1974 - CivilEng - Seminars - Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Concrete Pipe Association
www.cpaa.asn.au
of Australasia
CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALASIA
A.C.N. 007 067 656
~O . 0000'\32.
CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA

Civil Engineering Seminar, March 1974
PROGRAM
8.30 a.m. Registration and welcome.
8.45 a . m. "Pipe design, manufacture and testing" -

C W Simpson Dip CE, RMIT.
9.45 a.m. "Performance of reinforced concre t e pipe" -

C A Baker BA, BSc, MIE Aust.
10.45 a.m. Morning Tea.
11.00 a.m . "Economics of reinforced concrete pipelines" -

W M Miller MIE Aust, MNZIE, FAIM.
12 . 00 noon Luncheon.
1 .00 p . m. "Installation of reinforced concrete pipelines" -

I G Hope BE, M Eng Sc, MIE Aust.
2.00 p . m. Depart by bus for open air factory test

inspection.
:3.30 p . m. Return to Civic Centre.
4.30 p.m. Refreshments.

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1974 Seminars for Civil Engineers
Subject:
Pipe Design, Manufacture, and Testing
Presented by C W Simpson, Dip CE RMIT
We in Australia, are fortunate that the two processes

most used throughout the world for the making of high-density/
high-strength concrete pipe were developed in this country.
In the days when the Australian Standard CA2 did not

recognize concrete strengths greater than 4000 Ib/in2 , the
concrete in concrete pipes in Australia had a strength double
this figure.
Concrete pipe manufacturers found that their pipes performed

much better in practice than was indicated by calculations
based on conventional formulas and bending moment co-efficients
for thin rings.
Therefore they developed their own methods of design, empirical

to some extent; methods which have been refined and confirmed
by decades of pipe testing.
1. Pipe Design for External Load
1.1 Loads on concrete pipes

The calculation of loads on pipes in most countries,
including Australia, is still based on the work of
Americans, Marston, Spangler and Schlick, of the
University of Iowa.
The Australian Standard for concrete pipe laying design

is A.S. CAJJ-1962. The data in this standard enables
the field load on a concrete pipe to be determined.
Examples of calculations are given at the back of the

Standard. The data does not necessarily apply to pipes
made from other materials.
The most common error in load calculation is the use of

the trench formula We = CtwB2 for trench widths beyond
the range to which it applies. In the formula any
increase in trench width B produces an increase in the
load We' Obviously the load on a pipe does not
increase indefinitely as the trench width is increased •
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A trench width is reached beyond which the load on

the pipe remains the same. This occurs when the load
We equals Ce wD2, after which the formula W9 = CtwB2
must not be used.
The support under the pipe is most important. Point

or line support in the trench must be avoided. As you
would expect, the more distributed the support, the
greater the load that the pipe can carry. For example
a pipe which can be considered to be supported over an
arc of 120 0 for its full length will carry about 25%
more load than one supported over a ·90 0 arc, and about
70% more than one supported along a longitudinal line.
Concentrated support, such as a pipe resting on its
socket, or resting on a brick or timber block which has
been used for levelling purposes, must be avoided.
When concrete bedding is used, the pipe should contain
concentric (rather than elliptical) reinforcement.
After the field load is calculated, it can be converted

into an equivalent factory test load by dividing by a
load factor.
A.S. CA33-1962 gives load factors for a variety of

installation conditions. Factory test loads have been
standardized into five classes, C, S, X, Y & Z.
C Class applies only to unreinforced pipes. Z Class is
the heaviest load class listed in AS 1342-1973, and
covers most needs, but it is not a top limit for
reinforced concrete pipes. R.C. pipes can be made by
many manufacturers with a load carrying capacity of
double this amount. Pipes greater than Z Class are
referred to as 1.25Z, 1.5Z, etc.
1.2 Specifications
Specifications can be of three basic types, -
a) Performance, where the pipe must pass tests to

make positively sure that it is fit to do the job
for which it is intended.
b) Prescription, where the purchaser designs the pipe

himself for the field load, nominating sizes,
reinforcement details, concrete mix details,
manufacturing procedures, etc., and provides
supervision of manufacture to ensure that his wishes
are carried out. By providing the design, the
Purchaser takes the responsibility, and hopes that
his theories have produced a pipe which will not
fail under field load.
c) Design, where the Purchaser nominates permissible

design stresses in the belief that a pipe designed
within such limits will not fail under field loads •
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Prescription and Design specifications are used for
bui1dings and structures which are difficu1t or
impossib1e to test. They are of necessi~ conservative.
Performance specifications are used for products which

can be tested. The purchaser has the assurance that the
product wi11 perform as desired in practice, and that the
design is economica1.
The Performance type is used for concrete pipes in

Austra1ia, Britain, South Africa and New Zea1and. The
prescription type is used in North America, though it
shou1d be noted that the designs were based on the resu1ts
of performance tests.
The Austra1ian Standard for precast concrete drainage

pipes is AS 1342-1973. It is quite stringent compared
with overseas standards. It requires that the pipes
pass an U1timate Test Load equa1 to 1.5 times the Cracking
Test Load,_which compares with 1.25 in Britain and 1.25
for C1ass V pipes in North America. It requires that the
maximum crack width at cracking 10ad be 0.15 mm (0.006")
compared with 0.010" in Britain and North America.
Its requirements regarding absorption are a1so strict
compared with overseas standards.
The fact that the u1timate 10ad is required to be 1.5

times the cracking 10ad means that the pipe has a safety
factor of 1 .5 against fai1ure.
1.3 Design methods

The different pipe manufacturers use different design
methods, each manufacturer having to consider his own
manufacturing process, the materia1s he uses, the
concrete strength he is ab1e to achieve, and the resu1ts
of performance tests over many years.
A detai1ed exp1anation of the different methods is not

possib1e. However, it shou1d be pointed out that there
is no need for concern if a check ca1cu1ation using
conventiona1 formu1as indicates a high 'apparent' stress.
Bending moments and stresses ca1cu1ated by conventiona1
formu1as usua11y exceed actua1 at critica1 points.
There are severa1 reasons for this, e.g. -
a) The test 10ad is in theory a point 1oad, but in

practice there is some distribution.
b) The common1y-used bending moment co-efficients are
based on 10ads on thin rings, whereas concrete
pipes are re1ative1y thick rings.
c) The methods of pipe manufacture deve10ped in
Austra1ia give very high concrete strengths, often
beyond the range covered by standard codes for
concrete.
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This can be illustrated, if further evidence is
required, by calculating the apparent stresses in
pipes specified in the American prescription
specification ASTM C76-1972. The apparent stresses
will be found to be unrealistically high, despite the
fact that the concrete strengths specified are much
lower than those obtained by pipe manufacturers in
Australia. In fact of course, the actual stress is
not as high as the calculation indicates.
1.4 Unreinforced concrete pipe

This type of pipe is sometimes used for sewer drains.
It is rarely specified for pipes over 600 mm (24")
diameter. Above that diameter R.C. pipes should be
used with the necessary cover to the reinforcement.
It is not good engineering to specify unreinforced

concrete for load-bearing structures, because the
compressive strength of the concrete is not fully -
utilized.
For example, it is unlikely that any engineer these

days would design an unreinforced beam to carry heavy
loads, even in a corrosive environment.
1.5 Reinforced concrete pipe

Typical bending moment diagrams for pipes under
external load are shown below -
Earth load Self weight of Test load

pipe & water in factory
The critical points are at the bottom, top and sides.
The negative moment at the bottom and top puts the
inside face in tension. The positive moment at the
sides puts the outside face in tension. Therefore
the most economical type of reinforcement is one with
an elliptical shape, placed close to the inside face
at bottom and top, and close to the outside face at
the sides.
In small diameter pipes the walls are not thick

enough for elliptical reinforcement to be practical,
so single circular cages are used.
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Single Elliptical Double Circular

circular circular elliptical
In large diameter pipe~, or pipes under very high
external load, it is often necessary to use an
inner and an outer reinforcing cage, which may be in
the form of two circular cages, or a circular and an
elliptical cage.
2. Pipe Design for Internal Pressure
2.1 Determination of factory test pressure

The factory test pressure must stress the pipe at least
as much as the worst set of pipeline operating conditions
is likely to do. It is usually set by the purchaser.
Some authorities add a fixed amount to the working
pressure in the pipeline to obtain the factory test
pressure . Others add a fixed percentage.
A.S. A124-1962 recommends that test pressure be 20%

greater than the working pressure where the working
pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic (e.g.
water hammer) pressures.
2.2 Specification
The Australian Standard is A.S. A124-1962.
It is essentially a performance specification but has
some stress limitations.
2.3 Design methods

The tension in the shell due to the test pressure is
calculated just as it would be for any pressure vessel.
The tension is reckoned to be taken by the steel
reinforcement alone. A.S. A124 limits the tensile
stress in the reinforcement to 140 MFa (20,000 Ib/in 2 )
for hard drawn wire to A.S. 1303-1973.
A.S. A124 also limits the resultant stress in the

concrete (considering the transformed section) to a
maximum of 2.8 MPa (400 Ib/ in2 ). In fact pipe
designers use design stresses lower than these figures
in many cases.
Concrete pipes have the additional safeguard, that

should they be cracked by an unpredicted surge in the
pipeline or an abnormal wheel load on top of the pipe,
the crack will slowly seal due to the autogenous
healing property of concrete.
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3. Pipe Design for Combined Loads
3.1 Combinedloading
Almost every pressure pipe laid has to carry external
load as well as internal pressure, so it is important -
particularly under roads, or where the earth fill over
the pipe exceeds 1 metre - that the combined effect is
considered.
3.2 Specification
Appendix G of A.S. 124-1962 covers this situation.
3.3 Design methods

