222 PDF

Lie groups and Lie algebras
Wilfried Schmid
Lecture notes by Tony Feng
Spring 2012
Math 222
2
Contents
1 Geometric preliminaries 7
1.1 Lie groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Tangent and cotangent spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Pullbacks and pushforwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 The Lie algebra of a Lie group 15

2.1 Invariant vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Integral curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 The exponential map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 The group law in terms of the Lie algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Lie algebras 25
3.1 The Lie algebra gl(V ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 The adjoint representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Poincaré’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 The Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 Geometry of Lie groups 37

4.1 Vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Frobenius’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Foliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 Lie subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 Lie’s Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 The Universal Enveloping Algebra 51

5.1 Construction of the universal enveloping algebra . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Proof of Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
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Math 222 CONTENTS
6 Representations of Lie groups 57

6.1 Haar Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3 Schur orthogonality relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4 The Peter-Weyl Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7 Compact Lie groups 69

7.1 Compact tori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2 Weight decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3 The maximal torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.4 Trace forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.5 Representations of SU (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8 Root systems 83
8.1 Structure of roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2 Weyl Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9 Classificiation of compact Lie groups 97

9.1 Classification of semisimple Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2 Simply-connected and adjoint form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10 Representations of compact Lie groups 105

10.1 Theorem of the highest weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.2 The Weyl character formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.3 Proof of Weyl character formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
10.4 Proof of the Weyl integration formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.5 Borel-Weil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4
Disclaimer
These are course notes that I wrote for Math 222: Lie Groups and Lie Algebras,
which was taught by Wilfried Schmid at Harvard University in Spring 2012. There
are, undoubtedly, errors, which are solely the fault of the scribe.
I thank Eric Larson for pointing out some corrections on earlier versions of these
notes.
5
Math 222 CONTENTS
6
Chapter 1
Geometric preliminaries
1.1 Lie groups

Definition 1.1.1. A Lie group, G, is a group endowed with the structure of a C ∞
manifold such that the inversion map
s:G→G
g 7→ g −1
and multiplication map
m:G×G→G
(g, h) 7→ gh
are smooth.
Remark 1.1.2. 1. It suffices to require that the single map (g, h) 7→ gh−1 is
smooth. For example, the inversion map is smooth because it is the restriction
of this map to e × G.
2. With moderate effort, one can show that requiring all structures to be C 2 is
enough to imply smoothness.
3. Historically, Lie defined a Lie group not as above, but as (in modern times)
the germ of a Lie group action.
Let us now formally define the notion of “Lie group action.”
Definition 1.1.3. Suppose G is a Lie group and M is a C ∞ manifold. An action of
G on M is a map A : G × M → M such that
A(g(A(h, m))) = A(gh, m).
A more common notation for the action is g · m; in these terms, this condition is
g · (h · m) = (gh) · m.
7
Math 222 CHAPTER 1. GEOMETRIC PRELIMINARIES
Definition 1.1.4. Suppose G, H are Lie groups. A homomorphism from G to H is a

C ∞ map F : G → H which is also a group homomorphism.
Definition 1.1.5. Suppose G is a Lie group. A subgroup H of G in the algebraic
sense is a Lie subgroup if H ⊂ G is a locally (with respect to H) closed submanifold
of G.
It is not obvious from this definition that a Lie subgroup is even a Lie group, so we
will prove this presently.
Proposition 1.1.6. A Lie subgroup is a Lie group when equipped with the induced
C ∞ structure and the inclusion H → G is a Lie group homomorphism.
Proof. First we clarify the meaning of “locally closed submanifold.” This means
that for every h ∈ H, there exists an open neighborhood UH of h in H and an open
neighborhood UG of h in G such that
1. UH = UG ∩ H.
2. UH ⊂ UG is a closed submanifold, e.g. looks locally like Rk ⊂ Rn .
There is a subtlety here that we only have to consider a subset in H; this allows
possible strange global behavior such as H actually “bunching up” at some point.
Let N ⊂ M be a locally closed submanifold. A continuous function f on an
open subset UN ⊂ N is C ∞ with respect to the induced C ∞ structure on N if and
only if for all p in the domain of f , there exist open neighborhoods UN , UM of the
domain of f such that f |UN is the restriction of a C ∞ function Fe : UM → R to UN .
We just saw that H ⊂ G is a submanifold such that the inclusion H → G is
a C ∞ map. It is a subgroup by definition. The map h 7→ h−1 is a C ∞ map to
G because it is the restriction of the inversion map on G to H. That tells us that
the inversion map is a C ∞ map to G taking values in H. By the definition of the
induced C ∞ structure (namely, C ∞ maps to H are those which pull back C ∞ maps
from H to C ∞ maps on the domain), this is a C ∞ map to H.
Example 1.1.7. The following are examples of Lie groups.
1. (Rn , +).
2. Giving Q the discrete topology, R×Q ⊂ R2 , + is a Lie subgroup of dimension 1

of (R2 , +). We recall that there are two topological restrictions on topological
spaces that can be manifolds: Hausdorff, and second countable. Therefore,
the same construction with R replacing Q would be a non-example.
3. (Rn /Zn , +): an n-dimensional torus. Smoothness, etc. follow because they
are local properties.
8
Math 222 1.2. LIE ALGEBRAS
4. GLn (R), the group of invertible n × n matrices with real entries under matrix
multiplication. This has a Lie group structure from its embedding as an open
2
subset of Rn by matrix entries.
5. GLn (C), with matrix multiplication.
We can summarize Lie theory as the (shockingly successful) study of lineariza-

tion, whereby one tries to study non-linear structure of a Lie group by the linear
structure of its Lie algebra.
Theorem 1.1.8. Let G be a Lie group, H ⊂ G a subgroup in the algebraic sense.

If H is closed as a subset of G, then H has a unique structure of a Lie subgroup.
Combining this result with example (4), we get lots of examples, including all the
classical Lie groups: SO(n), SU(n), Sp(n, R), SO(p, q), SU(p, q), . . ..
Exercise 1.1.9. (a) Show directly (i.e. not using the preceding theorem) that SO(n)
has a natural Lie group structure, and (b) SO(n) ⊂ GL(n, R) is a Lie subgroup.
1.2 Lie algebras

Suppose K is a field.
Definition 1.2.1. A Lie Algebra g over K is a vector space over K equipped with a
bilinear map called the Lie bracket
g×g→g
(a, b) 7→ [a, b]
such that
1. [a, a] = 0 for all a ∈ g.
2. [a, [b, c]] + [b, [c, a]] + [c, [a, b]] = 0 for all a, b, c ∈ g.
Remark 1.2.2. The definition tells us that the Lie bracket is skew-symmetric, so
[a, b] = −[b, a]. Moreover, these conditions are equivalent if the characteristic of K
is not 2.
Definition 1.2.3. A homomorphism of Lie algebras F : g → g is a K-linear map
which preserves the Lie bracket, i.e.
[F a, F b] = F [a, b].
Definition 1.2.4. A Lie subalgebra of g is a K-linear subspace h ⊂ g such that

[h, h] ⊂ h.
9
Note that a Lie subalgebra is clearly a Lie algebra in its own right, and the inclusion
h → g is a homomorphism of Lie algebras.
Definition 1.2.5. An ideal in g is a K-linear subspace h ⊂ g such that [g, h] ⊂ h.
If h ⊂ g is an ideal, then g/h has a unique Lie algebra structure so that the quotient
map g → g/h is a homomorphism of Lie algebras. The Lie bracket on the quotient
is [a, b] = [a, b] for lifts a, b of a, b.
Example 1.2.6. 1. Suppose A is an associative algebra over K. Then we can turn
A into a Lie algebra by defining [a, b] = ab − ba. The first condition is obvious,
and the second can be checked by explicit computation. In particular, we may
take A = End(V ) for some vector space V .
2. Suppose A is an associative algebra and D the vector space of derivations, i.e.
linear maps d : A → A satisfying d(ab) = a(db) + (da)b for all a, b ∈ A. Then
D is a Lie algebra under commutators, i.e. [d1 , d2 ] = d1 d2 − d2 d1 .
In some sense, all Lie algebras arise in this way, though perhaps indirectly.
Example 1.2.7. Let M be a C ∞ manifold, A = C ∞ (M ). Then D is the derivations
of C ∞ (M ), i.e. the Lie algebra of vector fields.
1.3 Vector fields

