1.0 INTRODUCTION.

Project management is the discipline of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing
the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria.

A project is a temporary endeavor designed to produce a unique product, service or result with a
defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or
deliverables) undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial
change or added value.

The followings are the different approaches applied in project management which have been
describes by different authors. Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration
must be given to the overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and
responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders in project management.

1.1 Traditional approach.

A traditional approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional

approach, five developmental components of a project can be distinguished (four stages plus
control) as;

1.1.1 Initiation,
the initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project. If this stage is not
performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’
needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business
environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project.
Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them.
1.1.2 Planning and design,
After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail the main
purpose is to plan time, cost and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to
effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a
failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully
accomplishing its goals.

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1.1.3 Execution and construction,
the execution/implementation phase ensures that the project management plan's
deliverables are executed accordingly. This phase involves proper allocation, co-
ordination and management of human resources and any other resources such as material
and budgets. The output of this phase is the project deliverables.
1.1.4 Monitoring and controlling systems,
Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project
execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective
action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key
benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify
variances from the project management plan.
1.1.5 Completion or closing.
Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof.
Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons
learned. Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of
any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase.

Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the
project or a project phase

Also included in this phase is the Post Implementation Review. This is a vital phase of the
project for the project team to learn from experiences and apply to future projects. Normally a
Post Implementation Review consists of looking at things that went well and analyzing things
that went badly on the project to come up with lessons learned.

Many firms use variations of these project stages and it is not uncommon for the stages to be
renamed in order to better suit the organization. For example, when working on a brick-and-
mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like pre-planning,
conceptual design, schematic design, design development, construction drawings (or contract
documents), and construction administration. In software development, this approach is often
known as the waterfall model, one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In projects
where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management is used to
develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the

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basis for software development. While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual
stages typically follow common steps to problem solving, defining the problem, weighing
options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."

1.2 PRINCE2.

PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project management released in 1996 as a generic project

management method. It combines the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the
PRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP (managing the implementation of the total project)
methodology. PRINCE2 provides a method for managing projects within a clearly defined
framework, focuses on the definition and delivery of products, in particular their quality
requirements. As such, it defines a successful project as being output-oriented (not activity- or
task-oriented) through creating an agreed set of products that define the scope of the project and
provides the basis for planning and control, that is, how then to coordinate people and activities,
how to design and supervise product delivery, and what to do if products and therefore the scope
of the project has to be adjusted if it does not develop as planned, it also provides a common
language for all participants in the project. The governance framework of PRINCE2 – its roles
and responsibilities are fully described and require tailoring to suit the complexity of the project
and skills of the organization. This project management method is also characterized by products
that are delivered on time and well within cost estimates. The roles are predetermined before the
kickoff of the project and every member of the project is well aware of their responsibilities
towards to successful execution of the project also.

1.3 Critical chain project management.

Critical chain project management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing project
execution designed to deal with uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into
consideration limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, as well as management
and support capacity) needed to execute projects. CCPM is an application of the theory of
constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization
(throughput). Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for

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all projects, as well as the resources, are identified. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical
chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to
ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all
other resources to the critical chain. The project plan should typically undergo resource leveling,
and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks should be identified as the critical chain.
The approach assumes that at least one constraint (behavioral or process-related) is likely to
hinder projects which utilize complex processes and a large number of cross-functional teams.
The approach recommends the use of behavioral and mathematical sciences to first predict, and
then analyses and remove constraints. The project team can use data to remove the constraints.
For example, if productivity is a foreseen concern, then a project manager could track the actual
time spent by team members on the job. This approach is useful in sending quality deliverables
on time by proactively removing constraints in some cases, such as managing contracted sub-
projects, it is advisable to use a simplified approach without resource leveling.

In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However,

it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum". The drum can be a resource that
acts as a constraint across projects, which are staggered based on the availability of that single
resource. One can also use a "virtual drum" by selecting a task or group of tasks (typically
integration points) and limiting the number of projects in execution at that stage.