It is difficult and uneconomical to apply external load
and internal pressure to a pipe in a factory.
Therefore a method has been devised whereby the combined

load test is replaced by two separate tests, i.e. an
enlarged external load test and an enlarged internal
pressure test. That is, in place of Bycombined test with
internal pressure N and cracking load F' Appendix G of
A.S. 124 prescribes a separate pressure test with N
increased to P and a separate load test with W increased
to T. F
The pipe is designed for factory test pressure P, then

the design is checked to ensure that the pipe will pass
external load Tj or vice versa, depending which test is
likely to be the most critical.
CONCRETE PIPE MANUFACTURE
1. Methods
Australian pipe manufacturers are world leaders in
methods for making steel reinforcing cages and high
strength concrete pipes. Continuously welded spiral-
wound reinforcing cages are almost universally used in
this country, whereas in America it is still common for
cages to be fabricated from flat mesh. Machine-made
spiral-wound cages are very accurate and economical.
The spinning and roller-suspension pipe-making processes,

both developed many years ago, are still leaders in the
high-strength concrete pipe field. Both processes use
centrifugal force, vibration, and rolling, to different
degrees to obtain dense concrete.
2. Quality
Very low water/cement ratios and high densities are
features of Australian pipe-making processes.
A characteristic concrete stren~th (the strength above
which 97t% of results will fall) of 50 MFa (7 , 250 Ib/in2 )
is easily attained.
Concrete strengths of 70 MFa are common, and of course

durability is excellent.
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Both pipe-making processes allow accurate positioning

of the reinforcement cages. The cage is solidly and
effectively embedded in the concrete. This cannot be
said of all processes.
J. Quality Control
As with all machine-made factory products, quality is
easier to control than is the case with in-situ work in
the field. Factory work is unaffected by the weather,
varying trench conditions, or the difficulty of
providing and operating pipe-casting equipment in remote
areas. A built-in control is the low water-cement
ratio, which is inherent in the processes.
Factories which demonstrate that their products comply

with the requirements of the Australian Standards for
pipes, can be licensed to use the S.A.A. mark on their
products.
However, some companies regard this mark as of doubtful

benefit, because the cost of maintaining the license is
appreciable, yet many purchasers consider only cost and not
quality when buying pipes.
PIPE TESTING
1, Types of tests
Pipes are regularly tested in accordance with Australian
standards for load carrying capacity, hydrostatic
pressure capacity, joint water-tightness, absorption, and
material quality. Pipes are inspected for dimensional
correctness, cover thickness, and internal finish.
2 Frequency of major tests

Tests for load-bearing capacity are carried out at the
rate of one pipe in every fifty if requested by the
purchas e r.
Every pipe in a pressure pipeline is tested at the

factory before delivery, because the failure of one
pipe could ruin the whole line.
J. Strength gain SUbsequent to test

After the concrete pipe is laid it spends the rest of
its long life in ideal moist-curing conditions, so the
strength of the pipe increases. The Purchaser therefore
has the added comfort that the pipe in the line is
stronger than it was when it passed the tests.
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Subject:
Economic Use of Concrete Pipes
Presented by W M MILLER, MIE Auet, MNZIE, FAD(
Introduction
Engineers live in a world of compromise and this 1s most
true when faced with the three basic economic factors :
Initial Cost
Operating and Maintenance Cost
Life of Project - or Annual Costs
The sophistication, in modern times, with which an

engineer must approach this cost problem is both a
philosophical and a practical one.
Philosophical - because he can and perhaps does .ay -

keep the price low and let posterity foot the bill - or
Practioa1 - wheTe his logic (and conscience) dictates
what he always knows and that is "A top quality article
(or job) ~s·the cheapest in the long run".
The C.P.A.A. offer you the best quality concrete pipes

in the world. That is no idle boast and can be
subetantiated by Americans and Europeans alike.
Let thie then be our etarting point.
In a talk of this duration we can only introduce the

subject, point out basic points to be considered, as we
.ee the. and thus we hope stimulate your interest.
Problems encountered with pipe use are so complex that we

cannot be too specific in our presentation.
Selection of Pipe Class in Relation to Bedding Type

Because an engineer calls tenders or quotes for a pipe
class he immediately has a tangible cost comparison -
he has basic data to make a deCision. If he has good
empirical construction cost data he too has tangible
information to make a decision.
Our objective here is to bring together these two factors •
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Page 2.
Pipe class cost and bedding cost. CA33-1962 gives you
a choice o~ beddings - some costlier than others.
A type A (concrete) bedding will be dearer than a type B

one, particularly i~ local adjacent materials can be used
~or the type B bedding.
A type "A" bedding could accommodate the cheaper class "8" or

"X" pipe while the type "B" bedding will require a stronger
and thus higher class o~ pipe (say class Z).
It can now be seen how economy in pipe line construction

commences with economy in design and this is achieved
through a balance between pipe strength (i.e. pipe cost)
and installation cost. This approach is especially
applicable to large diameter pipes (say over 30" dia. or
750 mm).
For small diameter pipes (under 24" (600 mm» in trench,

the load bearing capacity o~ 8 and X class pipes in terms
o~ ~ill height is very considerable as will be seen by
re~erence to pipe tables or CA33 (see attached).
Rarely here does the question o~ using either high load

class pipes or expensive bedding arise.
For larger d i ameters in trench, however, and ~or most

pipes under embankment conditions the situation is di~~erent.
A 54" (1350 mm) diameter pipe in a trench O.D. + 18" (450 mm)
wide in clayey sand under 14 ~eet o~ ~ill above crown can
be speci~ied as either _
(a) Z class on D type bedding
(b) Y class on C type bedding or
(c) X class on A type bedding.
That CA33-1962 cautiously adds a note of non

recommendation against D type bedding does not detract
from the fact that it is a technically valid although
ine~ficient method of bedding a pipe, and its soundness
from an engineering viewpoint can only be determined by
economic considerations.
If the trench bottom is firm and the use of a cradle is

not required to maintain the grade of the line, the
problem of choice between the three alternatives becomes
one of availability of pipes and economy.
If 8 and X class drainage pipes of a particular diameter

are available in an area, so are heavier load classes.
The only difference between X and Z class (or even heavier)

is that whilst the former may be available from stock the
latter would have to be ordered.
The delivery period, however, is short and availability

should not under normal circumstances be allowed to
influence the choice.
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An economical comparison per metre o~ pipe between the
items which di~~er in the three alternatives may then
look like this:
ALT (a) ,4" (1350 mm) Z Class Pipe F.J. '62.27 m

Beddil18 Cost NIL m
TOTAL '62.27 m
ALT (b) ,4" (1350 mm) Y Class Pipe F.J. .,6.16 m
Shaping Trench Bottom 80 m
Supply o~
Selected Fill 2.74 m
Compaction o~ Same 1~00 m
TOTAL '60.70 m
ALT (c) ,4" (13'0 mm) X Class Pipe F.J. '39.92 m
Concrete Cradle 47.00 m
Supply o~
Selected Fill ,.00 m
Compaction o~ Fill 1.00 m
TOTAL '90.92 m
In this particular instance a Y class pipe on C type

bedding appears to be the cheapest, but there is little
di~~erence between that and the Z class on D type
beddil18 with the intangible advantage o~ needing less
care in bedding, backfilling and supervision.
The sharpest cost di~~erence is between X class on a

concrete cradle, as compared with the heavier pipe
classes on cheaper bedding types.
This trend is general, and although relative costs vary

with time and place, we have so ~ar never encountered
circumstances where a light load class pipe on a concrete
cradle, was an economical solution i~ the sole purpose
o~ the cradle was to increase the allowable ~ill height
on the pipe.
This cost relation was also noted by John B. Rowntree

o~ Auckland Metropolitan Drainage Board. In a paper
presented to the New Zealand Institute o~ Engineers
in 19'9 he gave the ~ollowing cost comparison per ~oot
o~ pipe based on actual tenders received by the Board.
Pipe Diameter in inches 12" 24" 36" 48"

(300 mm) (600 mm) (900 mm) (1200 lID)
Extra Cost o~ Concrete .
,
_ $1. 00 '2.00 '3.00 '4.00
Cradle
Extra Cost o~ Stronger 10.06 '0.2,
Pipe '0.70 '2.01
It will be noted ~rom the tables o~ permissible heights

o~ ~ill on pipes in trenches that the load on the pipes
increases with the width o~ the trench.
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Page 4.
It is fortunate, therefore, that economy in excavation

and backfilling dictates that trenches be excavated no
wider than necessary in order to carry out the laying.
Nevertheless, maximum trench width at crown of pipes must

be specified in all instances of heavily loaded pipes.
Pressure Pipes
The walls in pressure pipes are stressed in combined
tension and bending. Usually pressure pipes are bedded
in shallow trenches, and unless subjected to traffic or
other superimposed loads, the bending stresses in pipes of
moderate diameter (smaller than 1200 mm) are relatively
unimportant for pipes conforming to minimum requirements
of AS124-l962.
For large diameter pipes, however, the bending stresses

must be considered even for pipes buried in shallow trenches,
because here the stresses resulting from water weight and
pipe weight reach significant proportions.
In all instances where pipes are bedded under high fill or

exposed to traffic loads, the external load must be
considered in the specification for the pipes and AS124-l962
Appendix G describes how this can be done.
It has been traditional in the past to recommend that all

pressure pipes be bedded on a cushion of sand but here as
in the case of sewer pipes, discretion should be exercised
at the design stage.
Small diameters under shallow fill, and no traffic load,

need bedding on sand only for trenches in rock (compare
CA 33, D type bedding in rock). For larger diameters or
heavy external load on smaller diameters, the bedding type
influences the design of the pipe through the load factor
(refer AS124-1962 Appendix G) and alternative solutions
become possible with possible economies.
See sample calculations attached.
Savings can be made on bedding preparations and

possibilities exist for carrying heavier external loads
than envisaged at the design stage in cases where lack
of data on final line location existed especially if this
reason compelled the engineer to err initially on the safe
side.
Precast V in situ Conduits

Not much information is available on this comparison but
work so far known to us suggests the precast concrete pipes
are faster, safer and cheaper and the risk factor much less
when the conduit is in a trench.
Apart from direct cost comparison there is a much greater

risk factor with cast-in-situ in trenches. The use of
cast-in-situ will, for obvious reasons, be only applicable
to large diameter pipes (say over 42" (l050 mm)).
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Page 5.
Trench excavations must be wider and left open longer
(for curing) and thus the risk of exposure to heavy rains,
cave-in risk is much greater. Again the great advantage
of the spun concrete pipe is its density and 1/4" of dense
concrete over reinforcement is worth several hundred times
the cover of the same thickness of less dense concrete.
This is particularly important in sewers.
Evidence so far indicates that on straight out purchase

and laying costs, and not considering any risk or life
factors, cast-in-situ is roughly 15% to 40% dearer
depending on site conditions and overhead allocation.
Sewer and Stormwater Pipes in Small Diameters