Let M be a C ∞ manifold. By a “function” on M we mean either a real-valued
function or complex-valued function unless otherwise specified. Recall that a vector
field on M is a derivation of C ∞ (M ), which is the space of smooth functions on M .
Lemma 1.3.1 (“Localization of vector fields.”). Suppose X is a vector field on M ,
p ∈ M , and f1 , f2 are functions on M such that f1 = f2 on some open neighborhood
of p. Then Xf1 (p) = Xf2 (p).
Proof. We use the existence of “cutoff functions.” Namely, suppose U0 ⊂ M is open
and U1 ⊂ U0 is open such that U1 is compact and contained in U0 . Then there
exists a function u ∈ C ∞ (M ) such that
(i) f ≡ 1 on U1 , and
(ii) Supp f ⊂ U0 .
This follows from the existence of partitions of unity: just take an appropriate open
cover (i.e. wherein U0 is the only open intersecting U1 ) and a partition of unity and
consider the sum of those parts whose support intersects U1 .
Apply this with U0 , U1 nested open neighborhoods containing p and f1 ≡ f2 on
U0 . Then hf1 ≡ hf2 , since f1 ≡ f2 on the support of h. Then X(hf1 ) = X(hf2 ), so
X(hfi )(p) = h(p)Xfi (p) + fi (p)Xh(p).
Equating these for i = 1, 2, we conclude that Xf1 (p) = Xf2 (p).
10
Math 222 1.4. TANGENT AND COTANGENT SPACES
Corollary 1.3.2. Suppose X is a vector field on M and U ⊂ M is open. Then X

can be restricted to U .
Proof. If f ∈ C ∞ (U ), p ∈ U . Choose h ∈ C ∞ (M ) such that h ≡ 1 near p and
Supp h ⊂ U . Define X|U f = X(hf )(p). This is well-defined by the lemma.
Corollary 1.3.3. Vector fields can be patched, i.e. given open subset U1 , U2 ⊂ M
and vector fields Xi on Ui for i = 1, 2 such that X1 |U1 ∩U2 = X2 |U1 ∩U2 , then there
exists a unique vector field X on U1 ∪ U2 such that X|Ui = Xi .
Proof. At any p ∈ Ui , define (Xf )(p) by Xi f |Ui (p).
These two corollaries together tell us that vector fields constitute a sheaf.
Definition 1.3.4. A coordinate neighborhood in M is a pair (U, x1 , . . . , xn ) with
U ⊂ M open and x1 , . . . , xn ∈ C ∞ (M ) real-valued such that p 7→ (x1 (p), . . . , xn (p)) ∈
Rn establishes a diffeomorphism between U and its image in Rn (which must be
open).
Corollary 1.3.5. Suppose X is a vector field on M and (U, x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordi-
nate chart. Then X|U can be expressed uniquely as
u
X ∂
X|U = aj , aj ∈ C ∞ (M ).
∂xj
j=1
Conversely, any such expression describes a unique vector field on M .

Proof. Defining aj = Xxj . Suppose f ∈ C ∞ (U ) and p ∈ U . Then we may write
X ∂f
f = f (p) · 1 + (p)(xi − xi (p)) + h,
∂dxi
i
where h is a linear combination of products h1 h2 with h1 (p) = h2 (p) = 0 (this is

just Taylor’s theorem). Note that X1 = 0 since X is a derivation. On a similar
note, X(h1 h2 )(p) = h1 (p)Xh2 (p) + h2 (p)Xh1 (p) = 0. Therefore,
X ∂f X
∂f

(Xf )(p) = X (p)xi = ai (p).
∂xi ∂xi
i
1.4 Tangent and cotangent spaces

Definition 1.4.1. A tangent vector at p is a linear map Xp : C ∞ (M ) → R or C
such that
Xp (f1 f2 ) = f1 (p)Xp f2 + f2 (p)Xp f1 .
11
Corollary 1.4.2. If Xp is a tangent vector at p and f ∈ C ∞ (M ), then Xp f depends

only on the values of f near p (i.e. in any neighborhood of p).
This tells us that Xp f is well-defined for any C ∞ function f defined on some neigh-
borhood of p; that is, tangent vectors are defined on germs of functions at p.
Definition 1.4.3. The vector space (over R or C as appropriate) of tangent vectors
at p is called the tangent space of M at p, and denoted Tp M .
For p ∈ M , define
Ip = {f ∈ C ∞ (M ) | f (p) = 0},
i.e. the ideal of functions vanishing at p. Given f ∈ C ∞ (M ), we may write
f = f (p) · 1 + fp , fp ∈ Ip .
Denote by Ip2 the usual product of ideals. Suppose Xp ∈ Tp M and f ∈ Ip2 ; by the
derivation property, Xp f = 0.
Corollary 1.4.4. The map Xp 7→ (f 7→ Xp f ), where Xp ∈ Tp M , determines a
linear inclusion Tp M → (Ip /Ip2 )∗ .
Proof. We have a direct sum decomposition C ∞ (M ) = Ip ⊕ R (or C). Since Xp
kills constants and Ip2 , it is uniquely determined by its action on (Ip /Ip2 ).
Definition 1.4.5. Ip /Ip2 ' Tp∗ M is the cotangent space to M at p.
In fact, the inclusion in the previous corollary is an isomorphism, which we will
prove presently.
Corollary 1.4.6. If (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordinate neighborhood of p, then { ∂x∂ 1 |p , . . . , ∂x∂n |p }
is a basis of Tp M .
Proof. Completely analogous to Corollary 1.3.5.
For f ∈ C ∞ (M ) and p ∈ M , define df |p ∈ T ∗ M as the image in T ∗ M '
Ip /Ip2 of f − f (p) · 1. If (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordinate neighborhood of p, then
{dx1 |p , . . . , dxn |p } is a basis of Tp∗ M . This is essentially Taylor’s theorem: we can
write any function as a constant plus first order terms plus higher order terms about
p,
X ∂f X ∂f
f − f (p) = (p)(xi − xi (p)) + . . . = (p)dxi .
∂xi ∂xi
By counting dimensions, we conclude that Tp∗ M = (Tp M )∗ .
Given a vector field X on M and p ∈ M , define Xp ∈ Tp M by Xp f = (Xf )(p).
Therefore, any vector field X is completely determined by Xp ∈ Tp M for all p.
Conversely, given an assignment p 7→ Xp ∈ Tp M , there exists a vector field X whose
values are the Xp if and only if for every f ∈ C ∞ (M ), the function p 7→ Xp f is
smooth. (If this is satisfied, it is clearly a derivation C ∞ (M ) → C ∞ (M ) since it
is a derivation pointwise.) Since smoothness is a local property, we can check this
criterion on coordinate neighborhoods.
12
Math 222 1.5. PULLBACKS AND PUSHFORWARDS
1.5 Pullbacks and pushforwards

Suppose F : M → N is a C ∞ map between manifolds. Then we can define the
“pullback” F ∗ : C ∞ (N ) → C ∞ (M ) by F ∗ f = f ◦ F .
If p ∈ M , then F ∗ IN,f (p) ⊂ IM,p and F ∗ IN,f
2
(p) ⊂ IM,p , so we get a linear
2
∗ ∗ ∗
map F : TF (p) N → Tp M . Dually, there is a map F∗ : Tp M → TF (p) N .
Also, for any f ∈ C ∞ (N ), F ∗ sends df |F (p) ∈ TF∗ (p) N 7→ d(F ∗ f )|p ∈ Tp∗ M .
In other words, d computes with pullbacks: F ∗ d = dF ∗ . This is clear from the
interpretation of d as subtracting a constant from the function to put it in the ideal
sheaf.
We can pull back functions and differential forms under smooth maps, but a
problem arises when we attempt to push vector fields forward. We will address this
problem now.
Definition 1.5.1. Let F : M → N be a smooth map. Two vector fields XM on M
and XN on N are F -related if for every f ∈ C ∞ (N ),
F ∗ (XN f ) = XM (F ∗ f ).
In other words, the following diagram commutes.
XN
C ∞ (N ) / C ∞ (N )
F∗ F∗
XM

C ∞ (M ) / C ∞ (M )
Yet another equivalent formulation is that F∗ XM |p = XN |F (p) for every p ∈ M . You

can see the difficulty with pulling back in general: the left hand sides must agree
for all p lying over a common point in N .
Exercise 1.5.2. Check that if XM , XN and YM , YN are pairs of F -related vector
fields, then [XM , YM ] is F -related to [XN , YN ].
Note that if F is a diffeomorphism, then for any vector field X on M there exists
a unique vector field F∗ X on N which is F -related to X. After all, M and N are
basically the same manifold. We can define F ∗ X by the formula above since we
know that the pre-image of any point exists and is unique.
13
14
Chapter 2
The Lie algebra of a Lie group
2.1 Invariant vector fields

Suppose G is a Lie group, g ∈ G. Define C ∞ maps
`g : G → G rg : G → G
h 7→ gh h 7→ hg −1 .
These are both diffeomorphisms by the definition of Lie group.

Definition 2.1.1. The Lie algebra g of G is the Lie algebra of all left-invariant
vector fields, i.e. vector fields X such that (`g∗ )X = X for all g ∈ G, with the Lie
bracket being the commutator.
Note that G-invariant means `g∗ Xh = Xgh for all g, h ∈ G. This is equivalent
to `g∗ Xe = Xg for all g ∈ G. This gives an inclusion g → Te G sending X 7→ Xe
(any left-invariant vector field is completely determined by its value at the identity).
Exercise 2.1.2. Show that this map is an isomorphism: g ' Te G.