1.4 Process-based management.

The incorporation of process-based management has been driven by the use of Maturity models
such as the OPM3 and the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see this example of a
predecessor) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE – software process improvement and capability
estimation). Unlike SEI's CMM, the OPM3 maturity model describes how to make project
management processes capable of performing successfully, consistently, and predictably in order
to enact the strategies of an organization.

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1.5 Lean project management.

Lean project management uses the principles from lean manufacturing to focus on delivering
value with less waste and reduced time.

1.5.1 Project Production Management (PPM).

Project Production Management uses principles from operations research, industrial engineering
and queuing theory to organize work activities in major capital projects to optimize project
delivery.

1.6 Extreme project management/Megaproject.

Planning and feedback loops in Extreme programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple
loops. In critical studies of project management, it has been noted that several PERT based
models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of today. [Joseph Phillips]
Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and currently all
kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.

Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven
to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases. [Joseph Phillips] The
generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme project
management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management
principles of human interaction management.

1.7 Benefits realization management.

Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniques

through a focus on outcomes (the benefits) of a project rather than products or outputs, and then
measuring the degree to which that is happening to keep a project on track. This can help to
reduce the risk of a completed project being a failure by delivering agreed upon
requirements/outputs but failing to deliver the benefits of those requirements. In addition, BRM
practices aim to ensure the alignment between project outcomes and business strategies. The

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effectiveness of these practices is supported by recent research evidencing BRM practices
influencing project success from a strategic perspective across different countries and industries.

An example of delivering a project to requirements might be agreeing to deliver a computer

system that will process staff data and manage payroll, holiday and staff personnel records.
Under BRM the agreement might be to achieve a specified reduction in staff hours required to
process and maintain staff data.

1.8 Agile

The Agile Project Management approach is a value-centered methods of project management

that allows projects to get processed in small phases or cycles. The methodology is one that is
extremely flexible and projects that exhibit dynamic traits would benefit from this process as you
would find that project managers working in this environment treat milestones as “sprints”; the
goal being to continuously adapt to abrupt changes from client feedback. It is best suited for
small software projects made up of a highly collaborative team or a project that requires frequent
iteration.

1.9 Waterfall.

The Waterfall approach, on the other hand, is a traditional approach to project management and
more commonly used in the manufacturing or construction sectors. A lot of experts believe that it
was the first model to have been adopted in software engineering. The model takes a linear
approach towards project management with the project being broken down into sequences with
the kickoff of a phase dependent on the completion of the preceding one. This method primarily
consists of 5 stages: Idea Engineering, System Design, Implementation, Testing and Validation
Maintenance. Waterfall method reveals a lengthier process where planning alone could take a
couple of months before moving to the next stage design. The design phase could also take a
couple of months; this could lead to the launch of a product that could be termed obsolete in the
current marketplace.

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2.0 Scrum.

With Scrum, however, the planning is just enough to kick off the project as it is based on the
Agile framework that was discussed earlier. It’s a great way to prevent delays in product launch
because the entire process focuses on team collaboration. The Scrum master facilitates the scrum
sessions (sprints) which occur within a time frame of 1-3 weeks. The result is an iterative process
that significantly saves the company a lot of time and money.

2.1 PERT.

PERT stands for Project Evaluation Review Technique; in an earlier post, we stated, that it most
often combined with the Critical Path Method. This project management method is a favorite of
most manufacturing companies as it takes into cognizance the time it takes to complete a task.
Time is an important factor in project management as it also determines the budget for the
project.

2.2 Adaptive Project Framework.

Robert K. Wysocki is an authority on the Adaptive Project Management Framework and in his
book, Adaptive Project Framework: Managing Complexity in the Face of Uncertainty, he talks
about the discovery of new applications for which the traditional linear approach may not be
suitable for. He goes further to identify “…the difficulty in specifying complete requirements at
the beginning of the project” as the major reason why present-day projects fail to meet the
requirements of the Traditional Project Management Approach. The solution to this dilemma lies
in the adaptive project framework; a process that was created out of the need to adapt to the
continuously changing phases of a project.