The variety of choice of pipe types for small diameters,
all highly competitive in price, requires that laying
cost differentials be clarified.
Claims are being made that pipes of longer lengths (and

thus less joints) are faster to lay than shorter and
more easily handled pipes. When the total pipe laying
cost is considered it will be seen that the actual
operation of physically picking the pipe up from the
trench side and laying it in pOSition, is a very small
part of the total cost.
We have statements by some Authorities that there is a

cost saving of up to 30% but I haven't yet met a contractor
who says there is much difference.
Depending on the rate the digger can progress so the

laying speed of pipes is set and in hard gOing, deep
trenches, wet ground etc., the pipe length advantage is
of no significance. If 4 metre pipes are palletised in
say 3 tonne lots (as they are), the added cost of
unpacking, picking up and distribution along the trench
must be costed to make a realistic comparison with
shorter length concrete pipes which are normally delivered
to the trench side.
Again, longer lengths require more care in bedding and

packing to avoid any hogging or sagging strains and thus
subsequent broken backs. (See S.R. & V.S.C. Report on
"Field Study of Bedding of Asbestos Cement Pipes in
Dooen Clays"). The weaker beam strength of the 4 m AC
pipe is suspect in ground conditions where movement
between Summer and Winter conditions takes place. For
this reason many Authorities now limit 4" and 6" AC pipes
to 6'6" lengths.
Pipe material represents about 10 per cent of the total

cost of sewer reticulation lines and its subsequent
performance determines the value of the whole operation.
If the maintenance costs can be cut and replacement cost

avoided by use of comparable priced material, the initial
expense is usually warranted.
Attached is a schedule setting out installation comparisons

between concrete and AC.
Pipe Laying ..
Comparison of Operations Between AC and Concrete
REMARKS
OPERATION
CONCRETE AC
1. Set up a site SAME FOR BOTH
2. Set out job SAME FOR BOTH
3. Excavate SAME FOR BOTH
4. Trim bed SAME FOR BOTH
5. Purchase bedding Where excavated material is unsuitable, AC must have suitable bedding material so
material (if selected material must be brought in. that the whole 13 ft long pipe will
necessary) Concrete will tolerate practically all uniformly bed over its ru11 lengths with-
excavated material except big lump of out any settlement. Bedding material
sticky colloidal clay and rock. must be incompressible and not "flow"
Broken friable stone to say 3/4" size or be squeezed. Thus AC cannot tolerate
OK. the same range of excavated material for
bedding as can concrete. If there is
bad soft movable ground AC pipes should
have 6 ft lengths and thus dearer.
6. Place and grade Concrete requires this over 6 ft or For AC this takes more time and care
bedding material 8 ft length depending on pipe length. especially on flat grades. As stated
Thus effort, care and time not so in (5) above AC will break their backs
great as AC (longer lengths) and thus unless the bedding is perfectly on one
more jOints make the line more plane.
flexible.
7. Pipe deliveries Concrete suppliere will place pipes AC are delivered in approx 3 T pallets
to site along the trench so there is little which are dumped at depot or site along
transport on pre-laying handling trench. The cost of unpacking these,
effort or costs. assembling the sockets and rubber rings
and trench distribution, must be cos ted
to make a correct comparison.
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REMARKS
OPERATION
CONCRETE AC
8. Lay and joint If there is any advantage over concrete AC 13 ft lengths require two men similar
pipes it is in this part of the exercise. to concrete. The whole operation of
Comparing directly the time to pick pipe preparing bed, introducing and placing
up from the trench side and lay it on a selected material, grading and laying
previously prepared bed is an unreal pipe, must be considered for a fair
one. In both cases, it is the rate comparison with concrete.
the digger can progress that decides
the laying rate and in sewers which can
be deep, this part decides the speed of
laying.
10. Restore surface SAME FOR BOTH
11. Surface
maintenance SAME FOR BOTH
12. Life of pipe This is determined by many factors of AC has an absorption factor of 12%-13%
which relative density is but one. measured by the same methods as concrete.
This is measured by absorption. Thus as the AC concrete mortar absorbs
Concrete has an absorption factor of soil aggressives at a greater rate than
under 6.1/2%. concrete, its life can be shorter.
Added to this the thinner AC walls which
when attacked give less strength than
the thicker concrete.
13. Summary As can be seen from this comparison and the introductory notes, claims made by some
that 4 m pipes can be laid faster, are marginal and the actual cost of physically
picking up the pipe and placing it in the trench is a very small part of the total
laying cost.
,.
CONCRETE PIPES IN TRENCH
TYPES OF BEDDING ON EARTH
TYPE:A
C_li"vovs CDIt",.".
Crad/e.: af monolffnil:. aoss-secf,Ot1 iI'I""'t,"nfol'uQ
~ -
~ 7.:;::: .,- ~r:
- -
::-.: ~-;
_-=-.
• , Orai""'r" Fill
~J -lJ
.-SJ ~ _<0_
• r--lt~=.-.~-~"'=-::
TYPE: B
~o ~/eclecT Compae leo' Fill
.....
" :: : :: ::" CompaclecT Sana' or
Grahu/ar /'fede,.ia/ 3'min.
--1 ~ ~>. ~c> -~:-r

-.:- _ ,,~o Ordinary Ftf/
- lJ-- :>
Selecled CCknpac/eo' fill TYPE:C
.,.-.....",.",----_-o- -:- :-
- .....,.
~
<.> >
J-
- -- - -
Ordihary FIll
-= 15-- TYPE:D
Annex to "Economic Ule of Concrete Pipes"

.'
Annex to "Economic Use of Concrete Pipes"
CONCRETE PIPES IN TRENCH (15" & 18")

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DEPTH OF FILL IN FEET
ABOVE CROWN OF PIPE FOR S. X, y, & Z CLASS PIPES
NOMINAL I1PE OlAMETU IS INCHES
liDDING + 11'" - 1"" . + Ir - )'0"
SOIL
TYPE TYPE
I
TRENCH WIDTH 0 .0 .
X ., Z
•
TRENCH WIDTH 0.0.
x ., z
A 12 22 NL NL 8 II 34 NL
WET
CLAY
•
C
8·5
6
14
,
NL
24
NL
NL
6
4·5
8·5
6·5
I'
12
NL
21
D 4 5·5 II 20 3 4 7 II
A 14 NL NL NL '·5 13 NL NL
SANDY • ' ·5 18 NL NL 6·5 ' ·5 26 NL
CLAY C
D
6·5
4
10
6
NL
12
NL
NL
5
3
6·5
4·5
I)
7:5
))
12
IS"
A 17 NL NL NL , 14 NL NL
CLAYEY
SAND
•
C
II
7
18
II
NL
NL
NL
NL
7
5
10
7
NL
IS
NL
NL
D 4·5 6 14 NL )·5 4·5 8 14
A NL NL NL NL 10 20 NL NL
SAND •
C
14
7·5
NL
14
NL
NL
NL
NL
7·5
5 7·5
12 NL
21
NL
NL
D 4·5 7 27 NL 3·5 4·5 9 18
NOMINAL PIPE DIAMETER " INCHES

SOIL BEDDING TR.ENCH WIDTH 0 .0 . + 11- - 1'''' +
TYPE TYPE
S X Y Z 5
TRENCH WIDTH 0 .0 .
X ., Ir - )')"
z
A II 22 NL NL 8 12 32 NL
WET
CLAY
•
C
8·5
6
I 14 NL
21
NL
NL
6
4·5
'·5
6·5
19
12
NL
' ·5 22
D 4 6 II 20 3 4·5 7·5 12
A 13 NL NL NL 8·5 14 NL NL
SANDY • , 17 NL NL 6·5 10 24 NL
CLAY C 6·5 10 NL NL 4·5 7 U 34 18"
D 4 6 12 NL 3 4·5 8 Il
A 14 NL NL NL '·5 19 NL NL
CLAYEY
SAND
•
C
10
6·5
23
II
NL
NL
NL
NL
7
5 7·5
II NL
IS
NL
NL
D 4·5 6·5 13 NL l·5 4·5 ' ,5 15
A 22 NL NL NL 10 22 NL NL
•
~
12 NL NL 7·5 13 NL NL
SAND
C 7 14 NL NL 5 8 21 NL
D 4·5 7 19 NL ]·5 5 , 20
Annex to "Economic Use of Concrete Pipes"
CONCRETE PIPES IN TRENCH (54")

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DEPTH OF FILL IN FEET
ABOVE CROWN OF PIPE FOR S. X. Y. & Z CLASS PIPES
NOMINAL PIPE DIAMETU 54 INCHES
SOIL BEDDING TRENCH WIDTH 0 .0 . -i 12· _ 6 f O'" TRENCH WIDTH 0 .0 . _ II' - 66"
TYPE TYPE
• X Y Z S x y z
A 7 ·5 IS 28 64 6·5 13 23 40
.- - - - - - - - - -----
WET
CLAY
•
C 4·5
6
8·5
12 21
IS
36 5·5 10 18 28
- -- - -
23 4 7·5 13 19
-- - - - -
D 3·5 6 9·5 14 3 5·5 8·5 12
A 8 16 34 NL 7 13 26 55
-- - - - - ----- -----
SANDY
• 6·5 12 23 49 5·5 II 19 II
- - - - -----
CLAY C
D 3·5
5 9
6
16
10
25
IS
4·5
3
8 14
5·5
21
----- --- -
9 13
54"
A 8 16 040 NL 7 14 29 NL
----
CLAYEY
• 6·5 13 2S NL 5·5
" 21 38
----
SAND C 5 9 16 29 4·5 8 14 22
-J - - - - ---- - - - -
D 3·5 6 10 16 5·5 9 H
A 8 ·5 18 NL NL 7 IS 38 NL
._- ----
SAND •
C
6·5
5 9·5
14 33
18
NL 6 12 24
---- ----
78
40 4·5 8·5 IS 26
3·5 6·5
-----
D 18
" 3 5·5 10 15
NOMINAL PIPE DIAMETER 54 INCHES

SOIL BEDDING TRENCH WIDTH 0 .0 . + 14- _ 7'rr
TYPE TYPE
S X Y Z
A 6 20 32
WET B 5
"
9·5 16 23
CLAY 4 7
C
D 3 5
"8
16
A 6 12 21
"
37
SANDY
CLAY
•
C
5
4
10
7
16
12
26
17 54"
0 3 5 8
A 6·5 12 23
"
43
CLAYEY B 5·5 10 17 28
..
SAND C 4 7·5 12 18
0 3 5 8· 5 12
A 6·5 13 27 NL
SAND •
C
5·5
4
"
7·5
19
13
36
20
D 3 5 8 ·5 12
Attachment to paper on:
Economics of Reinforced Concrete Pipes -