Suppose that F : G → H is a homomorphism of Lie groups. Define F∗ : g → h
as the composition
F
g ' Te G →∗ Te H ' h.
Theorem 2.1.3. The map F∗ : g → h is a homomorphism of Lie algebras.
Remark 2.1.4. If F1 , F2 are Lie group homomorphisms that can be composed, then
F1∗ ◦ F2∗ = (F1 ◦ F2 )∗ . This follows from the analogous statement about pullbacks
of functions. Therefore, “Lie algebra” is a covariant functor from the category of
Lie groups (with Lie group homomorphisms) to Lie algebras.
Proof. Suppose X, Y ∈ g. Define X

e ∈ h by the requirement that F∗ Xe = X
ee ∈ Te H
and similarly for Y , Y .
e
15
Math 222 CHAPTER 2. THE LIE ALGEBRA OF A LIE GROUP
e and Y, Ye are F -related. To see this, suppose g ∈ G. Then

We claim that X, X
X ee = `F (g)∗ F∗ Xe = (`F (g) ◦ F )∗ Xe

eF (g) = `F (g)∗ X
= (F ◦ `g )∗ Xe = F∗ `g∗ Xe = F∗ Xg ,
and similarly for Y, Ye .

e Ye ] are F -related, which means that for all f ∈ C ∞ (H),
Therefore, [X, Y ] and [X,
F ∗ (Xf
e ) = X(F ∗ f ).
Applying this to [X, e Ye − Ye X

e Ye ] = X e we see that
[X, ^
e Ye ] = [X, Y ].
^
By the same calculations as before, [X, Y ] and [X, Y ] are F -related.
2.2 Integral curves

Definition 2.2.1. Suppose M is a manifold, X a vector field on M . An integral curve
to X is a pair (I, ϕ) where I ⊂ R is an open interval and ϕ : I → M is a smooth
map satisfying
d
ϕ∗ |t0 = X|ϕ(t0 ) for all t0 ∈ I.
dt
d
Equivalently, dt and X are ϕ-related.
Properties of integral curves.
1. If (I, ϕ) is an integral curve, then so is (I + a, ϕa ), where ϕa (t) = ϕ(t − a).
2. If (I, ϕ) is an integral curve, then (s−1 I, ϕ(st)) is an integral curve for sX, for
s 6= 0. This is actually true for s = 0 if we interpret s−1 I = R.
3. Suppose (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordinate neighborhood and X is a vector field

on U with local expression
X ∂
X= ai , ai ∈ C ∞ (U ).
∂xi
Then (I, ϕ), where ϕ : I → M is given by t 7→ (x1 (t), . . . , xn (t)) is an integral
curve if and only if dx
dt = ai ((xi (t))).
i
The first and third facts follow directly from the chain rule. The third also follows
from the chain rule:
d X dxi ∂
ϕ∗ = .
dt dt ∂xi
16
Math 222 2.2. INTEGRAL CURVES
Therefore, finding integral curves of vector fields amounts to solving an ODE.
Basic facts on ODE.
Theorem 2.2.2 (Existence of local solutions). If X is a vector field on M and

p ∈ M , then there exists an integral curve (I, ϕ) with 0 ∈ I and ϕ(0) = p.
Theorem 2.2.3 (Uniqueness). Suppose (I1 , ϕ1 ) and (I2 , ϕ2 ) are two integral curves
for X, and ϕ1 (t0 ) = ϕ2 (t0 ) for some t0 ∈ I1 ∩ I2 . Then ϕ1 = ϕ2 on I1 ∩ I2 , and
hence there exists a unique integral curve (I1 ∪ I2 , ϕ) with ϕ|Ui = ϕi .
In particular, given an integral curve (I, ϕ) there exists a unique maximal ex-
tension, i.e. an integral curve (I, e such that I ⊂ Ie and ϕ|
e ϕ) e I = ϕ with Ie maximal.
This is called a maximal integral curve.
Theorem 2.2.4 (C ∞ dependence on initial conditions). If (I, ϕ) is an integral curve
and p ∈ M , then there exists an open neighborhood U of p ∈ M and > 0, and a
C ∞ map Φ : U × (−, ) → M such that
(i) t 7→ Φ(·, t) is an integral curve for t ∈ (−, ).
(ii) Φ(q, 0) = q for any q ∈ U .

This says that we can choose the interval of an integral curve locally uniformly in
p, and depending smoothly on p.
Definition 2.2.5. A vector field X on M is complete if every maximal integral curve
is defined on all of R.
∂
Example 2.2.6. 1. Let M = R2 − {(0, 0)} and X = ∂x . Then the integral curves
are linearly parametrized by lines parallel to the x-axis. An integral curve on
the x axis cannot be extended to all of R since there is a “hole” at (0, 0).
d
2. The vector field dx on (−1, 1) is incomplete. Therefore, composing it with a
diffeomorphism (−1, 1) ' R results in an incomplete vector field on R.
Proposition 2.2.7. Suppose G is a Lie group and X ∈ g. Then X is complete.
Proof. Suppose ϕ : I → G is an integral curve and g ∈ G. Then t 7→ `g ◦ ϕ is also an
integral curve, because X is G-invariant. In particular, if the integral curve through
one point is infinitely extendable, then every integral curve is infinitely extendable
and X is complete.
The idea is simple: if the integral curve is incomplete, then it “runs out of
steam” at some finite point. But since G is a Lie group and X is left-invariant, we
can always translate it to keep it going a little longer.
Suppose (I, ϕ) is a maximal integral curve with 0 ∈ I and ϕ(0) = e. Suppose
that I has an endpoint t0 ; without loss of generality, suppose t0 > 0. Choose > 0
17
such that || < t0 and choose t1 < t0 with |t1 − t0 | < 2 . Then t 7→ ϕ(t − t1 ) is well-
defined for |t1 − t| < and takes the value e at t = t1 . Therefore, t 7→ ϕ(t1 )ϕ(t − t1 )
is an integral curve agreeing with ϕ at t = t1 and defined on an interval containing
even t0 .
Suppose X is a complete vector field on M . Define Φ : R × M → M by
(i) Φ(0, p) = p for all p ∈ M .
(ii) t 7→ Φ(t, p) is an integral curve for all p ∈ M .
Theorem 2.2.8 (Global C ∞ dependence on parameters). Φ : R × M → M is a

smooth map.
Proof. By Theorem 2.2.4, Φ is smooth on an open neighborhood of {0} × M (as a

function of both arguments), i.e. Φ is smooth near (0, p0 ).
The map t 7→ Φ(t, Φ(s, p)) is an integral curve in t with value Φ(s, p) at t = 0,
as is t 7→ Φ(s + t, p). By uniqueness of integral curves, we know that
Φ(t, Φ(s, p)) = Φ(s + t, p) for all p ∈ M and all s, t ∈ R.
For p ∈ M , let
Ip = {t ∈ R | Φ is smooth near (t, p)}.
Then Ip is open and 0 ∈ Ip . To prove the theorem, we just need to show that
Ip = R for all p. Suppose this is not the case for some p0 ∈ M ; then the connected
component of 0 in Ip has some finite endpoint t0 . Without loss of generality, assume
that t0 > 0. Then we have by assumption, Φ is C ∞ (in both arguments) on a
neighborhood of [0, t0 ) × {p0 }.
Pick η satisfying 0 < η < 1. Then
Φ(t0 , p) = Φ(ηt0 , Φ((1 − η)t0 , p)).
If η is small enough, we can find an open neighborhood U of Φ(t0 , p0 ) such that

p 7→ Φ(ηt0 , p) is C ∞ for p ∈ U . Making η smaller if necessary, we can arrange that
Φ((1 − η)t0 , p0 ) ∈ U because Φ is continuous in the time variable. Moreover, for p
near p0 , p 7→ Φ((1−η)t0 , p) is C ∞ by the definition of t0 . Therefore, the composition
p 7→ Φ(ηt0 , Φ((1 − η)t0 , p)) = Φ(t0 , p)
is C ∞ in p near p0 .
We now show that this implies that (t, p) 7→ Φ(t, p) is smooth in a neighborhood
of (t0 , p0 ), which furnishes the desired contradiction. To see this, observe that
Φ(t, p) = Φ(t − t0 , Φ(t0 , p)).
18
Math 222 2.3. THE EXPONENTIAL MAP
By hypothesis, (t, q) 7→ Φ(t − t0 , q) is smooth near t = t0 and q = Φ(p0 , t0 ). Since

p 7→ Φ(t0 , p) is smooth, Φ(t, p) is the composition of smooth functions
(t, p) 7→ (t, Φ(t0 , p)) 7→ Φ(t − t0 , Φ(t0 , p)),
hence is smooth.
2.3 The exponential map

Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g. We showed last time that any X ∈ g is
complete. Fixing X ∈ g, we get by the previous proposition a smooth map
ΦX : R × G → G
satisfying ΦX (0, g) = g and t 7→ ΦX (t, g) is an integral curve for X. Therefore, we

get a map
Φ:R×G×g→G
(t, g, X) 7→ ΦX (t, g).
Proposition 2.3.1. Φ is C ∞ as a function of all variables.

