample to
its pressure and temperature
• Thus, Kc and Kp are related, and in fact
Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
• The value ∆n is the change in the number of moles of gas upon going from reactants to
products. It is equal to the (number of moles of gaseous products - number of moles of gaseous
reactants)
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
∆n = (2 – 1) = 1
Kp = Kc(RT)1 = Kc(RT)
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III Applications of Equilibrium Constants
This section of our study of equilibrium constants deals with various types of calculations, including:
1. How to figure out in which direction a reaction will go (i.e. towards making product, or more
reactant)
2. Calculating equilibrium concentrations. This may involve knowing equilibrium values for some
of the reactants and products and determining the concentration of an unknown.
3. Alternatively, we may be provided with the starting concentrations of reactants and products
and may be asked to find the equilibrium concentrations

The Magnitude of K
The magnitude of the equilibrium constant, K, indicates the extent to which a reaction will proceed: ie.
small or large K values.
Knowing the value of the equilibrium constant, K, will allow us to determine:
• The direction a reaction will proceed to achieve equilibrium
• The ratios of the concentrations of reactants and products when equilibrium is reached

Predicting the Direction of a Reaction

The value of Kc for the Haber reaction at 472°C is 0.105. If we place the following amounts of H2(g),
N2(g) and NH3(g) in a 3.0L container at 472°C will the N2(g) and H2(g) react to form more NH3(g)?
N2(g) + 2H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• H2(g) = 0.5 mol
• N2(g) = 8.3 mol
• NH3(g) = 1.8 mol
First of all, we need to convert the amounts of the components into concentrations (mol/L or M). Thus,
we will divide the mol value by the volume of the container (gases expand to fill their container)
• Concentration of H2(g) = 0.5mol/3.0L = 0.167M
• Concentration of N2(g) = 8.3mol/3.0L = 2.77M
• Concentration of NH3(g) = 1.8mol/3.0L = 0.600M
We need to state the equilibrium expression for this reaction, based upon the balanced equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)

Inserting the initial values of reactants and products into the equilibrium expression we get the
following: = (0.600)2/((2.77)*(0.167)3) = 27.9
How does this number compare to the value of the equilibrium constant at this temperature?
• The "initial value of the equilibrium constant" is 27.9, at equilibrium we know that this must
decrease to 0.105
• For the value of Kc to decrease to the experimentally expected value at equilibrium, the
concentration of NH3(g) must decrease, and/or the concentrations of N2(g) and H2(g) must
increase
o Therefore, the reaction would have to proceed to the left (increasing reactants and
decreasing product concentrations)
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When we substituted the initial values for the concentrations of the reactants and products into the
equilibrium expression the number we came up with is called the Reaction Quotient (Q) (i.e. "the
initial value of the equilibrium constant")
• If Q = Kc, then the system is already at equilibrium
• If Q > Kc, then essentially we have too much product and the reaction will proceed to the left
(to reduce the concentration of product and increase the concentration of product)
• If Q < Kc, then essentially we have too little product and the reaction will proceed to the right
(to produce more product and decrease the concentration of reactant)

Calculation of the Equilibrium Concentration of a Reactant or Product

Many types of equilibrium problems deal with determining how much of a product (or reactant) we
will have once a reaction reaches equilibrium.
The following example involves Kp and partial pressures for our friend, the Haber reaction:
At 500° Kp = 1.45 x 10-5 for the Haber reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)

In a sample of N2(g), H2(g) and NH3(g) at equilibrium in a Haber reaction the partial pressure of the
H2(g) is 1.32 atm, and the partial pressure of the N2(g) is 0.648 atm. What is the partial pressure of the
NH3(g) in the equilibrium mixture?
In this problem we have a homogeneous equilibrium of gases and the equilibrium constant, Kp, is
given in terms of partial pressures of the component gases.
• For this reaction, the definition of Kp is given as

• The equilibrium partial pressures of H2(g) and N2(g) are given, as is the value for Kp
1.45 x 10-5 = (PNH3)2 / ((0.648)*(1.32)3)
• We can solve for the partial pressure of NH3(g)
PNH3 = (2.16 x 10-5)1/2
PNH3 = 4.64 x 10-3 atm
If there is any doubt that we have done the calculations correctly, we can substitute this value (along
with the equilibrium partial pressures for H2(g) and N2(g)) into the equilibrium expression and make
sure that we get the correct value for Kp