Pressure Pipes
Example of an economic design for combined internal

pressure and external load.
Refer AS A124 Appendix G.
3 - e.b. Teet Load

1b / ft
T 1 -- 22800
T 2 = 16700
W
F = 12500
o p.s . i. Test Pressure
Portions of a 93" mm cooling water line are under 18 feet

of fill and bedded in a manner which made us assess
w
F = 12,500 1bs / ft. (see AS CA33-1962)
The working head is 30 psi and the consultant had

prescribed a test head of 36 psi.
In accordance with Appendix G this would have led to a

required test load of 22,800 1bs/ ft.
This was considered impractical; also a pipe c~pab1e of

this test load would easily resist a test pressure well
in excess of 36 psi.
It was considered that an increase in test pressure to

51 psi with a corresponding test load of 16,700 1bs/ ft.
would give the most balanced design.
1974 Seminarafor Civil Engineers
Subject:
Performance of Reinforced Concrete Pipes
Presented by Clifford A Baker, BA, BSc, ARMTC,MIE Aust.
Scope
The broad subject of performance of reinforced concrete
pipe can, at best, only be superficially reviewed in a
short paper such as this, so after a brief look at the
basic physical and chemical properties of reinforced
concrete, attention will be directed primarily to
the performance of R.C.pipe in typical underground

installation, where Australian case histories going
back over 50 years are available
the fairly wide range of conditions where concrete

pipes have special advantages over other types of
pipe
the type of installation conditions where use of

reinforced concrete requires special consideration -
for example where the soil environment may be
aggressive to concrete
a. Chemical Composition
Concrete normally consists of inert aggregates bound
together by hydrated cement and most of the fundamental
concrete properties derive from the cement properties,
although mix proportions, the degree of compaction
or consolidation achieved when the concrete is placed
and subsequent curing can have important modifying
effects.
. .. /2
:A
·-
Page 2
In simplified terms normal Portland cements can be

considered essentially as a mixture of tricalcium
silicate C3 S, dicalcium silicate C2 S, tricalcium
aluminate C A, tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4 AF
with some ~psum CaSO~ added to control setting times.
When mixed with water a complex hydration reaction
occurs forming complex calcium silicate hydrates,
calcium aluminate hydrates and calcium hydroxide,
or lime. These complex hydrates form the binder
commonly known as the "cement gel" - which is a rigid
gel consisting of an extremely fine interlocking
crystalline structure. The hydrated calcium silicates
are the most important of the cementing compounds.
Australian Standard AS 1315 - 1973 specifiea four

types of cement, and all are used in concrete pipe
manufacture. Whilst Type A (normal) and Type B
(high early strength) are most common, Type D (sulphate
resisting cement) is often used to provide additional
durability in "sulphate" conditions. Some sulphates
react with calcium aluminate hydrate to form calcium
sulpho-aluminate within the concrete. This expansive
reaction can cause disintegration but, in general,
it will not occur with Type D cement where the C1 A
is limited to a maximum of 5%. Type C (low heat)
is not commonly used in pipes.
b. Physical Properties
The general principles of concrete technology are
applicable to pipes but any general assessments of
pipe concrete should be made in the context of the
usage of extremely low water cement ratios and very
high compactive forces. In the literature relating
to reinforced concrete one seldom sees reference to
water cement ratios below 0.40 by weight, but this
is near the upper limit for concrete pipe and water
cement ratios significantly below this are the norm.
These low wlc ratios are only practicable because of
the high compactive forces possible in the centrif-
ugation, vibration and pressure methods used by pipe
manufacturers.
These factors result in high strength concrete -

70 MFa compressive str~ngth is common - and this is
in the range now being researched in structural
concretes as "ultra high strength concrete".
Strength gain continues significantly for long periods

if moist conditions pertain. Pipe dimensions are
stable.
. .. . / 3
"
Page J
c. Permeability
Low permeability is one o~ the most important properties
of pipe concrete, not only because it is an essential
feature o~ an hydraulic pipe, but most importantly,
it is an indicator o~ concrete durability.
Permeability is primarily controlled by the ~inal water

cement ratio o~ the mix and the compaction and curing
o~ the concrete. The hydration process stoichemetric-
ally requires a water cement ratio around 0.24 to
0.28 by maSS ~or ~ull cement hydration. The wlc
ratio required ~or workability exceeds this figure
and this can result in voids in the hardened concrete.
Failure to properly compact the concrete also produc e s
voids. The e~~ect o~ water cement ratio on perme-
ability is shown in Annex I - w/c ratios below 0 . 40
can give virtually "impermeable" concrete.
The hydration process is a relatively slow one so that

many o~ the capillary pores existing within the matr jx
at an early age will be eliminated by being ~illed with
hydration products as the reaction proceeds in the
presence o~ water.
Many cases o~ chemical deterioration of underground

concrete can be attributed to its permeability - the
destruction due to wetting and drying, reinforcement
corrosion, more rapid chemical attack, etc. results
from movement of liquid into or from the concrete.
Properly made concrete pipe has low permeability
because o~ the dense concrete with low vic ratio
and the result is excellent durability.
d. Rei~orcement
Pipe design and the structural function served by

rein~orcement is the subject o~ another paper, but the
conditions established which prevent steel corrosion
are worth mentioning .
In the hydration process the lime liberated creates

a highly alkaline environment, the pH created being
around 12. This high pH producecs a state o~
passivation o~ the steel - a series o~ electrochemical
reactions increase the electrochemical potential
o~ the steel sur~ace - the iron oxide ~ilm ~ormed in
e~~ect "enobles" the steel and makes it behave as
a corrosion resistant metal.
Cover to rein~orcement is important in maintaining the

high pH to protect the steel - a permeable concrete
can allow leaching o~ lime or ingress o~ aggressives.
Re~erence to Fig.1 shows that a wlc ratio change ~rom
pipe concrete (0.40) to builders structural concrete
(0.65) can increase the permeability several hundred
.. . / 4
Page 4
times. This explains why the thin wall reinforced

pipe sections with their relatively low cover have
not experienced steel corrosion and consequent
spalling as have poorer concretes with much greater
cover.
e. Cracks
The durability of concrete can be affected by cracking,

which may arise in a number of ways - shrinkage in
the cement paste, physical damage in handling, thermal
stresses or structural overload. Shrinkage cracks are
probably the most dangerous as they may contribute
to overall porosity - adequate water curing is most
important factor in minimizing this effect. Pipes,
like all reinforced concrete, are designed to crack
under load as the full strength of the steel is not
utilised until this occurs but steel stresses are
limited to keep crack width low.
The crack width is the important factor in determining

whether or not the cracked concrete has been made
more permeable. It has been established vater has
no mobility in cracks of less than 0.1mm (0.004")
width, so that these cracks do not allow the ingress
of aggressive solution. Australian Pipe Standards
limit crack width at the pipe surface, it must be
remembered that crack widths at the reinforcement steel
are very much less.
f. Autogenous Healing
Concrete which is cracked or porous and showing
permeability will often heal itself in the presence
of moisture by thA process known as autogenous healing.
The water passage is sealed by one or more of the
following
swelling of the cement gels due to absorption of

water (the inverse of the shrinkage effect)
recommencement of the hydration of hitherto unhydrated

cement particles
a reaction between the free lime in the concrete and

carbon dioxide either from the atmosphere or dissolved
in the water. This reaction produces insoluble
calcium carbonate which can plug up the voids •
. . . /5
Page 5
Autogenous healing of reinforced concrete allows
pipes which are overloaded and crack to again become
watertight when the overload is removed, or, in the
case of internal pressure to heal whilst still under
working pressure.
g. Effects of Modern Technology
During the last 50 years a variety of pipe

manufacturing processes have been developed, with a
resultant significant increase in pipe quality,
longer lengths and every increasing pipe diameter.
(The spun and rolled processes are Australian inventions,
and have been widely licenced overseas - a recognition
of the Australian quality).
PERFORMANCE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE
In many ways the ideal exposure situation -to ensure

maximum concrete durability is underground. Soil
moisture ensures continued curing and strength gain,
temperatures are relatively constant minimising
thermal stresses and, in most cases, drying shrinkage
cannot take place. Most soils are not aggressive
to concrete.
The classic examples of concrete pipe durability go

back to Roman days where both sewer and water supply
used concrete pipe lines. A short length of line
constructed by the Romans is supplying water to the
city of Trier in Germany, a Rome sewer is still in
operation.
Australian service history cannot go back 2,000 years,

but there is considerable evidence of satisfactory
performance of R.C.pipes for over 50 years. Some of
the early concrete pressure pipe contracts in Victoria,
prior to 1920 were
Traralgon 4,160 m (13(662 ft.) of nominal

250 mm (10") diameter with test
pressures ranging from 300 KPa to
750 KPa (100' to 250' head)
Kerang 1,875 m (6,148 ft.) of nominal 225 m
(9") diameter with 450 KPa (150' head)
test pressure
Mitcham 3,420 m (11,220 ft.) of 100 mm (24")

diameter with test pressures ranging
from 240 to 480 KPa (80 to 160 ft.
head)
AND 220 m (720 ft.) of 900 mm (30") diameter

to 250 KPa pressure (85 ft. head)
... /6
Page 6
and similar pipes, totalling nearly 30,500 m (100,000
:ft.) :for Kerang, Wangaratta, _Mitcham, Flinders Naval
Base, Swan Hill and Corryong. Pressure pipes were
also known to be installed prior to 1920, in Queensland,
South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania.
As these lines are still in service it is di:f:ficult

to recover and test these old pipes. However, a pipe
was recently recovered :from a SR&WS Commission
Dromana-Portsea pressure line - 375 mm (15") diam. -
made prior to 1940 and :found by test to still meet the
speci:fied requirements.
An example o:f the gain o:f pipe strength in service

arose in 1 964 :from a decision by the Violet Town
Waterworks Trust to increase the operating pressure
o:f the local water supply to 600 KPa (200 :ft. head ) -
pipes 150 mm (6 11 ) diameter were supplied in 1926 with
test pressure 540 KPa (180 :ft.head). Several o:f these
original pipes were taken :from the line and pressure
tested, showing:failures at pressures in excess o:f
1350 KPa (450 :ft. head) thus giving con:fidence :for
a problem :free operating pressure increase, a surmise
subsequently proven correct.
It is o:f interest to note that some authorities require

pressure pipe to be permanently identi:fied prior to
laying so that, when time renders the line obsolete
and the pipe is relaid its design per:formance can
be readily ascertained.
In the sewer pipe :field similar satis:factory per:formance