Before giving the proof, we set up the general framework. Consider the vector
field X on a product of manifolds M × N . Say that X is tangential to the fibers
of projection π2 : M × N → N if all the integral curves of X lie in the fibers.
Equivalently, in local coordinates (U ; x1 , . . . , xk , xk+1 , . . . , xn ) such that x1 , . . . , xk
are local coordinates on M and xk+1 , . . . , xn are local coordinates on N . The vector
field X can be expressed locally as
n
X ∂
X= ai .
∂xi
i=1
Then X is tangential to the fibers if and only if aj = 0 for j > k. In other words,
for each m ∈ M and n ∈ N
X(m,n) ∈ Tm M × {0} ⊂ Tm M ⊕ Tn N = T(m,n) M × N.
We can view a vector field X of this type as a family of vector fields on M ,

parametrized by n ∈ N . Note that X is complete on M × N if and only if when
considered as a family of vector fields on M parametrized by N , each member is
complete as a vector field on M ; this is clear from the fact that the integral curve
to any point of M × N stays in a signle fiber, which is isomorphic to M .
Hence a family of complete vector fields with parameters in N determines a
smooth map Φ e : R × M × N → M × N by Theorem 2.2.8. Composing with the
projection M × N → M gives a smooth map Φ : R × M × N → M .
19
Proof of Proposition 2.3.4. Let M = G and N = g in the above discussion.
Properties of Φ.
(i) Φ(0, g, X) = g.
(ii) t 7→ Φ(t, g, X) is an integral curve for X.
(iii) Φ(t, g, X) = gΦ(t, e, X).
(iv) Φ(t, g, sX) = Φ(st, g, X).
(v) Φ(s, e, X)Φ(t, e, X) = Φ(s + t, e, X).
Proof. (i) and (ii) are the definition of Φ. (iii), (iv), and (v) follow from the ob-
servation that both sides of the respective equalities represent integral curves for
X with the same initial conditions (we are using, of course, the fact that X is
left-invariant).
In particular, it follows from the above properties that
Φ(t, g, X) = gΦ(1, e, tX).
So Φ is completely determined by the map exp : g → G defined by
exp X = Φ(1, e, X).
This is the famous exponential map.
Properties of the exponential map.
(i) exp : g → G is smooth.
(ii) t 7→ g exp(tX) is the integral curve to X with the initial point g at t = 0.
(iii) exp(sX) exp(tX) = exp((s + t)X). Equivalently,
exp(X + Y ) = exp(X) exp(Y ) if X, Y are linearly dependent.
Proposition 2.3.2 (Universality of the exponential map.). Suppose F : G → H is

a Lie group homomorphism. Then the following diagram commutes.
F∗ /h
g
exp exp

G /H
F
20
Math 222 2.3. THE EXPONENTIAL MAP
Exercise 2.3.3. Prove this proposition.
Proposition 2.3.4. The composition

exp∗
g ' T0 g → Te G ' g
is the identity.
Proposition 2.3.6. For g ∈ G and X ∈ g, f ∈ C ∞ (G),
d
(Xf )(g) = f (g exp(tX))|t=0 .
dt
Corollary 2.3.8. The map exp : g → G is locally a diffeomorphism near 0 ∈ g.
Proof. By Proposition 2.3.4, the derivative of the exponential map is the identity at
the origin. The result then follows directly from the inverse function theorem.
Any manifold is the countable union of its connected components. Note that
connectedness and path-connectedness are equivalent notions for a manifold, since
a manifold is locally path-connected.
Let G be a Lie group and G0 the connected component containing the identity
of G; we call this the identity component. Note that
(G0 )2 = {g1 g2 | gi ∈ G0 } and (G0 )−1 = {g −1 | g ∈ G0 }
are connected and contain e (since we can go from a product to another product by
a product of connecting paths), hence equal to G0 . This tells us that G0 is an open,
closed subgroup.
Also for g ∈ G, gG0 g −1 is a connected subgroup of G containing e. Therefore, the
identity component is a normal subgroup. Now suppose U ⊂ G0 is a neighborhood
of the identity. We can arrange that U = U −1 by replacing U with U ∩ U −1 if
necessary. Then
∞
[
G1 = Uk
k=1
is open (since U k is a union of translates of opens, hence open) and a subgroup of

G0 . Therefore G1 is closed, because its complement is a union of its cosets. Since
G0 was connected, it must be the case that G1 = G0 .
We thus observe that if U is a neighborhood of the identity in a Lie group G,
then U generates G0 in the algebraic sense. We have proved:
Theorem 2.3.9. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g.
21
(i) exp(g) generates the identity component of G in the algebraic sense.
(ii) Let F : G → H be a Lie group homomorphism. Then the restriction of F to

G0 is completely determined by F∗ : g → h.
Proof. (i) follows from the fact that exp is a local diffeomorphism from g to G,
hence contains a neighborhood of e ∈ G. (ii) follows from the preceding observation
and the universality of the exponential map, which tells us that knowledge of F∗
completely determines F restricted to the image of the exponential map.
The general theme is that the Lie algebra recognizes everything about the Lie
group, except in two cases
1. it doesn’t know about other connected components, and
2. it can’t distinguish covering spaces.
2.4 The group law in terms of the Lie algebra

If the Lie algebra knows “everything” about G, then it should know about the group
operation. This is the subject of the Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff formula, which is
our next topic.
Let G be a Lie group and g its Lie algebra. We have seen that there exist
neighborhoods V0 containing 0 in g and Ue containing e in G such that exp : V ' Ue .
Let log : Ue → V0 denote the inverse.
By shrinking V0 (and thus Ue ), we can arrange that V0 is ?-shaped about 0.
Recall that this means that for any p ∈ V0 , the line between p and 0 lies in V0 . By
further shrinking V0 if necessary, we may also assume that V0 = −V0 . By passing
to a yet smaller neighborhood V , we assume that there exists a neighborhood U of
e ∈ G such that log : U → g is smooth and well-defined, and (exp V )2 ⊂ U . To
summarize, we have an open neighborhood V 3 0 ∈ g such that
(i) V = −V
(ii) V is ?-shaped about 0.
(iii) There is a neighborhood U of e ∈ G such that log is well defined and smooth
on U , and (exp V )2 ⊂ U .
That allows us to define a C ∞ map M : V ×V → g sending M (X, Y ) = log(exp X exp Y ).

This M is the group multiplication transferred to the Lie algebra via the exponential
map. Note the following properties of this map:
1. M (X, 0) = X and M (0, Y ) = Y .
2. M (X, −X) = 0.
22
Math 222 2.4. THE GROUP LAW IN TERMS OF THE LIE ALGEBRA
3. M (−X, −Y ) = −M (Y, X).

This follows from the fact that (exp X exp Y )−1 = (exp Y )−1 (exp X)−1 .
4. M (X, M (Y, Z)) = M (M (X, Y ), Z) if X, Y, Z is sufficiently small (for every-
thing to lie in V ).
This is associativity of the group law.
Proposition 2.4.1. For X, Y ∈ g,
∂2 1
M (sX, tY )|s=t=0 = [X, Y ].
∂s∂t 2
Proof. For g ∈ and f ∈ C ∞ (G),
∂
Xf (g) = f (g exp(sX))|s=0 .
∂s
∂
Applying this to Y f , we have XY f (g) = ∂s Y f (g exp(sX))|s=0 . Now applying the
same reasoning to Y f , we find that this is
∂2
f (g exp(sX) exp(tY ))|s=t=0 .
∂s∂t
Therefore,
[X, Y ]f (e) = (XY − Y X)f (e)
∂2
= (f (exp(sX) exp(tY )) − f (exp(tY ) exp(sX)))s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2
= (f ◦ exp(M (sX, tY )) − f ◦ exp(M (tY, sX))) |s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2
= (f ◦ exp(M (sX, tY )) − f ◦ exp(−M (−sX, −ty))) |s=t=0 .
∂s∂t
By setting s and t to zero, we see that the Taylor expansion of M (sX, tY ) is
M (sX, tY ) = sX + tY + stC + (terms of order ≥ 3)
∂2
where C = ∂s∂t M (sX, tY )|s=t=0 . We substitute the terms of order up to 2 into the
expression above to obtain
∂2
= [f ◦ exp(sX + tY + stC) + f ◦ exp(sX + tY − stC)]s=t=0 .
∂s∂t
Replace f ◦ exp by ϕ, so ϕ is a C ∞ function defined on V . Since exp∗ is the identity
map, the left hand side of the original equation is [X, Y ]ϕ(0). In other words,
∂2
[X, Y ]ϕ(0) = [ϕ(sX + tY + stC) − ϕ(sX + tY − stC)]s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2
=2 ϕ(sX + tY + stC)|s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2
=2 ϕ(M (sX, tY ))|s=t=0 .
∂s∂t
23
Therefore, M (X, Y ) = X + Y + 12 [X, Y ] + . . ..
Corollary 2.4.2. Multiplication on G determines the Lie bracket [·, ·] on g.
24
Chapter 3
Lie algebras
3.1 The Lie algebra gl(V )

Let V be a finite dimensional real or complex vector space, GL(V ) the group of
invertible endomorphisms of V . This is open in End(V ). With the induced structure,
GL(V ) becomes a Lie group of V , and a complex Lie group if V is a vector space
over C.
Definition 3.1.1. A complex Lie group is a group G endowed with the structure
of a complex manifold such that multiplication and inversion are holomorphic maps.
In this case, g is the Lie algebra of left-invariant holomorphic vector fields. This is
the “holomorphic part” of the complexification of the Lie algebra of G considered
as a real Lie group, essentially because of the Cauchy-Riemann equations. We will
elaborate on this discussion later; we just want to indicate how the proceeding
discussion applies to both real and complex vector spaces. Note also that in the
complex case, exp, log, and M are holomorphic maps.
Turn V into a normed vector space, i.e. pick a norm || · || : V → k satisfying
(i) ||av|| = |a|||v|| for scalars a and vectors v.
(ii) ||u + v|| ≤ ||u|| + ||v||.
(iii) ||v|| ≥ 0 and equality holds only if v = 0.
For T ∈ End(V ), define the “operator norm”
||T || = sup ||T v||.

||v||≤1
Note that ||S ◦ T || ≤ ||S|| ||T ||.