Solving equilibrium concentrations of all components in a reaction

Sometimes an equilibrium problem will provide the value for the equilibrium constant and the initial
concentration of all species. The question is then to calculate the concentration of all species at
equilibrium. This is a more difficult type of problem.
The following example is one for the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen.
Nitrogen and oxygen can react in the following equation:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
Kc = 2.1 x 10-3 (2500K)
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A reaction is setup with 5.75M N2(g), 4.89M O2(g) and 0M NO(g). What will be the equilibrium
concentrations of all components?
XM = conc of N2(g) that reacts as reaction goes to equilibrium. Therefore:
Equilibrium conc of N2(g) = (5.75M - XM)
From the stoichiometry of the balanced equation, if XM of N2(g) reacts, then an equivalent
concentration of O2(g) must react. Therefore:
Equilibrium conc of O2(g) = (4.89M - XM)
Furthermore, from the stoichiometry of the balanced equation, XM of N2(g) reacting will result in
2XM of NO(g) being produced. Therefore:
Equilibrium concentration of NO(g) = 2XM
Setting up the equilibrium constant equation:
2.1 x 10-3 = [NO]2 / ([N2][O2]) = (2X)2 / {(5.75 - X)(4.89 - X)}
2.1 x 10-3 = 4X2 / (28.1 - 10.6X + X2)
(2.1 x 10-3)*(28.1 - 10.6X + X2) = 4X2
0.0590 - 0.0223X + 0.0021X2 = 4X2
4.00X2 + 0.0223X - 0.059 = 0
Even for simple reaction we are often faced with a quadratic solution for x:
• For equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, the solution(s) for x are given by the quadratic
equation:

• We may have more than one possible solution for x, but only one will make sense

Quadratic solutions: X = 0.119 or -0.124 (can't have a negative value). Therefore, the equilibrium
concentrations are:
N2(g) = (5.75 - 0.119) = 5.63M
O2(g) = (4.89 - 0.119) = 4.77M
NO(g) = (2 * 0.119) = 0.238M
Note: plugging these values back into the equilibrium constant expression will allow us to check our
answer:
Kc = [NO]2 / ([N2][O2]) = (0.238)2 / (5.63)(4.77)
Kc = 2.11 x 10-3
(this is pretty close considering round off errors)

Here is a more complex problem relating to the Haber reaction.

The value of Kc for the Haber reaction at 472°C is 0.105. A 2.0L flask is filled with 0.2 mol of H2(g),
1.8 mol of N2(g) and 0.5 mol of NH3(g). What are the concentrations of H2(g), N2(g) and NH3(g) at
equilibrium?
The equilibrium constant Kc defines the amount of reactant and product in terms of concentration
(moles/L). So the first thing to do is convert all amounts into molar concentrations:
• N2(g): 1.8mol/2.0L = 0.9M
• H2(g): 0.2mol/2.0L = 0.1M
• NH3(g): 0.5mol/2.0L = 0.25M
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Kc defines the equilibrium expression for this reaction:

Next, calculate the reaction quotient, Q, to figure out whether the reaction will go to the right or left to
attain equilibrium:
Q = (0.25)2 / ((0.9)*(0.1)3)
Q = 69.4
• Q = 69.4 is a lot larger than the value of Kc = 0.105. Therefore, we are starting out with too
much product and the reaction will proceed to the left, to produce more reactant.
When the reaction does goes to the left, as predicted by the reaction quotient, the breakdown of NH3(g)
product to produce N2(g) and H2(g) reactants will follow the stoichiometry of the balanced equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)
• Thus, for every mole of NH3(g) that decomposes, 0.5 mole of N2(g) will be produced and 1.5
mole of H2(g) will be produced
• We know that a certain amount of NH3(g) will have to break down in order for the reaction to
achieve equilibrium. We can set this unknown amount to a variable, x
Thus, the concentrations of H2(g), N2(g) and NH3(g) at equilibrium will equal the following:
• Equilibrium concentration of NH3(g) = (starting concentration - amount that decomposes)
= 0.25M - x
• Equilibrium concentration of H2(g) = (starting concentration + (1.5 * amount of NH3(g) that
decomposes))
= 0.1M + 1.5x
• Equilibrium concentration of N2(g) = (starting concentration + (0.5 * amount of NH3(g) that
decomposes))
= 0.9M + 0.5x
The above amounts describe the equilibrium concentrations of the reactants and products and can
therefore be inserted into the description of the equilibrium expression, and are set equal to the value
for Kc:

0.105 = (0.25 - x)2 / ((0.9 + 0.5x)*(0.1 + 1.5x)3)

Although there is only one variable, this is a fairly complicated expression. It turns out that there are
several possible mathematical solutions for x in this equation:

• The first solution (a negative value for x) does not make any sense because product must be
degraded not increased. So we can exclude this solution
• The starting concentration of NH3(g) is 0.25M. The equilibrium concentration is (0.25M - x).
The equilibrium concentration cannot be less than 0. Therefore, any solution greater than 0.25
is meaningless (i.e. incorrect)
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• This leaves only one possible solution, x = 0.178M. Thus the equilibrium concentrations of the
various components in the reaction are:
o Equilibrium concentration of NH3(g) = (0.25M - 0.178) = 0.072M
o Equilibrium concentration of H2(g) = (0.1M + 1.5*0.178) = 0.367M
o Equilibrium concentration of N2(g) = (0.9M + 0.5*0.178) = 0.989M
• Finally, we can check our answer by plugging these values into the equation for the equilibrium
constant and making sure we get the right answer (i.e. 0.105 in this case)

IV Le Châtelier's Principle
In order to try to figure out how to optimize the production of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen,
Haber studied the equilibrium concentrations of ammonia in his famous process:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)
• He noted the equilibrium concentration of ammonia at different temperatures (while keeping
pressure constant)
• He also noted the equilibrium concentration of ammonia at different pressures (while keeping
the temperature constant)

• Haber observed that the equilibrium concentration of ammonia:

o decreased with increasing temperature,
o and increased with increasing pressure
The underlying basis behind both of these phenomena was described by Henri-Louis Le Châtelier; Le
Châtelier's principle:
If a system is in equilibrium, and this equilibrium is perturbed by a change in temperature, pressure
or the concentration of a reactant or product, then the system will shift its equilibrium so as to
counteract the effect of this perturbation

A Change in Reactant or Product Concentration

At equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. Le Châtelier's
principle states that if the concentration of one of the components of the reaction (either product or
reactant) is changed, the system will respond in such a way as to counteract the effect
• If a substance (either reactant or product) is removed from a system, the equilibrium will shift
so as to produce more of that component (and once again achieve equilibrium)
• If a substance (either reactant or product) is added to a system, the equilibrium will shift so as
to consume more of that component (and once again achieve equilibrium)
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As an example, consider the Haber reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g)
What would happen if we started with a Haber reaction at equilibrium, and then suddenly added some
H2(g) to the reaction mix?
• The following is a graphical representation of how the concentrations of the individual
components, and the overall system, would react in response to adding H2(g):

What has happened to the equilibrium of the system in response to the added H2(g)?
• Prior to the addition of H2(g) the system is in equilibrium. This can be seen because the
concentrations of the different components do not change with time (the forward and reverse
rates must be equal)
• When the H2(g) is added, we see that the system responds by consuming N2(g) and producing
NH3(g).
Forward rate = k1 [N2] [H2]3
• The production of NH3(g) requires both N2(g) and H2(g) as reactants. Therefore, the production
of NH3(g) not only consumes N2(g) but also H2(g)
The addition of H2(g) causes the balance of the system to shift in favor of the forward reaction (i.e. the
production of NH3(g) from N2(g) and H2(g). Thus, some of the added H2(g) is consumed, and thus, the
system responds to counteract the perturbation caused by the added H2(g)
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
(reaction is driven "to the right" by the effects of added H2)
• After some time, the system reaches a new state of equilibrium. It will not be identical to the
original state, however. Although the system has responded to resist the effects of the added
H2(g), the new equilibrium state contains a slightly higher concentration of NH3(g), and slightly
lower concentration of N2(g) (as well as a slightly higher concentration of H2(g).
The overall ratio of [NH3]2/([N2]*[H2] 3) is the same as before at equilibrium (i.e. the value of Kc does
not change)
What would happen if we repeated the experiment, but added NH3(g) instead of H2(g)?
• The system would respond by decomposing some of the added NH3(g) and a new equilibrium
condition would be established (with slightly higher concentrations of H2(g) and N2(g) - as well
as slightly higher equilibrium concentrations of NH3(g).
Reverse rate = k-1 [NH3]2
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• At the new equilibrium the concentrations of reactants and product is slightly different from
before, but Kc has the same value