over a 50 year period can be validated. A 1050 mm
(42") diameter :factory made pipe was laid through
rock :fill to discharge sewage into the sea, near
Hobart, in 1921. In addition to the sewage, the pipe
was exposed to sea water both internally and externally.
Although these pipes were made by methods now considered
antiquated (:for example, the reinforcement was hand
made and tied, not welded, and the joint was made by
a separate concrete collar) the concrete showed no
sign o:f deterioration and the reinforcement was in
as new condition. when the pipe was examined in recent
years.
For external load there is a high :factor o:f sa:fety
between the 0.12 mm (0.005") crack design load and
the actual load applied in :field service. No case
o:f structural :failure o:f quality pipe laid as designed
has been reported throughout Australia.
The loan li:fe :for concrete pipe is currently only 35

years - a :figure which was set many years ago when long
term service history was not available in Australia.
Modern methods and accumulated history o:f per:formance
suggest strongly that this should now be at least
50 years.
. ... . /7
,SPECIAL ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPES
There are a number of laying situations where reinforced

concrete pipe has technical advantages over other
conventional pipe materi1as, irrespective of cost factors.
These situations include
a. Clay Soils
In many clay soils, typified by the Horsham and
Gee10ng areas in Victoria, changing soil moisture
content causes significant movement which, unlike
settlement, persists through the life of the
pipeline. As a result a history of failure of
3.96 m (13 ft.) long fibro pipes has been built uP.
due to their having insufficient beam strength.
With reinforced concrete pipes in 1.68 m (6 ft.) or
2.44 m (8 ft.) length, and flexible joints, the beam
strength is adequate to resist these soil loads.
b. Effect of Overload
Reinforced concrete pipe will remain serviceable
even if subjected to occasional or accidental
overload - for pressure pipe the autogeneous healing
effect has already been mentioned. For reinforced
concrete pipe under external load an overload of
up to nea~ly 50% will not cause disastrous failure
and, if the overload is removed recovery will occur,
usually leaving the line serviceable. Non reinforced
pipes are destroyed in these circumstances.
Further, severe handling damage which causes destruction

of non reinforced pipe results only in chipping of
reinforced concrete, easily repairable with modern
techniques like epoxy resins.
c. Sea Water Exposure

Reinforced concrete pipes have a proven history of
satisfactory service in marine exposure conditions.
Whilst sea water basically a solution of sodium
potassium and magnesium sulphates and chlorides is,
prima facie an aggressive sulphate condition, the
presence of the chlorides modifies the sulphoalumin-
ate reaction and chemical corrosion of the concrete
is of no consequence. Corrosion of the reinforcement
is prevented by dense concrete although cover is
sometimes increased as a safeguard against chloride
attack on the reinforcement. Sulphate resistant
cement could be an extra precaution.
. .. /8
Page 8
d. Dimensional Stability
Concrete kept moist is completely stable in dimensions,
and dimensional changes due to wetting and drying are
basically cyclic about a constant value. "Growth"
or continuing increase in length, leading to failure
as a column, is not experienced as with some other
materials.
e. Rubber Ring Joints

The important features of a rubber ring joint includes
• it must provide flexibility and allow the design

deflection at the joint, without leakage
• it must transmit shear across the joint without

allowing the consequent settlement to cause
leakage
jointing forces must not be excessive
• rubber ring interface pressures, throughout the

life of the line, must be sufficient to prevent
root penetration into the line
0' for water supply and sewerage lines it must be

100% effective in preventing infiltration
• joint surfaces, spigot and socket, must be

manufactured with the necessary low tolerances.
Rubber ring joint in reinforced concrete pipe satisfy

all these criteria; in fact the joint has been proven
as capable of performing at design defle~tions to
pressures well in excess of the capability of the
parent concrete pipe.
f. Susceptibility to Corrosion
For normal installations, no protective treatment,

coating or lining is required to ensure satisfactory
service. Thus the problems with metallic pipes
of ensuring continuity of the protective coating do
not arise.
CONDITIONS REQUIRING SPECIAL CONSIDERATION
Reinforced concrete pipes, like most construction materials,

have some service limitations and it is essential to
recognise the conditions where special precautions or
protective measures must be applied. The most important
of these situations are outlined below:-
a. Above Ground Exposure

Concrete pipes are designed for service underground
and careful consideration is ' necessary if above
... /9
"
Page 9
ground or part buried installations are planned.

Shrinkage and thermal stresses must be assessed -
temperature differences of Jooe can arise in a sun/
shade situation with consequent cracking. Non
uniform shrinkages, restraints against thermal
expansions and hot low flow discharges may cause
trouble.
Full submergence in water is satisfactory but partial

immersion in water or soil should be avoided or
allowed for in the design. The "wind and water zone"
of a marine exposure comes into tLis catego~y.
Provision of a "sunshade" or cover of some form may be
acceptable in some climatic conditions.
b. "!!2S Attack"
When certain combinations of circumstances occur in a
sewer, pipes can be subjected to acid corrosion known
as H2 S attack. Sulphur compounds existin~ in the
sewage have a dissolved hydrogen sulphide lH 2 S)
fraction which can be released into the atmosphere.
In aerobic conditions this H S is oxidised on the
pipe surface by bacterial action with progressive
reduction of pH and formation of sulphuric acid which
attacks the cement compounds (in concrete or asbestos
cement pipes). This process is only likely to occur
with stale sewage (high biochemical oxygen demand),
high temperatures, poor ventilation, flat grades and
low flows, and where industrial wastes or other
sulphate sources are admitted to the system. In
general, aggressive combination of these adverse
circumstances oC,c urs only in the larger collecting
trunk and outfall sewers.
In many cases the risk of H S attack can be minimised

2
by proper sewer design, but, in some circumstances it
is economic to allow the H2 S to form and to protect
the concrete aga~nst corrosion. Methods of
protection used in Australia include
sacrificial layers - additional concrete is

provided in the pipe bore, to allow some
internal concrete attack and still leave the
pipe structurally sound
use of cement with some acid resistant properties,

in particular high alumina cement
calcerous aggregate - the concrete is made from

acid soluble aggregate, ensuring that the acid
is neutralized by the whole concrete matrix,
thus significantly slowing the rate of attack
. . . . . /1 0
"
Page 10
use of internal linings to prevent access of

the sulphuric acid to the concrete surface. Both
liquid applied and preformed plastic sheet
materials have been used
c. Aggressive Ground Waters

In some areas ground waters can contain sulphates,
chlorides organic and inorganic acids or carbon
dioxide, materials which can be aggressive to the
cement compounds. Pure water can also be destructive.
With the exception of sulphates, when the expansive

sulphoaluminate reaction described earlier occurs,
the vehicle for attack is the free lime present in
the concrete - this will react with acids, or leach
out in pure soft waters. The initial removal of
the lime then upsets the stability of the calcium
silicate hydrates, resulting in the release of further
lime, and so the corrosion proceeds.
The seriousness of ground water attack is dependent

on
the concentration of the aggressive material
the permeability of the concrete
the rate of replenishment of the aggressive
the presence of other salts mod;~y i ng the

chemical reactions
the cement type used
Whilst the complete assessment of probability of attack

is a job for an expert, it can generally be expected
that
sulphate attack will not be a problem if Type D

cement is used
weak acids down to pH 5 have no effect whilst

depending on type, concentration and replenishment
rate, pH down to 3.5 can be innocuous
pure water leaching is not a serious problem

in most parts of Australia
aggressive CO higher than 20-70 ppm warrants

2
consideration of protective measures
Ground water attack is usually best controlled by

reducing rates of replenishment at the concrete surface
••• / 11
Page 11
by measures such as the use of impervious backfill,

alkaline backfill, plastic wrapping of the pipe
or application of an external organic coating.
d. Aggressive Effluents
The possibilities of internal attack by aggressive
trade wastes are basically similar to those arising
from aggressive ground waters but because these wastes
are usually sufficient in quantity to maintain
corrosion rates, acceptable concentrations are lower
than for ground waters - for example the pH limit
is nearer 6 than 5. Protective measures similar
to those adopted for H S attack are applicable
2
for acid industrial wastes.
e. Reinforcement Corrosion
Because of the protection provided by the high pH
of the concrete, attack on the reinforcement as
distinct from the concrete is unusual. The only
troublesome source can be very high chloride
concentrations e.g. brine. Steel corrosion due to
pH reduction by carbonation, sometimes experienced
in cast in situ concrete is not a problem with
precast pipe because the concrete impermeability
prevents carbonation to significant depth.
Conclusions
Reinforced concrete pipe, as manufactured in Australia

is recognised world wide as the top quality, and has a
proven excellent service history in Australia. There are
many situations where it is technically superior to other
types of pipe and conversely there are some applications
whe1'e speCial protective measures are required to ensure
long life.
.- .
Annex I of "Performance of Reinforced Concrp.te Pipes"

by C.A. Baker
f
120 L2000xI012
em/sec .
~ 110 .-
'Q
)(
100
v
~ 90
E
v
I 80
--
~
70
~
>- J
60
..J
m
~ !50
1
UJ
~
a= 40
/
~ 30
~ I
/
0
J
u.: 20
lL
/
--
W 10
0
u ~
o
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0·6 0,7 0 ,8
W/C RATIO - by weight.
FIG I
EFFECT OF INITIAL WIC RATIO ON PERMEABILITY
•
Annex II of' "Perf'ormance of' Reinf'orced Concrete Pipes"

by C.A.Baker
Ref'erences
A f'ull range of' ref'erence material can be obtained from
the CPAA. A brief list of suggested reading is given
below.
Chemistry of' Cement
1. Lea & Desch - "The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete".
2. W.Czernin - "Cement Chemistry and Physics f'or Civil

Engineers". (Crosby Lockwood & Sons Pty.Ltd.)
Sulphate Resistant Cements
"Durability of Concrete Construction". A. C. I.