Define Exp : End(V ) → End(V ) by
∞
X 1 k
Exp(T ) = T .
k!
k=0
25
Math 222 CHAPTER 3. LIE ALGEBRAS
This converges uniformly on bounded subsets of End(V ). For formal reasons,

Exp(S + T ) = Exp(S) Exp(T )
provided that S, T commute, because absolutely convergent series can be re-ordered.
In particular, Exp(−T ) = Exp(T )−1 , so Exp lands in GL(V ). By the usual argu-
ments, convergent power series can be differentiated term-by-term. So
∂
Exp(tT ) = Exp(tT ) · T.
∂t
Therefore, t 7→ Exp(tT ) is tangential to the left-invariant (holomorphic) vector field
whose value at e is T . Since this property also characterizes the exponential map,
we must have Exp = exp. This shows:
Proposition 3.1.2. The exponential map for GL(V ) (in both the real and complex
cases) is given by
∞
X 1 k
exp T = T .
k!
k=0
What about the logarithm? We have
∞
d 1 X
log(1 − w) = − =− wk .
dw 1−w
k=0
Therefore,
∞
X (1 − z)k
log z = − .
k
k=1
The map log : GL(V ) → End(V ) which is defined near 1V ∈ GL(V ) is given by
∞
X 1
log g = − (1 − g)k
k
k=1
for formal reasons concerning power series.
We now compute the Lie bracket for gl(V ) := Lie(GL(V )). If

1 2 1 2
g = exp S exp T = 1 + S + S + . . . 1 + T + T + ...
2 2

1 1
= 1 + S + T + S 2 + T 2 + ST + . . .
2 2
where we omit all terms of order ≥ 3, because they are not relevant to the calculation.
Then
1
M (S, T ) = log g = g − 1 − (1 − g)2 + . . .
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
S + T 2 − ST − T S

= S + T + S + T + ST −
2 2 2
1
= S + T + [S, T ] + . . .
2
26
Math 222 3.2. THE ADJOINT REPRESENTATION
This discussion proves the following proposition.
Proposition 3.1.3. The Lie bracket on End(V ), viewed as the Lie algebra of
GL(V ), is
[S, T ] = ST − T S.
How should we view this? If we have an arbitrary Lie group, the Lie algebra
can’t really detect things like covering spaces and different connected components.
However, modulo these considerations, all Lie groups are captured as subgroups of
GL(V ). In other words, every connected Lie group is a covering of some Lie group
sitting inside a subgroup of GL(V ).
3.2 The adjoint representation
Suppose G is a Lie group with Lie algebra g. For g, h ∈ G, we have
`g ◦ rg = ghg −1 ,
i.e. conjugation by g. So we get a group homomorphism G → Aut(G) sending

g 7→ `g ◦ rg .
Define Ad : G → End(g) by Ad (g) = (`g ◦ rg )∗ . Since (`g ◦ rg ) ◦ (`g−1 ◦ rg−1 )
is the identity, we have Ad (g −1 ) = (Ad )−1 . So Ad lands in Aut(g) ⊂ GL(g). We
already know that GL(g) is a Lie group with Lie algebra End(g).
Definition 3.2.1. We set ad := Ad∗ : g → End(g). Note that this is a Lie algebra
homomorphism by the Jacobi identity.
We cal Ad the adjoint representation and ad the infinitesimal adjoint represen-
tation.
Proposition 3.2.2. (ad X)(Y ) = [X, Y ].
Proof. By definition of the exponential map, Y ∈ g ' Te G is the tangent vector at

t = 0 to the curve t 7→ exp(tY ). Therefore, Adg(Y ) is the tangent vector at t = 0
to t 7→ g exp(tY )g −1 . Hence adX(Y ) is the tangent vector at s = 0 to the curve
Ad(exp(sX))Y ).
27
Therefore, for any smooth f near e ∈ G, adX(Y ) ∈ g ' Te G, and
∂2
(adX(Y ))f (e) = f (exp(sX) exp(tY ) exp(−sX))|s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2
= f ◦ exp(M (sX, M (tY, −sX)))|s=t=0
∂s∂t
∂2 1
= f ◦ exp(sX + M (tY, −sX) + [sX, M (tY, −sX)] + . . .)|s=t=0
∂s∂t 2
∂2 1
= f ◦ exp sX + tY − sX + [tY, −sX]
∂s∂t 2
1
+ [sX, tY − sX + . . .] |s=t=0
2
∂ 2
= f ◦ exp (tY + st[X, Y ] + . . .)s=t=0 .
∂s∂t
Letting ϕ = f ◦ exp, we have ϕ is smooth near 0 in g since exp∗ = 1 (and the inverse
function theorem). In terms of ϕ,
∂2
((adX(Y ))ϕ)(0) = ϕ(tY + st[X, Y ] + . . .)|s=t=0
∂s∂t
= ϕ([X, Y ]) = ([X, Y ]ϕ)(0).
Corollary 3.2.3. ad X for X ∈ g is a derivation of the Lie algebra g, i.e.
ad X[Y, Z] = [ad X(Y ), Z] + [Y, ad X(Z)].
With adX = [X, ·], this condition is equivalent to the Jacobian identity.
A derivation of the Lie algebra should be thought of as an “infinitesimal auto-
morphism,” and ad X for some X ∈ g should be thought of as an “infinitesimal
inner automorphism.”
3.3 Poincaré’s formula

Suppose X ∈ g; then g ' TX g. The exponential map induces
exp |X
g ' TX g −−−∗−→ Texp X G.
On the other hand,

(èxp X )∗
g ' Te G −−−−−→ Texp X G.
28
Math 222 3.3. POINCARÉ’S FORMULA
Since èxp(−X) = (èxp X )−1 , the map (èxp X )∗ is invertible and threading across the
diagram gives a linear map g → g
∼ exp∗ |X
g
= / TX g / Texp X G

go ∼ Te G o Texp X G
= (èxp X )−1
∗
One might ask, what is this map?
Theorem 3.3.1 (Poincare’s formula for the differential of the exponential map).
1 − e− ad X
exp∗ |X = (èxp X )∗ ◦ .
ad X
Note that
1 − e−z z
= 1 − + ...,
z 2
1−e−adX
an entire holomorphic function. So we can think of the expression adX as a
convergent power series in the operator adX.
Remark 3.3.2. This formula is quite useful! By contrast, the exact coefficients of
the Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff formula rarely comes up in practice.
Proof. By the preceding discusson, there exists D(X) ∈ End(g) such that
exp∗ |X = (èxp X )∗ ◦ D(X). (3.3.1)
∼ exp∗ |X
g
= / TX g / Texp X G
D(X)

go ∼ Te G o Texp X G
= (èxp X )−1
∗
The map D : g → End(g) is a smooth function of X.

