GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Components of Neurons

Wednesday & Friday (9:30am – 11:00am)  Cell membrane – surrounds the entire neuron
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- giving it shape and shielding the internal fluids
known as the cytoplasm.
CHAPTER 4  Dendrites – are short, branchlike fibers that
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR receive signals or information from the receptors
or from other neurons.
Biopsychology  Soma (cell body) – contains the nucleus; involved
 Is the study of how biological processes, in the metabolic or energy regulation processes
particularly the nervous system and brain activity of the cell.
and glandular processes, relate to behavior.  Axon – sends the signal from the cell body to
other neurons, muscles and glands.
D.O. Hebb – presented the first comprehensive theory of  Terminal buttons – the small knobs at the end of
how perceptions, emotions, thoughts and memories the branched axon directly involved in
might be produced by brain activity. transmitting a signal from one neuron to the
next.
The nervous system is divided into two: Central NS and  Myelin sheath – a fatty protein substance that
Peripheral NS covers some axons and function to accelerate
the transmission of neural signals.
Functions of Nervous System  Synapse – the point of contact between neurons
 Input (receiving information) o Presynaptic membrane - sends the
 Processing (integrating the information with past message;
experiences) o Postsynaptic membrane - the
 Output (activating or guiding the various membrane of the receiving side of the
mechanisms for the appropriate action) synapse.

The nervous system is able to operate partly because it is
made up of cells that form an elaborate communication
network.
2 major types of cells:
1. Neurons
2. Glial cells – hold the neurons together, help them to
communicate by directing their growth, and secrete
chemicals to restore damage.
The Neuron
NEURONS have a nucleus, are encased in membrane,
and contain an assortment of tiny structures. But unlike
other cells, neurons are capable of communicating or
interacting with one another.
Different types of Neurons:
 Afferent or sensory neurons – convey messages
from the sense organs to the brain;
 Efferent or motor neurons – relay messages from
the brain to the glands and muscles.
 Interneurons – carry impulses from one neurons
to another.
The Nature of the Nerve Impulse
Ions – are electrically charged molecules found in varying
numbers inside and outside of each nucleus.
2 types:
 Positive – potassion (K) and Sodium (Na)
 Negative – chloride (Cl)
The Nature of the Nerve Impulse
Neuron in a resting state: When the neuron is not
sending or receiving signal. The inside of the neuron is
about-70 millivolts (one thousandth of volt) when it is at
rest. This electrical charge of a neuron at rest is resting
potential.
Message arriving from other neurons changes the resting
potential until it reaches a threshold, the point at which
a nerve impulse is trigged or fired. The threshold
averages about – 50 millivolts. When a neuron reaches
this point, a nerve impulse or action potential sweeps
down the axon.
The threshold for firing makes the action potential an
all-or-nothing event, i.e., an impulse occurs completely
or not at all.

Neurotransmitters – are stored in tiny packets called
synaptic vesicles that are located in the terminal buttons.
These are substances that facilitate transmission of
information from one neuron to another.
Types of Neurotransmitters
Norepinephrine – memory and learning
Endorphin – inhibits pain
Acetylcholine – movement and memory
Dopamine – learning, emotional arousal, and movement
Serotonin – modulation of anger, mood, eating, sleep
and sexuality
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – Located within the
skull and spine; Compose of brain and spinal
cord
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – Located
outside the skull and spine; Muscles and glands
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
Compose of 2 division:
 Somatic nervous system (SNS)- Control voluntary
activities (action we decide to do)
 Autonomic nervous system(ANS) – Regulates
involuntary activities (activities that ordinarily
occur automatically, like heartbeat, blinking of
the eye, stomach activity )
2 KINDS OF ANS
 SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-active when
we deal with danger and stress
 PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-slows
down from arousal of sympathetic system
Central Nervous System
Spinal cord - Acts like a cable connecting the brain to the
other part of the body;
Reflex Arc- the simplest behavior pattern can be carried
out within spinal cord w/o requiring any help from the
brain
Brain
Develops initially as a simple fluid-filled tube. This tune
gets larger and changes in shape, developing into
separate fluid-filled chambers. Weights 2 % of body
weight; consumes approximately 20 % of the oxygen that
the individual breath.
Division of Brain
Hindbrain (brain stem) – located at the top of the spinal
cord; Connects the spinal cord with the rest of the brain;
hindbrain consists of the following:
 Medulla – controls automatic responses
(breathing, swallowing, blood circulation)
 Pons – links the 2 halves of the brain at the
hindbrain level.
 Cerebellum – coordinates muscular movements
(walking, talking posture) its damage may cause
cerebral palsy.
The hindbrain is comprised of important structures that
are responsible for sensory and motor function of head
and neck structures, regulate heart rate, breathing and
level of consciousness, and coordinate movements.
It has been found to play a role in cognition, behavior
and emotional regulation, and studying hindbrain
malformation disorders provides an opportunity to
understand the role of the hindbrain in cognition,
since most patients with hindbrain malformations have
cognitive impairment.
Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder that affects muscle tone,
movement, and motor skills. CP is usually caused by
brain damage that occurs before or during a child's birth,
or during the first 3 to 5 years of a child's life.
The brain damage that leads to cerebral palsy can also
lead to other health issues, including vision, hearing, and
speech problems, and learning disabilities.
The three types of CP are:
spastic cerebral palsy — causes stiffness and movement
difficulties
athetoid cerebral palsy — leads to involuntary and
uncontrolled movements
ataxic cerebral palsy — causes a disturbed sense of
balance and depth perception