Monograph No.4 1968
"Long-Time Tests of Concretes and Mortars Exposed

to Sulphate Waters"
Miller and Manson. Univ.of Minnesota Tech.Bulletin 184

(1951 )
Permeability
1. P,I,Mahaffey - "Durable Concrete" Proceedings of'

CPAA National Seminar 1972,
2. T.C.Powers, J.C.Hayes and H.M.Mann - "Permeability

of' Portland Cement Paste". A.C.I.Journal Nov.1954
Pipes in Clay Soils
SR&WSC Commission "Field Study of Bedding of' Asbestos

Cement Pipes in Dooen Clays".
Sea Water
B.Mather - Effects of' Sea Water on Concrete. Highway

Research Record No.113.
~S Attack
"Control of Sulphides in Sewerage Systems". Edited

by P.K.8.Thistlethwayte (Butterworth 1972)
Aggressive Ground Waters
I. Biczok - "Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Protection"

(Akadamiai Kiado 1964)
2. 71
Subject:
Installation of Reinforced Concrete Pipes
Presented by Ian G Hope, BE,M Eng Sc, MIE Aust.
Introduction
The discussions so far covered the selection of a
suitable reinforced concrete pipe, for a particular
application. It is now proposed to outline
significant aspects of pipeline installation, which
must be appreciated by Engineers responsible for
construction.
Before delving into details of insitu loads and

construction tec~iques, it is necessary for you to
realise that there is more to the proper handling
and laying of pipes, than accepted by many Engineers.
Proper installation is too often taken for granted.
You would be staggered at the condition of many
in-service pipelines. Poor workmanship is abundently
apparent upon visual internal inspection. How
regularly, do you as Engineers responsible for
construction, inspect the finished job? It is
assumed that the Foreman/ Supervisor, knows everything
to be known about proper installation methods.
However, generally those in the field have little
knowledge of the design criteria adopted to select
the pipe diameter, class and bedding type.
Furthermore, Engineers frequently assume that the person
responsible for pipeline construction, is conversant
with the appropriate specification, whether it be
Australian Standard CA 33-1962 Concrete Pipe Laying
Design, or a specification prepared by a Government
Instrumentality or authority. These assumptions,
coupled with an understandable lack of design
knowledge, unintentionally result in substantial
abuse to the pipes being installed.
General
When preparing drawings or instructions for installation
of pipes, it is necessary that the following basic
information be incorporated;
... /2
Page 2.
al diameter
b class and joint type of pipe
c type of bedding
d invert levels
e condition of installation i.e., wide
or narrow trench, or embankment
conditions
(f) backfill requirements
Inclusion of condition of installation and backfilling

requirements are two essential, but neglected, aspects
of pipe installation. JOintly they would be
responsible for unnecessary pipeline overloading,
joint movement and surface subsidence.
Conditions of Installation
The magnitude of loads imposed upon a buried pipe, by
the overlying soil and by any uniformly distributed or
concentrated surface surcharge of large or infinite
extent, depends first on the nature, density and depth
of soil cover, the intensity of the surcharge, the
nature of the pipe -whether rigid or flexible, and on
the conditions in which it is installed - whether
trench or embankment.
Reference is often made to the manufacturers tabulated

load carrying capacities to select the appropriate
pipe class when the service load requirements are
known. This procedure is satisfactory provided the
design criteria equate. However, prior to deciding
the class of pipe required, the design engineer should
consider in detail, how the pipe is to be laid, i.e.
the depth of excavation, cover, backfill material
type, trench width required for practical installation,
minimum density of backfill and possible construction
traffic loads. Specific information relating to the
last three items will be discussed.
Trench Widths
For pipes in trench conditions the fill and surcharge
loads depend upon the effective trench width and
whether it is wide or narrow with respect to the
outside diameter of the pipe and depth of soil cover.
Figure 1 refers.
When installing a pipe it is essential that the trench

width be specified and excavated uniformly and not be
permitted to "just happen" in a haphazard manner.
The following example will illustrate the variation
in loading that is possible when insufficient attention
is directed to the trench width.
Assumptions
Diameter ID = 72" 11800 mm)

OD = 79" 2000 mm)
Cover = 12'0" 3.66 m}
Density W = 1001b / ft (160.0 Kg/ M2 )
... /3
.
•
~
lAI
In·
. I I
I
."
i iI
_1 ~ .---.
'~~'
~! 'I
11\ ·k
• N' .~'
-#- - ~ ... -t -t
I :
i~1 H.'
,I
-f
I
I
8.
t
-
t I,
I .
I' ' .
. I!
I
I f D. t H
~
,
. - . ---~
FIGUQE I : EFFECTIVE TRENCH WIDTH.

8 • EFFECTIVE T1lEJICH WIDTH AT "'lOP OF PIPE
D '" OUTSIDE PIPE DIAMETER.
H • DEPm OF C(NER AB()ve PIPE .
Page 3 a
101M + MentaV"
NOU. 10 NOO
H:>tlilfJ.
--
--
--
-- -- .".. '"
---.t!-I\
-, i
.i
I ,
I t-- =h-- ~
'HI
,t..
l~
'g
(eI"/4iOO'I),u!JflIOOI. M
(N"'£)I,o~1 • If
F()()(X} ,6L· '00
. (WWOOi/) /,U '" '0 'I ~3J3H"'O
: StcOudWnssv
: I ~'dHVXl
Page 3.
Case 1 Narrow Trench Reference Appendix A of
CA33-1962, Section A1 Trench Condition.
In a narrow trench of constant depth, the

fill load W is given by;
e
W = C W B2
e t
where
= load
coefficient for fill loads
obtained from Figure 1, AS CA33-1962
for B = 103" or 8.58'
H/B = 12/8.58 = 1.40
= 1.09 when Ku = 0.19 (Curve E)
therefore
W
e = 1.09 x 100 x (103)2
12
= 8030 1b/ft length of pipe
Case 2 Wide Trench Reference Appendix A of CA33-1962,

Section A3 Wide Trench Condition.
For a narrow trench of constant depth the fill load W ,

imposed on a pipe of constant outside diameter, e
increases (as B widens) up to a limiting value at
which it is equal to the wide trench load W , which
is given by; e
W , = C W D2
e e
Beyond the critical width at which this equality occurs,
any further increase in trench width produces no further
increase in the fill load since W , is independent of
trench width B, but is dependent 8n 0, the overall pipe
diameter.
From the previously listed design assumptions,
D = 79" = 6.58 1
H/D = 12/6.58 = 1.83
C , the load coefficient for positive
e
projection embankment conditions, is
obtained from Figure 2, AS CA33-1962 = 2.7
therefore
2
we , = 2.7 x 100 x 6.58
= 11690 1b/ft length of pipe as
compared with the loading
(calculated as a trench) :-
2
W
e
= 0.5 x 100 x 22.75
= 25878 lb/ft length of pipe
where
= 136.5 x 2 22.75 1
+ 12 -
= 12/22.75 = 0.527
= 0.5 (from Figure 1 of CA33-1962
... /4
Page 4.
Summary
Narrow Trench Loading W

e
= 80JO lb / ~t
Wide Trench Loading W I
e
= 11690 lb / ~t
Percentage Increase WeI - We = 45.6%
W
e
Attention must be directed to trench widths when

installing pipes. Specific instructions must be
given to those in the field so that they know the
maximum allowable trench width and realise the
significance o~ exceeding its value.
Backfilling: Load Factors

Another aspect o~ pipe installation that is neglected
is back~illing. The ability of any pipe to support
an embankment depends on adequate side support. It
is essential that side filling be thoroughly compacted
to at least 90% o~ the maximum dry density as assessed
by the Modi~ied Protor Test Method. If 90% compaction
is not attained, the ability o~ a pipe to carry a
given load is reduced signi~icantly. This can be
illustrated by re~erring to CAJJ-1962, Appendix B4,
where load ~actors F ~or various bedding types are
t
given. The load ~actor ~or type B bedding, negative
projection, earth ~oundation are;
( a) back~illing compacted to at least 90%

Ft = 2.5,
(b) back~illing compacted to less than 90%
Ft = 1.9 (minimum) ,
where load factor is de~ined as the ratio o~ the total

load which can be supported by the pipe in a ~ill, to
the load which could be supported in the two point
bearing test described in AS AlJ42-l97J.
It is not sufficient to assume attainment of 90%

consolidation when placing back~ill material around
a pipe. The back~ill material should be care~ully
placed around the pipe in layers not exceeding six (6)
inches thick and compacted, prior to placement of
~urther layers o~ material.
From experience it is apparent that Engineers are loath

to spend money on insitu density testing. Insitu
density tests are the only accurate means of ensuring
adequate compaction. The widespread practice of
visual inspection accompanied by the "heel" or "hammer"
tests, are totally unreliable and reflect an approach
of false economy to pipe laying. Engaging soil testing
consultants to carry out Proctor Density Tests and up
to six (6) insitu density tests within a 20 mile radius
of Melbourne would cost approximately • 70.
When this charge is compared with the cost of construction,
it is relatively insignificant. It does ensure that
consolidation is carried out to an acceptable standard •
. . . /5
Page 5.
The following table illustrates the wide variation of

load factors as a function of load type and illustration
condition.
Load Factors
Trench Type Load Factor

Condition Bedding Foundation Projection Maximum Minimum
Narrow A Rock Negative 4.7 1.7

" A Earth " 3 1.9
" B Rock " 2.5 1.9
" B Earth " 2.5 1.9
"It C Rock " 1.9 1.5
C Earth " 1.9 1.5
" D Rock " 1.1
" D Earth " 1.1
Wide or A Rock Positive 6.5 3.7

Imperfect A Earth " 6.5 3.7
" B Rock " 2.9 2.2
" B Earth " 2.9 2.3
" C Rock " 2.8 1.8
" C Earth " 2.8 1.8
" D Rock " 1.4 1.1
" D Earth " 1.4 1.2
Fi~re 2
Failure to provide side support may cause failure of

the pipeline at less than the designed loading and may
also induce differential settlement when the fill above
and beside the conduit does not settle uniformly.
Applying Load Factors to the loads calculated for the

72" (1800 mm) diameter pipe, previously considered,
the actual load (W) to be sustained by the pipe when
laid with Type B bedding, negative projection and
earth foundation are;
Narrow Trench Condition

W
e
= 8030 lbf/ ft length of pipe
Case 1
Backfill Compaction greater than 90% of
the Maximum Dry Density F = 2.5
t
W = 8030 = 3200 lbf/ ft
2.5
Case 2
Backfill compaction less than 90% of
the Maximum Dry Density F t = 1.9
(minimum value).
W = 8030 = 4200 lbf/ft
1.9
... / 6
Page 6.
From Table VI of AS A35-l957 (A1342-l973), it can be

determined that a class -X pipe with a cracking load
of 4250 lbf/ lineal foot, would satisfy the load
requirement for Case 1. If the pipeline had been
constructed without thorough backfill compaction
(case 2), the class X pipe would be understrength,
particularly if a surcharge load greater than 50 1bf
per linear foot was applied. For positive projection
conditions (including wide trench), the actual value of'
F can be calculated from the formu1ar,
t
F = 1. 431
t
N -xq
where
N = 0.707 for type B bedding
N = 0.840 for type C bedding
x depend upon the projection ratio p
p = 0.5 x = 0.423
0.7 0.594
0.9 0.655
1.0 0.638
q = E!f (H/ D + P/2)