Exercise 3.3.3. Prove this.
Define F (t) = tD(tX), which is then a smooth function of t with values in
End(g). We claim that
F 0 (t) = 1g − ad (X) ◦ F (t).
Supposing this for the moment, define
1 − e−t ad X
Fe(t) = := (1 − e−t ad X )(ad X)−1 .
ad X
29
Then
Fe0 (t) = e−tadX = 1 − Fe(t) ◦ ad(X) = 1 − adX ◦ Fe(t).
Also, F (0) = Fe(0) = 0. Therefore, F = Fe, which is the desired conclusion.
Now we prove the claim. First we give a more concrete interpretation of (3.3.1).
Applying it to Y , we see that for f a smooth function near exp X in G, we have
∂
f (exp(X) exp(tY ))|t=0 = (D(X)Y )f (exp X). (3.3.2)
∂t
To elaborate, let Y ∈ g. We are concerned with its image in Texp X G, which is a
functional on C ∞ (M ); what is the value of its image at f ∈ C ∞ (M )? Along the map
described by the right hand side of (3.3.1), it is just ((D(X)Y )f )(exp X), absorbing
the (èxp X )∗ into the formula. Now consider the map described by the left hand
side of (3.3.1). We know from the homework that
∂
f (exp(X + tY ))|t=0 = Y f (exp X),
∂t
the reasoning being that t 7→ exp X exp(tY ) is an integral curve to Y at exp X.
Since the ambiguity between left-invariant vector fields and elements of the Lie
algebra will be confusing, for this proof only we use the notation r(Y ) for the left
invariant vector field generated by Y ∈ g. In these terms, (3.3.2) says
d
(r(Y )f )(g) = f (g exp uY )|u=0 .
du
We used the notation r(Y ) because right translation commutes with left translation,
so “infinitesimal right translation is a left-invariant vector field.”
Recall that we wanted to prove that for F (t) = tD(tX),
F 0 (t) = 1 − ad X ◦ F (t).
So by the preceding equations, this has something to do with

∂2
f (exp(t(X + sY )))|s=0
∂s∂t
Let’s calculate it in two different ways.
1. By a homework problem,
∂
f (exp(t(X + sY ))) = (r(X + sY )f )(exp(t(X + sY ))).
∂t
Now (3.3.2) tells us exactly how to differentiate this expression with respect
to s. Doing so, we find that
∂
(∗)|s=0 = r(Y )f (exp tX) + r(D(tX)(tY ))(r(X)f )(exp(tX)).
∂s
30
Math 222 3.3. POINCARÉ’S FORMULA
2. Reasoning as above, we first compute

∂
f (exp(t(X + sY )))|s=0 = r(tD(tX)Y )f (exp(tX)).
∂s
Then differentiating with respect to t, we find that
∂ d
(∗)|s=0 = r( (tD(tX))Y )f (exp tX) + r(X)r(tD(tX)Y )f (exp tX).
∂s dt
Comparing the two expressions, we conclude that
d
r(Y )f (exp tX) = r( (tD(tX)Y ))f (exp tX) + r([X, tD(tX)Y ])f (exp tX).
dt
Since this holds for all f , we conclude that
d
Y = (tD(tX))Y + [X, tD(tX)Y ].
dt
Hence
d
(tD(tX)) = 1g − adX ◦ tD(tX).
dt
That was a struggle...
- Wilfried Schmid
We re-iterate Poincaré’s formula for emphasis:
1 − e−adX
exp∗ |X = (èxp X )∗ ◦ .
adX
Now let’s manipulate this identity.
1 − e−adX
exp∗ |X = (rexp(−X) )∗ ◦ (rexp(X) )∗ ◦ (èxp(X) )∗ ◦
adX
1 − e−adX
= (rexp(−X) )∗ ◦ Ad exp X ◦
adX
1 − e−adX
= (rexp(−X) )∗ ◦ exp(ad X) ◦ (universality of exp)
adX
eadX − 1
= (rexp(−X) )∗ ◦ .
adX
We have shown the right-translation analogue:
Corollary 3.3.4. We have
ead X − 1
exp∗ |X = (rexp(−X) )∗ ◦ .
ad X
31
3.4 The Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff formula

Now put a linear norm on g. Then there exists C > 0 such that
||[X, Y ]|| ≤ C||X|| ||Y ||
Choose an open neighborhood V of 0 in g such that
(i) V = −V
(ii) V is ?-shaped about 0.

2π
(iii) X, Y ∈ V =⇒ ||M (X, Y )|| ≤ C. (This implies that ||adM (X, Y )|| < 2π.)
With this choice, for all X, Y ∈ V , hj (adM (X, Y )) is well-defined.

Define
e − 1 −1
z
z
h1 (z) = z =
e −1 z
−1
1 − e−z

z
h2 (z) = = .
1 − e−z z
As power series in z, h1 and h2 have radius of convergence 2π. Therefore, for

||X|| < 2π
C , both h1 (adX) and h2 (ad(X)) are well-defined. So with this choice of V ,
hj (adM (X, Y )) is well-defined for all X, Y ∈ V .
Since V is open, for X and Y in V there exists > 0 such that
|t| < 1 + =⇒ tX, tY ∈ V.
Define F (t) = M (tX, tY ). Then the map F : (−1 − , 1 + ) → g is smooth.
Lemma 3.4.1. For X, Y ∈ V and |s|, |t| < 1 + we have the following identities:
∂
M (sX, tY ) = h1 (ad M (sX, tY ))X
∂s
∂
M (sX, tY ) = h2 (ad M (sX, tY ))Y
∂t
Proof. Suppose f is a C ∞ function defined near exp sX exp tY . Consider
∂ ∂
f (exp sX exp tY ) = f (exp sX exp tY exp uY )|u=0 .
∂t ∂u
Thinking of Y as a left-invariant vector field, this is equal to
Y f (exp sX exp tY ).
32
Math 222 3.4. THE CAMPBELL-BAKER-HAUSDORFF FORMULA
Just by the chain rule, we have

∂ ∂
f (exp sX exp tY ) = exp∗ |M (sX,tY ) M (sX, tY ) f.
∂t ∂t
| {z }
∈g'Te G
| {z }
∈Texp M G
Now applying the formula for the differential of the exponential map, we get
1 − e−adM (sX,tY ) ∂
(èxp sX exp tY )∗ ◦ M (sX, tY ) f.
adM (sX, tY ) ∂t
| {z }
∈g'Te G
1−e−adM (sX,tY ) ∂
Considering adM (sX,tY ) ∂t M (sX, tY ) as a left-invariant vector field, this is the
same as !
1 − e−adM (sX,tY ) ∂
M (sX, tY ) f (exp sX exp tY ).
adM (sX, tY ) ∂t
That tells us that
1 − e−adM (sX,tY ) ∂ ∂
Y = M (sX, tY ) = h2 (adM (sX, tY ))−1 M (sX, tY ).
adM (sX, tY ) ∂t ∂t
as left-invariant vector fields. We conclude that
∂
M (sX, tY ) = h2 (adM (sX, tY ))Y.
∂t
The other formula is obtained the same way. Actually, we have to identify g in
that case with right-invariant vector fields, or consider the “anti-automorphism”
g 7→ g −1 . In any case, there is no real difference between left and right.
Corollary 3.4.2. With the notation above,
F 0 (t) = h1 (ad F (t))X + h2 (ad F (t))Y.
Proof. F 0 (t) = ∂
∂t M (tX, tY ). Apply Lemma 3.4.1, using the chain rule.
So far we only know that F is a C ∞ function, but we can write down its Taylor
series
∞
X
F (t)“ = ” tk Mk (X, Y ).
k=1
Differentiating and applying the corollary,
∞ ∞ ∞
! !
X X X
k−1 ` `
kt Mk (X, Y ) = h1 t adM` (X, Y ) X + h2 t adM` (X, Y ) Y.
k=1 `=1 `=1
(3.4.1)
33
Now,
z z
h1 (z) = = 2 3
ez
−1 z + 2 + z6 + . . .
z
1 z
= z = 1 − + ...,
1 + 2 + ... 2
and similarly
z z z
h2 (z) = −z
= 2 = 1 + + ....
1−e z
z − 2 + ... 2
So h1 (0) = h2 (0) = 1 and h01 (0) = − 21 , h02 (0) = 21 . What is the first order term? On
the right hand side of (3.4.1), we get
M (tX, tY ) = t(X + Y ) + . . .
Now we want to identify coefficients of tk . First considering only the linear term of
h1 , we get
1 1
(k + 1)Mk+1 (X, Y ) = [X, Mk (X, Y )] − [Y, Mk (X, Y )] + . . .
2 2
Since the series inside the arguments of the hj have no constant term, the other
contributions to tk come from linear combinations of terms
adMj1 (X, Y )adMj2 (X, Y ) . . . adMjn (X, Y )
with 1 ≤ j1 , j2 , . . . , jn < k such that j1 + . . . + jn = k.