Midbrain – lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain;
it is composed of reticular formation, which is very
important in controlling the level of arousal or alertness.
Reticular formation is a complex network of fibers that
connect the higher brain centers to the lower parts.
In cases of reticular activating system damage, a coma
may result. Due to the location of the RAS at the back of
the head, this area is particularly prone to being
damaged in automobile accidents.
Unusual activity in the RAS area of the brain has been
linked with sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, and with
chronic fatigue syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, and
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).
Other than trauma, there are a number of things that
affect the RAS, such as drugs and chemicals.
Melatonin also affects this area of the brain, and general
anesthetics work by turning off consciousness via the
RAS.
The reticular activating system appears to play an
important role in dreaming.
 Scientific observation using brain scans and
electronic equipment shows that during deep
sleep, the activity in this area is much reduced.
 During rapid eye movement (REM) sleep,
however, which is when dreaming occurs, the
activity in the reticular activating system
increases to levels similar to those that are seen
during wakefulness.
Forebrain – the largest and most complicated part of the
brain, consists of the cerebral cortex and subcortical
structures (limbic system, hypothalamus, thalamus, and
basal ganglia).
Limbic system – involved in regulating drives and
emotions such as hunger, thirst, fear, sexual behavior
and aggression.
Thalamus – receives (motor and motivational)
information from the PNS and relays it to the cortex;
“Switching Station”; For sensory message (seeing,
hearing, taste and touch); Injury to this part can cause
deafness, blindness or loss of any other sense except
smell.
Hypothalamus – is a master control center for emotion
and several basic motives; often referred as the
“guardian” of the body; it is also involves in the
regulation of cellular energy – the fuel of behavior.
Located below the thalamus
Basal ganglia – located near the thalamus and involved
in the control of movement; primary function is action
selection, hence when damaged it results in motor
abnormalities. (Ex: Parkinson’s disease, OCD)
Cerebral cortex / cerebrum – the highest and largest
area of the brain.
Corticalization- related to the fact that humans are
more intelligent than animals
Cerebral Cortex is compose of 2 hemisphere that are
connected by a thick band of fibers called Corpus
callosum – keep each hemisphere informed about what
the other is saying.
Lobes of the Brain
The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Frontal Bone of the skull.
It plays an integral role in the following
functions/actions: Memory formation, Emotion, Decision
making/reasoning
The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Parietal Bone of the skull.
It plays major role in the following functions/actions:
Senses and integrates sensation(s), Spatial awareness
and perception
The Occipital Lobe of the Brain is located deep to the
Occipital Bone of the Skull.
Its primary function is the processing, integration,
interpretation of VISION and visual stimuli.
The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of the
brain, deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.
They play an integral role in the following functions:
Hearing, Organization/ comprehension of language
Information retrieval (memory & memory formation),
Personality
PLASTICITY: THE CHANGING BRAIN
Platicity- Brains ability to change and recognize in
response to stimulation.
“We have to exercise our brains and stimulate our
neurons to improve brain functioning and learning”
The Split Brain Theory
ROGER SPERRY - Won a Nobel Prize for his work on the
special abilities of the cerebral hemispheres.
The Split Brain Theory: Each hemisphere is connected to
one half of the body in a crisscrossed manner.
LEFT HEMISPHERE right side of the body
RIGHT HEMISPHERE left side of the body
How is it possible to test only one side of the brain?
One method is to test people who have undergone split-
brain operations as treatment for their severe epilepsy.
In these operations corpus callosum (holds two
hemisphere together) is cut so that the result of the
operation in these people is like having two brains in one
body.
The Split Brain Theory
Once, a split-brain patient grabbed his wife with left
hand and shook her violently. His right hand gallantly
came to the wife’s rescue by grabbing the left hand. “The
right hand not knowing what the left hand is doing”
Endocrine system
The second great communication network of the body.
It is made up of a number of ductless glands that secrete
chemical substances (known as hormones) directly into
the bloodstream.
Hormones can affect the internal activities and behavior.
PITUARY GLAND
 Pea-size structure hanging from the
hypothalamus in the brain.
 One of its most important functions is the
regulation of growth.
 Responsible for secretion of growth hormone.
 Known as the “master gland”
PINEAL GLAND
 Located between the two hemispheres of the
brain.
 Helps regulate body rhythms and sleep cycles.
 It releases a hormone called melatonin in
response to daily variations in light.
THYROID GLANDS
 Found in the neck along with windpipe.
 Releases hormone thyroxine
 Regulates metabolism (rate at which energy is
produced and used by the body)
 Overactive thyroid very fast metabolism, goiter,
tends to be thin, excitable, tend and insomniac
ADRENAL GLANDS - Located just under the back of the
rib cage, atop kidneys.
Two areas:
 Adrenal medulla (inner core) source of
epineprhrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline). “ emergency hormones”.
 Adrenal cortex (outer core) produces corticoids
“stress hormone” and source of sec hormones
called adrenal androgens.
PANCREAS
 Located near stomach and the small intestine.
 Secretes insulin, a hormone that regulates the
supply and the use by the body cells of blood
sugar or glucose.
GONADS
 The gonads or the sex glands.
 TESTES in men which produces androgens
(testosterone).
 OVARIES in women which produces estrogens
(estradiol, progesterone)
 These hormones activate the reproductive
organs and structures at puberty.
THYMUS
 Located within the chest cavity, also known as
the “gland of childhood”
 Inhibits the gonads during childhood years.