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2.3 Extreme Programming (XP).

This methodology which also has its roots in the agile framework was developed by in the 1990s
by Kent Black. This short life-cycle method has as its main objective, the improvement of
product quality, client satisfaction. Its characteristics and principles make for a project
management team that strives for excellence in the development process. In his book – Extreme
Programming Explained, Kent explains that the methodology is becoming more prominent
because Extreme Programming is particularly well-suited to help the small software
development team succeed.” This approach is suitable for projects which handle dynamic
situations, such as, changing customer requirements. Often, it may not be possible to obtain a full
clarity of requirements and a project may purely be guided by market changes. The mobile phone
industry, which experiences rapid changes, is a case in point. The project team, hence, plans
purely on the basis of the currently available data and depending on requirement changes,
modifies plans

2.4 Kanban.

The Kanban project management process does away with the sprints and milestones that are
attributed to the scrum and traditional methods of managing projects respectively. What you
would find, is a more visual approach to managing time, project scope and budget; these three
factors determine the success of any project.

Kanban, a lean scheduling project management method was developed by the Japanese Toyota
Corporation based in the 1940s. The idea behind Kanban is continuous delivery, especially when
combined with the scrum methodology. It uses a system of visual cues that let the project team
know what is expected of tasks within the project in relation to quantity and quality as well as
when the tasks are expected to be accomplished.

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2.5 Event chain project approach

According to this approach, a single constraint can create a chain of constraints and severely
impede a project. For example, in a project, if several departments depend on one another, then
constraints in any one department can negatively impact the productivity of downstream
departments. A project team can use past data to foresee a negative event and identify preventive
measures. Reliable data, collected over time, can even help track event chains. The Gantt chart is
a popular event chain tracking tool. The event chain approach, hence, could be an excellent
problem solving approach for critical projects.

2.6 Project management software.

Project management software capabilities have expanded notably and it gives more than just
scheduling meetings and activities. A project management tool can estimate the effort, monitor
project progress and highlight risks. It can also preserve historical data on past projects, which
can be extremely useful in foreseeing constraints. Project management tools are available as
desktop, web-based and collaborative applications and they are compatible for every type of
project management approach. Many organizations have begun to adopt a hybrid project
management approach, by combining the best features of standard project management
approaches. This approach has been beneficial and indeed goes to show how flexible the project
management approaches are.

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3.0 CONCLUSION.

The project management methods outlined above are by no means exhaustive; there are quite a
lot of offshoots and hybrids out there that have churned out fantastic results. The issue, however,
lies in the identification of a suitable approach for managing your projects because these
approaches serve as blueprints and the approach utilized could mean the difference between the
failure or success of the project so here are a few points to guide you.

Find out from team members what has worked in the past – This will help narrow down the
choices you have to make. Clearly, define the needs or expectations of your clients – Keep in
mind the fact that requirements could be fixed or dynamic. Outline organizational goals, keeping
in mind project costs as well. Consider the structure of the team – Are they virtual or physical? Is
some of the work being outsourced?

Lastly, you need not decide on a one size fits all kind of approach; keep in mind that it is
perfectly acceptable to pick the various positive elements from all the individual methodologies
to create a process that could work marvelously well for your team

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4.0 REFERENCE.

Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., Frederiksen, L. and Florian, T. (2011) Project-Based Organizing and
Strategic Management, Advances in Strategic Management, Vol 28,

F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured approach.

Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004.

Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill
Professional, 2003.

Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management.
APM Publishing Limited.

Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons,2005.

-The Definitive Guide to Project Management. Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. London (Financial
Times / Prentice Hall): 2007.

Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems" in:
Technical Papers of Western Electro

Wysocki, Robert K (2013). Effective Project Management: Traditional, Adaptive, Extreme

(Seventh Edition). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1118729168.

Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief History of Project Management". In: The story of managing
projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005 David I.
Cleland,.

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