Effects of Volume and Pressure changes

A chemical system in equilibrium can respond to the effects of pressure also. According to Le
Châtelier's Rule, if the pressure is increased on a system, it will respond by trying to reduce the
pressure. How does it do this?
• We are primarily concerned with homogeneous gaseous reactions
• The stoichiometry of the reaction may lead to a greater number of molecules on one side of the
equation.
• For example, in the Haber reaction, N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g) there are twice as many
moles of reactants as products
• If the Haber reaction were in equilibrium, and the pressure was increased, the reaction would
respond to oppose the increase in pressure. It could accomplish this by shifting the equilibrium
to the right (producing NH3(g))
o This would reduce the overall number of moles in the reaction, and therefore, lower the
pressure
An interesting point about pressure effects is that they do not cause a change in the value of the
equilibrium constant, K (as long as T is held constant). Their affects are upon concentration of
reactants and products
• For the Haber process at 472°C, the value of K is 0.105. An example of one such system in
equilibrium at this temp might include [H2]=0.121M, [N2]=0.0402M and [NH3]=0.00272M
• K for the Haber process is defined as [NH3]2/([N2]*[H2]3)
• If the volume of the sample is suddenly decreased by half, from the ideal gas equation the
concentrations of the components in the sample have doubled (and the pressure has doubled):
PV = nRT
P = (n/V)RT
• The concentration of the components in this reaction at this new pressure would therefore be
[H2]=0.242M, [N2]=0.0804M and [NH3]=0.00544M
• The reaction quotient, Q, at this new condition would therefore be: (0.00544)2/(0.0804*0.2423)
= 0.0262. This is less than K=0.105, thus, in response, the reaction equilibrium shifts to the
right, consuming reactants and producing NH3(g) product.
• This shift to the right reduces the number of molecules, therefore, the pressure is reduced.

Effect of Temperature Changes

The intrinsic value of K does not change when we increase concentrations or pressures of components
in a reaction. However, almost every equilibrium constant (K) changes in response to changes in
temperature.
Once again, we can apply Le Châtelier's rule in order to predict the effects of temperature changes
upon chemical reactions
• Most chemical reactions have some heat change associated with the reaction. (Note, the energy
of a reaction can be used to either do work - i.e. accelerate an object against some force - or to
change temperature. We will consider reaction conditions under which no work is done, and
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therefore all energy changes associated with reactions will be manifested by temperature
changes)
• Exothermic reactions are associated with heat release when the reaction proceeds in the
forward direction
• Endothermic reactions are associated with heat release when the reaction proceeds in the
reverse direction (i.e. heat is absorbed in the forward direction)
• These two types of reactions and their associated heat changes can be written as:
Exothermic: Reactants Products + Heat
Endothermic: Reactants + Heat Products
• If temperature is increased, the equilibrium will shift so as to minimize the effect of the added
heat
The reaction will shift in the appropriate direction such that the added heat is absorbed
• When heat is added to exothermic reactions at equilibrium, products will be consumed to
produce reactants (shift to the LEFT)
• When heat is added to endothermic reactions at equilibrium, reactants will be consumed to
produce products (shift to the RIGHT)
Based on this behavior, what is the effect of T upon K?
• Assume K = 1.0 for an exothermic reaction at equilibrium.
• Added heat causes the reaction to shift to the left.
Reactants <= Products + Heat
• Thus, 1.0 must represent a reaction quotient, Q, that is too large in comparison to the new value
of K.
• Thus, the effect of increasing temperature on an exothermic reaction is to lower the value of K.
• Conversely, the effect of increasing temperature on an endothermic reaction is to increase the
value of K

The Effect of Catalysts

• A catalyst lowers the activation energy barrier, Ea:

• Although the activation energy barrier is a different magnitude for the forward and reverse
reactions, the change in the activation energy (∆Ea) is the same for both the forward and
reverse reactions
• Therefore, a catalyst changes the rate at which equilibrium is achieved, but does not change the
composition of the equilibrium mixture (i.e. does not alter the equilibrium constant, K)