C
K is Rankine's coefficient of lateral
earth pressure (=0.33)
C is the vertical load coefficient

obtained from AS CA33-l962
Surcharge Loads: Concentrated

Pipes in service are subject to loads generated by
earth pressures and superimposed surcharges, such as
traffic loads for pipes under roadways. As
previously stated the actual loads vary according to
the class of foundation material, type of bedding,
nature of the fill material, depth of cover, compaction
procedure and whether the pipe is beneath an embankment
or in a trench.
A loading which is often overlooked and which may exceed

the combined loads as previously listed, is construction
traffic loading. The trend today is for larger and
consequently heavy earthmoving equipment. When this
equipment is used in conjunction with pipeline
construction it is often allowed to pass over or
alongside pipes during the backfilling operation.
Little concern is directed in the field to the permanent
effect such transient traffic can have on the pipe.
Australian S tandard CA33-1962 Clause 9, provides for

the calculation of the vertical load on a pipe due to
a superimposed concentrated load, from the formula,
W = C p 0(..
c p
L
. .. / 7
Page 7.
where
coefficient used in the calculation
of the vertical load on a pipe
due to concentrated superimposed
loads (Figure 5 GA33-l962)
P _ concentrated load in lbf.
oc = impact factor
L = length of a pipe over which a
vertical concentrated load is
assumed to be distributed
L = 1.15 H + 2D + S but not
greater than length of the pipe
where
S = length of a concentrated load along
a pipe in feet
Typical axle loads for common earthmoving equipment are

indicated in Figure 3.
Axle Loads
Classification Model Weight No Wheel

(operating) Axle Loads
Grader Rayco Giant 105200 2 26300

CMI 61000 3 10300
CAT l2F 28600 3 4700
Pavement
Spreader Barber Green 62820 2 15700
Compactors Rayco Ram 45000 2 11300

Rayco 600 85500 100" 85500
Pacific V36 120000 100" 120000
Pacific v24 84000 84" 84000
Scrapers Allis Chalmers PM 54700 1 27350

460 S 83900 1 41950
PM=Prime Mover
Axle
S =Scraper 260 PM 34100 1 17050
Axle S 49200 1 24600
Catapillar
c PM 77400 1 38700
63l
s 71300 1 35650
621 PM 54176 1 27088

S 48624 1 24312
613 PM 26037 1 13018

S 28663 1 14331
Figure :3
.•. /8
Page 8.
The vertical load on a pipe, as a function of cover and

single concentrated load intensity, have been calculated
for the 72" (1800 mm) diameter pipe, adopted in the
previous example.
Cover Vertical Load P (lbf)

H (feet) 10000 20000 30000 40000
Load per lineal foot of conduit (lbf/ft)

3 1155 2310 3465 4620
6 588 1176 1764 2352
9 313 626 939 1252
12 150 300 450 600
Figure 4
An impact factor of 1.2 has been used for H =3 feet

(reference Clause 11.2 AS CA33-l962)
The significance of the concentrated wheel load can be

judged when one compares the earth pressures loads and
the wheel loads as a function of the appropriate load
factor.
The following example is based upon narrow trench

conditions.
Wheel Load P = 10000 lb
Cover H (ft) 3 6 9 12
Loads on ~ ~Wheel Wc 1155 588 313 150

installed from Earth We 2579 4568 6557 8030
pipe
Total W 3734 5156 6870 8180
Required
Test
1 For
Load 1 2.5 1494 2060 2748 3270
Loads Factor 2661
Ft 1.9 1965 3616 430.5
W/Ft
Class of Pipe S X Y
Figure .5
· .. /9
COVER DEPTH H- It
15 13 II 10 9 8 7 G A FOR RIGID PIPES WITH
eeOOING ClASSES B,G,D
90
WOTE :
- IMPACT EFFECTS ).jOT
LNGlUOEO ,
70
,
, , I:;: ITM fi ....
Ii
I 60
"i
t· [1
'
"t':'
tt
.
,it 'tt; +,
t :.. ~ ....
+i"fj
- IT
~~
"'-'- u
_. »,
t'
..
.., .,:; ~-+ , :I , W.
- "
50 ,~
..
..... , IbI';" -~f-I- : • .-
..
40
:r -: .
.f!
- . [} :~dF: :: ; ( . -
;' I :;::;-
~c;:: ':'....
50
~ ::l- ,.; II ~~;:' ::t
!t ; , .' ,::: I:t '"I
~ 1:1 ,j ..... ;t' ;..;
7:" •. ~ •• J!. ~ . :.~ ::: . t~ EfFECOVE UOAOS W,
. .. :. ,... ... ..,..: i .. ~ t
~o
20
- , ~' .. " ::r.;. F . IMPOSED 8V TWO 1OOO1b.
I-." t 1
. IT WHEELS 3ft APART.
10 •
, .
, :
0 n n ~ riif r Ht Ii Iii Iii li
0 200 «10 ~oo 800 1000 rJOO 1400 1&00 1800 2000 2200 2AOO 2CiOO 2800 !OOO FIGURE 7.
"'d EFFl'CTIVI! LOAD, WL ¥t nm ofpope
P>
OQ
CD
-.0
P>
COVER DEPTH, H-ft.
100· 20 15 13 II 10 '3 7 (, FOR RIGID PIPES WITH IfDDING

~n 1111 U H t ~'!!I CLASSES 6,G, D
:::.l! i I; I ~~ r It t . ii:
:;::t, , ., • .. 1::1 .
90, =:c -- _. t
=! ::;~. ':: fi ! t I( .
=: _ J. ~ I t: I~ • H-;MI tolOTE:
=- . - IMPI\CT EFFECT5 NOT INClUOED .
I
, ,-+_:
.. . ,"
-
; 04 .~ 01· r
.::: t:j + . ': r
, ;::: ~::f--;t"
· ...... " Mll!l!L ~DIT
j:;.:
__
t--~+~C;jl::~
71-; 1---
~~l:• ; .. i j •• ~ ~
"JtifffifullW'''fill!:fitfti-llrlffitt''t r
~:: ~T3, t ~, •• ~ h;;l :: J1' T
r; :::::: ::tc~:. '. il t , tc· j:nn-tl1 I: I ; 3It~
I . 'R-
......
~. ... ... t
.'!: r+I"7
~ r:-:: 'I!t t
I.. ~ ;- -
£! . ~;T~tt· . f;;:: :~~~ 1 '.' : +-

i-- ~ It! ~. .:~~f U~~i .; h-
~
~ , :~:;,,!j ~i! ;;;IH:-:l1if:~, I ..,.. E~
·I ·~ ·-Jr t-:. nrl "1 t· '.~ I ... ~ .- .:t...h--;t"~-.
'H.'t
l!J . . ~ ,;.~
.:.t )!' : "; f:;). ~ I!:f:lil' ;~;J
L:I:
a . ~ .. t: '.lI'rtl 1jI~.t.; • ~ - t : dn: 1 ...
t;i I T: 7l;1 :tJt. '.. •. ~~r :.Ht ~~...
~
:~- :v:~:~:j.f .::tct ·1 ._:. --'-'.
~
1':L ~ ~~1~~ r:1I ~--i~. :[t+ . i bHf' ~:
o • ~ nj'L·t' ~ I .. l 1j,f t
, .... ,.... ' .... ,"'. :.!.i ·t iiI'
~ ~ ~ .~;~;;' :; 1l~ :: :~t ~l n: _~:
~ r i'!--;i ::, P!'f: ! ;:rt ..
~ r- ~ ';t· t;t-:- EFFECTIVE LOADS We IMPOSED
o
~ (tII' t fI{ WHEEL 1RAIN OF EIGHT
..
: i!'L: r, :~
.~.
: I
. 20000 lb. WHEEL LOADS .
!fI1fll~~1i '
OI'I'ttt
"d o 1000 2000 3000 ~ !IOOO ~ 1000 eooo 9000 IOOClO 11000
po FIGURE 8.
IlQ
(I) EmcnvE LOAD Wg lIy!t. run ofpip! .
\0
t:r
Page 9.
Wheel Load P = 40,000 lb
·Cover H (f't ) 12
l
3 6 9
Loads on ~Wheel W 4620 2352 1252 600

Installed from Earth WC 2579 4568 6557 8030
Pipe e
l
Total W 7199 6920 7809 8630
l
Required 2880
For 2.5 2768 3124 3452
Test Load
Loads Factor
Ft 1.9 3789 3642 4110 4542
W/Ft
Class of Pipe X Y
Figure 6
The effective load Wc for wheel trains of two 7000 lb

wheels 3 feet apart and eight 20000 lb wheel loads are
shown in Figures 7 and 8.
Surcharge Loads: Uniformly Distributed

For uniformly distributed surcharge loads of limited
extent, such as tanks or heavy mobile equipment, where
the length of track contact area is greater than half
the cover depth, the value of the vertical component
of the load imposed on the pipe is given by;
W = C D U
u u
where
C
u
= coefficient used in the calculation
of the vertical load on a pipe due
to a uniformly distri~uted superimp-
osed load of U lbf/ft
D = Outside pipe diameter
U = UnifO~lY distributed load in
lbf /ft
W is an approximate and probably conservative value of

tHe vertical component of the load imposed on a pipe.
The coefficient C is the load coefficient derived from
Boussinesq's theo¥y of stress in a semi-infinite elastic
~lid. It is the algebraic sum of the influence values
1 (J obtained from Fadum' s graph (Figure 9). <5"" is the I
vertical stress imposed by unit intensity of' surcharge
on the surf'ace, at a depth H and at a point vertically
below the corner of' any rectangle of dimensions Bl x L
Figure 10 refers.
The impact factor to be used for mobile loads depends

upon the roughness of the surface. This f'actor is not
well established f'or tracked vehicles as it depends on
the nature and condition of the soil. A value of 2.0
is tentatively suggested.
• .. /10
Page 10.
Typical Bearing Pressures £or common equipment are

indicated in Figure 11.
Bearing Pressures
C1assi£ication Model Weight Area of' U

2
Con~act 1b£/£t
(£t )
Tractor/Dozer HD41 169720 60 2829

HD21 84985 36 2361
D9G 873000 44 1984
D8H 63000 34 1853
D7F 40000 40 1333
D6C 29000 26 1115
Excavators Hymac 72300 48 1506
Figure 11
For the narrow trench condition .adopted in the previous

example the vertical loads £or varying depths o£ cover
are shown in Figure 12.
Assumptionl!l
2 2
U = 1000 Ib£/£t (4882 Kg/m )
B1 = 10 £eet (3048 mm)
L = 1 £oot (305 mm)
Cu = ~IC'
Cover
H (Feet) 3 6 9 12
16- 0.137 0.075 0.05 0.033

cu=416'" 0.548 0.30 0.20 0.132
D =6.58' Wu 3605 1974 1316 867
transient 2 Wu 7210 3948 2632 1737

earth We 2579 5468 6557 8030
total W 9789 9516 9189 9767
(impact £actor 2)
Load Factor 2.5 3916 3806 3676 3907