Definition 3.4.3. A Lie monomial of degree k in variables X, Y is a well-formed
expression in the terms of X, Y , and bracket.
A Lie polynomial homogeneous of degree k in X and Y is a linear combination
of linear monomials in X, Y of degree k.
Example 3.4.4. The expression [X, [Y, X]] is a Lie monomial of degree 3. The ex-
pression [[X, Y ], [X, [X, Y ]]] is a Lie monomial of degree 5.
Theorem 3.4.5 (Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff). There exist universal Lie polynomi-
als Mk (X, Y ), homogeneous of degree k, with the following property: if G is a Lie
group with Lie algebra g, then there exists a constant R(C) depending on C but not
otherwise on G, g such that for X, Y ∈ g satisfying ||X||, ||Y || < R(C), the series
∞
X
M (X, Y ) = Mk (X, Y )
k=1
converges absolutely and uniformly on compact subsets of {||X||, ||Y || < R(C)} to
the function M (X, Y ) satisfying
exp M (X, Y ) = exp X exp Y.
34
Math 222 3.4. THE CAMPBELL-BAKER-HAUSDORFF FORMULA
Remark 3.4.6. Before embarking on the proof, we give some historical perspective.
1. The first proof (about 1885) was due to Friedrich Schur (not the usual Schur).
This was the first proof standing up to modern levels of rigor.
2. Campbell treated the problem purely formally (not worrying about conver-
gence).
3. The second proof was given in around 1890 by Poincaré.
4. Baker came later, around 1902.
5. Hausdorff (1906) gave the modern formulation, in terms of Lie polynomials,
with arguments essentially the same as ours.
Proof of Theorem 3.4.5. At this point, the only issue left is that of convergence.
The differential equation
F 0 (t) = h1 (adF (t))X + h2 (adF (t))Y. (3.4.2)
is a “holomorphic ordinary differential equation,” since we know that h1 (adF (t))

and h2 (adF (t)) are holomorphic on the relevant region. There is a general theorem
about the existence of solutions in such a situation, precisely by looking at and
bounding coefficients of power series.
Set gC := C ⊗R g, a complex Lie algebra, and regard the ODE (3.4.2) as taking
values in C with t as a complex parameter. Then (3.4.2) is a holomorphic ODE. By
generalities on ODE, a solution certainly exists in a neighborhood of 0. Moreover,
the point of going to the complex analytic context is that the radius of convergence
of a complex-analytic function at a point is always the distance to the nearest
singularity. So there exists r > 0, potentially depending on X and Y , such that the
series X
F (t) := tk Mk (X, Y )
has radius of convergence r. We need a nice estimate on r in terms of X and Y .
If r = ∞, we are done. Otherwise, suppose that r < ∞. Recall that h1 , h2 have
Taylor series with radius of convergence 2π, so by the existence and uniqueness of
solutions of ODE,
sup || ad F (t)|| ≥ 2π
|t|<r
since the differential equation (3.4.2) is sensible as long as || ad F (t)|| < 2π. By our
choice of C,
2π
sup ||F (t)|| ≥ .
|t|<r C
So there exists r1 with 0 < r1 < r such that
π
sup ||F (t)|| =
|t|≤r1 C
35
since the sup of ||F (t)|| on disks depends continuously on the radius of the disk, and
must assume any value less than 2π C . Because h1 , h2 have Taylor series with radius
of convergence 2π,
X X
D = max{ |ak |π k , |bk |π k } < ∞
ak tk and h2 = bk tk . Then for |t| < r1 ,

P P
where h1 (t) =
|| ad F (t)|| ≤ π =⇒ ||F 0 (t)|| ≤ D(||X|| + ||Y ||).
So Z |t|
0 t
||F (t)|| ≤ ||F r || dr ≤ Dr1 (||X|| + ||Y ||) for |t| ≤ r1 .
0 |t|
Hence
π
sup ||F (t)|| = ≤ Dr1 (||X|| + ||Y ||).
|t|≤r1 C
π 1
So r > r1 ≥ CD ||X||+||Y || . For ||X|| and ||Y || sufficiently small (depending only on
C and D), we have r > 1, and thus
X
M (X, Y ) = F (1) = Mk (X, Y ).
36
Chapter 4
Geometry of Lie groups
4.1 Vector bundles

Let M be a C ∞ manifold of dimension n. Everything we say will apply equally well
to the complex analytic context, replacing C ∞ by “holomorphic.”
Definition 4.1.1. A rank k vector bundle over M with real (resp. complex) fibers
consists of the following data:
• A manifold E.
• A surjective smooth map p : E → M .
• The structure of a k-dim real (resp. complex) vector space on Ex := p−1 (x)
for each x ∈ M , such that x has an open neighborhood U fitting into a
commutative diagram
≈ /
p−1 (U ) U × Rk
p π

U
≈ /U
id
which preserves the vector space structure (resp. replacing Rk by Ck ). This

is called a local trivialization of the vector bundle.
Definition 4.1.2. A section of E over U is a C ∞ map s : U → p−1 U such that
p ◦ s = 1U .
Sections can be added or multiplied by a scalar, so the sections over U comprise
a vector space.
Definition 4.1.3. A frame for E over U is a k-tuple of sections (s1 , . . . , sk ) which at
each x ∈ U provide a basis for Ex .
A local trivialization for the vector bundle over U is the same thing as a local
frame over U . This is left as an exercise.
37
Math 222 CHAPTER 4. GEOMETRY OF LIE GROUPS
Example 4.1.4. Let T M be the tangent bundle of M and T ∗ M be the cotangent

bundle. These are vector bundles: if (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordinate neighborhood,
then { ∂x∂ 1 , . . . , ∂x∂n } is a local frame for T M and {dx1 , . . . , dxn } is a local frame for
T ∗ M . Sections of the tangent bundle are vector fields; sections of the cotangent
bundle are 1-forms.
Definition 4.1.5. Let p : E → M be a vector bundle of rank k. A rank ` sub-bundle
of E is a rank ` vector bundle pF : F → M together with a commutative diagram

F /E
pF p

M
≈ /M
id
such that the inclusion F → E is an injective linear map on each fiber. Then each
x ∈ M has an open neighborhood U with local frame s1 , . . . , sk for E such that
s1 , . . . , s` is a local frame for F .
4.2 Frobenius’ Theorem

Consider a rank k sub-bundle E ⊂ T M . For each x ∈ M , Ex is a k-dimensional
subspace of Tx M .
Definition 4.2.1. An integral submanifold for E is a k-dimensional submanifold S ⊂
M such that for each x ∈ S, Tx S = Ex ⊂ Tx M .
Definition 4.2.2. A tangent sub-bundle E ⊂ T M is involutive if for any two vector
fields X, Y on an open U ⊂ M taking values in E, the commutator [X, Y ] also takes
values in E.
Remark 4.2.3. The more common terminology for tangent sub-bundle is “distribu-
tion.”
That is, a vector field is a section of the tangent bundle. It takes values in E if
its value over x ∈ M lies in Ex ⊂ Tx M . The bundle E is involutive if for any two
such vector fields taking values in E, so does their Lie bracket.
Definition 4.2.4. The tangent sub-bundle E is integrable if each point in M has
a coordinate neighborhood (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) such that ∂x∂ 1 , . . . , ∂x∂ k constitute a local
frame for E.
Note that in this situation,
1. The set {xk+1 = ck+1 , . . . , xn = cn } where the ci are constant, are the integral
submanifolds for E.
2. E is involutive, because
 
k k k k
X ∂ X ∂  X ∂bi ∂ X ∂ai ∂
 aj , bj = aj − bj .
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
j=1 j=1 i,j=1 i,j=1
38
Math 222 4.2. FROBENIUS’ THEOREM
Theorem 4.2.5 (Frobenius). A tangent sub-bundle is integrable if and only if it is

involuble.
As remarked above, it is obvious that integrable implies involuble; the substance

of the theorem is the other direction.
Example 4.2.6. Suppose E is a rank one sub-bundle. Given any point m ∈ M , there
exists an open neighborhood U and a vector field X on U which is a frame for E
on U . The values of X must be non-zero at every point of U (by definition of local
frame). Then any two vector fields Y1 , Y2 defined near m and taking values in E
can be expressed as Yi = fi X.
[Y1 , Y2 ] = (f1 Xf2 − f2 Xf1 )X
So in the rank one case, involutivity is automatic. According to the theorem, E

should be integrable. Let’s try to see this.
By the theory of ODEs, after shrinking U if necessary, we can construct a map
Φ : (−, ) × U → M
such that for all u ∈ U , t 7→ Φ(t, u) is an integral curve of X and Φ(0, u) = u. After
shrinking U more if necessary, we can introduce coordinates x1 , . . . , xn on U such
that xj (m) = 0. Then after making a linear change of coordinates, we can arrange
that
∂
Xm = .
∂x1 m
Define a C ∞ map from a neighborhood V of 0 ∈ Rn to M by (y1 , . . . , yn ) 7→
Φ(y1 ; 0, y2 , . . . , yn ). It is easy to see that the differential of this map at 0 is invertible
at m. By the inverse function theorem, this map can be inverted locally near 0, which
tells us that near 0, we can regard y1 , . . . , yn as coordinates. But in terms of these
coordinates, we have locally ∂y∂ 1 = X since Φ defines an integral curve for X.
Let’s recap at a conceptual level what we did here. By a linear change of coor-
dinates, we arranged coordinates so that X = ∂x∂ 1 at a single point. Then using the
theory of integral curves, we showed that this must hold locally. We summarize our
work in the theorem below.
Theorem 4.2.7 (“Local structure of a non-zero vector field”). Let M be a manifold,

m ∈ M , and X a vector field defined near m such that Xm 6= 0. Then there exist
local coordinates x1 , . . . , xn defined near m such that X = ∂x∂ 1 locally.
This proves the rank one case of Frobenius’ theorem. The general case proceeds
by induction on the rank, and the induction step is a clever reduction to the rank
one case. (See e.g. Warner.)
39
Example 4.2.8. Now consider the rank 2 case on a neighborhood of 0 in R3 . There

exists a local frame which, up to linear change of coordinates, can be written as
follows.
∂ ∂
X1 = + a(x) ...
∂x1 ∂x3
∂ ∂
X2 = + b(x) ...
∂x2 ∂x3
where a(0) = b(0) = 0. Then

∂b ∂a ∂
[X1 , X2 ] = − .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂b ∂a
The term ∂x 1
− ∂x2
is the obstruction to involutivity, so generically a rankd 2 tangent
3
sub-bundle of T R is not involutive, hence not integral.
Example 4.2.9. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g and h ⊂ g a Lie subalgebra.
Define a tangent sub-bundle Eh ⊂ T G as follows:
(Eh )g = `g∗ h ⊂ Tg G ⊂ g = Te H.
Is this a tangent sub-bundle, i.e. is it spanned locally by a frame?