1.9 5152 5008 4836 5141
Class of' Pipe LF = 2.5 X

LF = 1.9 Y
- -- --- -
Figure 12
•.• /11
UNIFORM LY DlSTIIIBUTYO Ul~D UsuS
B -
~L drfffiJJP;:''' '
' : m .l/II
r~ n =~
o 6TRESHT 0 • U Ier
CONCENTRATED SURCHARGE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED

SURCHARGe OW A LIMITE D
AREA OF SMALL EflENT
-
N.B: THE AREA B. L IS RECn.NGULA~ IN TRUE PLAt.! IN BOTH CASES .
,""
0.
o.~
""';'0::
". '1- M
0._ ~:~ ~
M.t~J:
0.72
1ft .1.( ~ ::::,... ",.~
0.21 !l/ff/ ".- .... /.l
.
~
1.
O.~
0.19 ~ ",.
0.1'
'// .~
0.17 '(// M. ~l
0.16 V/
0.15 V L ",.11
G.l4 L
In. 46
0." Not.: 1Jf ;- It ore
V
/"
0.12
0.11
ohM IJ .
0.10 I ~'J V
0.0
fJ rl --11 .f>.
o.ClI M rl ~
0.00 ...J ~ III/
0. l1li
'I. VJ II ~'!.J
'J /
V
0116
"
~
~/
0." ~ I'L ~ U! • !,l
~
~
--
0.01 L
I::;::~~ ......
~
"'_ C»~.....
0.01 ~.as.: ~v
0.00 ~~p- ..m../M
0.01 2 ~ 4 5' 7 e QJ 2 S" I ' 7 & 1.0 2 5 4 5 ' 7 4 10.0
"ALUES on..... 'iH .
FADU"'~ GRAPH OF INflUENCE VALUES FOR COMCENTIlATEO SURCHARGE Iv
LOADS AND fOQ UNIFOQM SU~AR'E LOADS OF SAALL EXTENT.
FIGUR.E 9.
Page 10 a
(JIIDO)~/? = (jan) s>/
&
Hl/fl :JqD Oll Nt/7· JIIDOlU l/g";)9 Z/7· q"
.NOI.JJSOd JSlJOM N/ ( 37:J11I3A
Oi1)(:JY~) ~'l/YHJlIns .1N7ISNt?Ji. lJO ilN/l-illJJN1' JlnaN()J
at J.~dSi111 HJ/II ODnt A77Y'RtJ.;N~ YglJY rBOfl()7 :J/J.YJS :9
t
'g
I
(pOO)PI - (IiqDO)J>/ - (JPI{O) PI + (l{:JOO) PI =('iP:Jq) PI
.,
/ •-
7 e -_ -~
, - - -- ::- ~ .:o ,",0
j I
I
I
I
I
It - - . I :
I
•... " 0 I
" '---.
Page 11.
The above example was based on the transient load being

in the worst position (case B of Figure 10).
The method of calculating the vertical load on a pipe,

due to superimposed static uniformly distributed load,
is shown in clause 8 of AS CA33-l962.
The loads so far described affect only the ring stresses

in a rigid pipe wall. Additional stresses may be, and
frequently are, caused by thermal and moisture changes
in the pipeline, or in the jointing material by, uneven
support in the bedding or in the foundation; and
by differential settlement, subsidence, drying
shrinkage or other soil movement. By making a line
of rigid pipes flexible and providing means for
individual pipes to move axially, back and forth
relative to their neighbours, restraints to both
bending and stretching of the pipeline can be largely
reduced, or eliminated, and most but not all, of the
corresponding s "econdary stresses can be avoided. The
remaining causes of stress in rigid pipes can be" reduced by
proper care in, and supervision of, the site operations
involved in ensuring uniformly of support over their
entire bearing area.
The principles of installation methods are dealt with

in detail in many publications, however, the following
items are worthy of your attention.
1. Selection of Trench Width

Trench widths must allow for the compaction of
backfilling. Many specifications state that the
trench width must not exceed the O.D. + 2' (or
less). For large diameter pipes provision must
be made for the movement of compaction equipment
such as footpath rollers, wacker plates, plate
vibrators, if the required density is to be
achieved.
Two (2) feet or less is inadequate except for the

smaller diameters. A good basic rule is I.D. x
1.4 + 12" (D.M.R. N.S.W.), but the overriding
requirement must be that the trench width allows
for thorough compaction of backfill material.
2. Socketted Pipes
When installing R.R.J. or S & S pipes, the bedding
must be shaped to provide even bearing along the
pipe barrel with provision made for the socket
by excavating a chase to prevent the socket from
bearing upon the foundation.
3. Joint Failures
Uneven resistance in the foundation, such as the
presence of natural or artificial hard or soft,
spots will unduce dangerous beam action or excessive
local loading in all pipelines and may cause joint
failure.
. .. /12
Page 12.
4. Settlement
Engineers should consider directing that the layer
of fill above a pipeline, layed with embankment
conditions, be given less than normal compaction, so
as to minimise the formation of a bump in the
surface above a pipe.
5. Markings
Pipes which have marks indicating the crown or invert,
should be laid strictly in accordance with the
markings. This is very important for proper
performance of pipe with elliptical reinforcement.
6. Sand Backfilling
Where trenches are backfilled with sand a ten (10)
foot length of subsoil drain should be constructed
at the bottom of the trench, immediately upstream
from each drainage pit or headwall. The upstream
end of the subsoil drain should be sealed with
cement mortar and the downstream end shall discharge
through the wall of the pit/headwall.
7. Strutting
In the case of pipes four (4) feet or more , in diameter
laid in situations where embankments are to be more
than ten (10) feet high, measured above the invert of
the pipe, pipes should be stiffened temporarily by
interior strutts, erected before filling is placed.
One strutt should be placed in a vertical position
at each pipe joint and thence at a spacing not
greater than four (4) feet. Strutts should bear
against a sill, laid along the invert and a cap
bearing against the crown of the pipe.
8. Jointing
The faces of the pipes to be jointed should be
thoroughly wetted, then butted as tightly as possible
against each other. The space between the abutting
ends of the pipes shall not exceed one half per cent
of the pipe diameter. The joint should be sealed
with mortar, both on the inside and outside of the
pipe to give neat smooth surfaces, uniform with the
inside and outside surfaces of the pipe. Mortar
joints should be protected from the sun and if
necessary covered with earth or wet bags to prevent
rapid drying of the mortar for at least 48 hours
after placing.
9. Headwalls
In order to minimise the effect of disturbance
during construction of headwalls, the joint between
the end pipe and the remainder of the pipeline
should not be filled with mortar until after the
headwall has been constructed.
· .. /13
,
Page 13.
Summary
It is necesaary to appreciate that proper supervision of
site work and good worlonanship are , essential to the
control and achievement of the des~gn values of both the
load and the load factor, and to the reduction or
elimination of secondary loading. Thus, excessive
trench widths increase the fill and surcharge loads on
all pipes in "narrow" trench conditions; inadequate
depth and uneven compaction of the bedding and
backfilling material, adversely affect the load factor
and so reduce the in-service strength of pipelines;
and excessive local loading during construction, along
with the vibrations which frequently accompany them,
may - collectively induce excessive local loading which
will result in unnecessary cracking of the pipes.
References:
1. National Building Studies Report 37
2. Concrete Pipe Association (U.K.)

Technical Bulletin No.2
-'

1974 - CivilEng - Seminars - Reinforced Concrete Pipe

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Concrete Pipe Association

CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA

8.30 a.m. Registration and welcome.

8.45 a . m. "Pipe design, manufacture and testing" -

9.45 a.m. "Performance of reinforced concre t e pipe" -

10.45 a.m. Morning Tea.

11.00 a.m . "Economics of reinforced concrete pipelines" -

1 .00 p . m. "Installation of reinforced concrete pipelines" -

2.00 p . m. Depart by bus for open air factory test

:3.30 p . m. Return to Civic Centre.

4.30 p.m. Refreshments.

We in Australia, are fortunate that the two processes

In the days when the Australian Standard CA2 did not

Concrete pipe manufacturers found that their pipes performed

Therefore they developed their own methods of design, empirical

1. Pipe Design for External Load

1.1 Loads on concrete pipes

The Australian Standard for concrete pipe laying design

Examples of calculations are given at the back of the

The most common error in load calculation is the use of

A trench width is reached beyond which the load on

The support under the pipe is most important. Point

After the field load is calculated, it can be converted

A.S. CA33-1962 gives load factors for a variety of

a) Performance, where the pipe must pass tests to

b) Prescription, where the purchaser designs the pipe

c) Design, where the Purchaser nominates permissible

Performance specifications are used for products which

The Performance type is used for concrete pipes in

The Austra1ian Standard for precast concrete drainage

The fact that the u1timate 10ad is required to be 1.5

1.3 Design methods

A detai1ed exp1anation of the different methods is not

a) The test 10ad is in theory a point 1oad, but in

1.4 Unreinforced concrete pipe

It is not good engineering to specify unreinforced

For example, it is unlikely that any engineer these

1.5 Reinforced concrete pipe

Earth load Self weight of Test load

In small diameter pipes the walls are not thick

Single Elliptical Double Circular

2. Pipe Design for Internal Pressure

2.1 Determination of factory test pressure

A.S. A124-1962 recommends that test pressure be 20%

2.3 Design methods

A.S. A124 also limits the resultant stress in the

Concrete pipes have the additional safeguard, that

3. Pipe Design for Combined Loads

3.3 Design methods

Therefore a method has been devised whereby the combined

The pipe is designed for factory test pressure P, then

CONCRETE PIPE MANUFACTURE

The spinning and roller-suspension pipe-making processes,

Concrete strengths of 70 MFa are common, and of course

Both pipe-making processes allow accurate positioning

Factories which demonstrate that their products comply

However, some companies regard this mark as of doubtful

2 Frequency of major tests

Every pipe in a pressure pipeline is tested at the

J. Strength gain SUbsequent to test

CONCRETE PIPE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA

Operating and Maintenance Cost

Life of Project - or Annual Costs