Yes; this is true even globally. Let Y1 , . . . , Yk be a basis of h ⊂ g, and view
them as left-invariant vector fields; then (Y1 , . . . , Yk ) is a global frame for Eh . Then
[Yh , Yj ] ∈ h =⇒ Eh is involutive. (It suffices to check involutivity on the level of
frames, since any vector fields can be written as a C ∞ (M ) linear combination of
these.)
4.3 Foliations
Proposition 4.3.1. Let M be a connected manifold, E ⊂ T M an integrable rank k
tangent subbundle. Given any point m ∈ M , there exists a unique maximal connected
integral submanifold which contains m.
Let (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) be a coordinate neighborhood such that ∂x∂ 1 , . . . , ∂x∂ k is a

frame for E on U . If S ∩ U 6= 0, then by definition S ∩ U must be contained in a
countable union (because S is second-countable) of submanifolds of the form
{x ∈ U | xk+1 = ck+1 , . . . , xn = cn }
By maximality, it must contain all of the slices that it meets. The issue to be
established is second-countability.
We establish some (non-standard) terminology.
Definition 4.3.2. A coordinate neighborhood (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is adapted in E if
40
Math 222 4.3. FOLIATIONS
1. the image of U in Rn is (−1, 1)n

∂
2. ∂x1 . . . , ∂x∂ k is a frame for E|U .
3. there exists a coordinate neighborhood (U e; x

e1 , . . . , x
en ) such that (a) U is com-
∂ ∂
pact and contained in U ej |U = xj , and (c) ∂f
e , (b) x
x1 , . . . , ∂ x
f k
is a frame for E
over U
e.
Note that M , being second-countable, can be covered by a countable number of

adapted coordinate neighborhoods U1 , U2 , . . ..
Definition 4.3.3. A slice of an adapted coordinate neighborhood (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is
a set of the form
{(x1 , . . . , xn ) | xk+1 = ck+1 , . . . , xn = cn }.
So “slice” means maximal connected integral submanifold of E|U . The slices in

U are parametrized by (xk+1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ (−1, 1)n−k .
We shall call a continuous (not necessarily C 1 ) path γ : [0, 1] → M tangential to
E if it satisfies the following condition:
(*) Let U be an adapted coordinate neighborhood of γ(t0 ) ∈ U , t0 ∈ [0, 1]. Then

for t near t0 , γ(t) lies in the same slice as γ(t0 ).
This is equivalent to the weaker condition
(**) Given any t0 ∈ [0, 1] there exists an adapted coordinate neighborhood U of

γ(t0 ) such that for t near t0 , γ(t) lies in the same slice as γ(t0 )
because locally, integral submanifolds are unique. There is just no way to jump
from one slice to another.
Lemma 4.3.4. Let Uα , Uβ be adapted coordinate neighborhoods and S a slice of Uα .

Then S ∩ Uβ is contained in a finite union of slices in Uβ .
Proof. Suppose not, i.e. suppose that there exists a sequence {pk } in S ∩ Uβ such
that for k 6= `, pk and p` lie in different slices of Uβ . But S is compact, so the
sequence {pk } converges to some p∞ ∈ S.
Recall that Uα has compact closure in U eα and S is contained in a slice of U
eα ,
say S. Furthermore, p∞ ∈ Uβ ⊂ Uβ so p∞ lies in a slice of Uβ , say Sβ .
e e e
But integral submanifolds for E are locally unique, in the sense that Se ∩ Seβ
contains an open neighborhood (with respect to S) e of p∞ that is also contained in
Sβ . So the limiting pk cannot all be in distinct slices.
e
41
To prove the existence of a maximal connected integral submanifold passing

through a given point m ∈ M , choose U0 , U1 , . . . with m ∈ U0 . Let γ be a path
tangential to E, with γ(0) = m. By compactness of [0, 1], there exists a partition
0 < t0 < . . . , < tN = 1 of [0, 1] such that for 0 < j ≤ N , γ([ti , ti+1 ]) ⊂ U`j , so
in particular γ(1) ∈ U`N . By the lemma, there is only a finite number of possible
slices for U`N on which γ(1) can lie. The possibilities for these slices is completely
determined by the datum of U0 = Uα1 = . . . = UαN .
So to prove existence of a maximal connected integral submanifold S, consider
all finite chains Uα0 = U0 , Uα1 , . . . , UαN such that Uαj−1 ∩ Uαj 6= ∅. Then take
successive unions of slices, starting with the slice of U0 on which M lies, then
dictated by intersections of Uαj−1 and Uαj . The union will be a union of a countable
number of slices of the U` , connected by construction.
To summarze, we have proved:
Theorem 4.3.5. Let M be a manifold, E ⊂ T M an integrable tangent sub-bundle,

m ∈ M . Then there exists a unique maximal connected integral submanifold passing
through m.
Theorem 4.3.6. Let G be a Lie group with Lie algebra g and h ⊂ g a Lie subalge-
bra. Then there exists a unique connected Lie subgroup H ⊂ G whose Lie algebra,
considered as as subalgebra of g, coincides with h.
Proof. Define Eh ⊂ T G as before, (Eh )g = `g∗ h. By the previous theorem, there

exists a unique maximal integral submanifold H which contains e. Suppose h ∈ H;
we need to check that hH ⊂ H. Then `h−1 H is also an integral submanifold because
Eh is invariant under left translation. Therefore, `h−1 H is an integral submanifold
containing e and is therefore contained in H by maximality. So H ⊂ G is a subgroup.
This shows that multiplication H × H → G is C ∞ and takes values in H. By
the discussion of adapted coordinate neighborhoods, given h ∈ H there exist open
neighborhoods U of h in G and UH of h in H such that UH → U is a closed
embedding with UH connected. Therefore, any C ∞ map from N to G which takes
values in H is smooth as a map N → H. So H ⊂ G is a connected Lie subgroup.
The Lie algebra of H, as a subspace of g ' Te G is by construction Te H =
(Eh )e = h. To establish uniqueness, recall that
exp
h _ / H
_
exp
g /G
is a commutative diagram. Let U be an open neighborhood of 0 ∈ G. Then

exp(U ∩ h) contains an open neighborhood of e in H, and we saw earlier than
any neighborhood of e in a connected Lie group generates the whole group in the
algebraic sense. Since this discussion applies equally well to any potential other
42
Math 222 4.4. LIE SUBGROUPS
connected Lie subgroup H 0 with Lie algebra h, we have the desired uniqueness of
H.
As a corollary, we see that H can also be described as the smallest subgroup of

G, in the algebraic sense, containing exp(U ∩ h). In particular, this gives a bijection
between connected subgroups of G and Lie subalgebras of g.
4.4 Lie subgroups

Let M be a manifold. We discuss various notions of “submanifolds” of M .
Immersion. S a manifold equipped with a map ϕ : S → M such that ϕ∗ is

locally 1-1 for every s ∈ S. It follows from the inversion function theorem that ϕ is
locally injective.
This is a very weak notion. For instance, consider the map R → R2 sending
t 7→ (cos t, sin t). This is an immersion, but it is from from being injective.
Injective Immersion. S a manifold equipped with a globally injective immersion

ϕ : S → M . This is the notion of submanifold that we have been using.
One can get pathological examples where the topology on S is incompatible with
the subspace topology from M . For instance, the inclusion R×Q ⊂ R2 or the “figure
8” immersion.
Embedding. This is an injective immersion where the intrinsic topology of S

must agree with the induced (subspace) topology. For example, the inclusion of an
open interval in R2 .
Closed embedding. An embedding in which ϕ(S) ⊂ M is closed.
However, for submanifolds which are Lie groups, many of these notions collapse.
Theorem 4.4.1. For a Lie subgroup H ⊂ G, the following are equivalent.
1. H is closed as a subset of G.
2. The intrinsic and induced topologies agree.
3. ι : H ,→ G is a closed embedding.
Example 4.4.2. R × Q ,→ R2 is a Lie subgroup which is not a closed embedding.

The submanifold (0, 1) → (0, 1) × (0, 1) looking like a σ with a tail at the bound-
ary of the square is closed but does not have the induced topology.
The open interval in R2 has the induced topology but is not closed.
43
Proof. By definition, the first two conditions together are the third. So we must
show that in the setting of a Lie subgroup H ⊂ G, (1) ⇐⇒ (2). Both (1) and (2)
are local (with respect to G) properties. So it suffices to prove (1’) ⇐⇒ (2’):
(1’) For any open neighborhood U of g ∈ G, H ∩ U is closed in G ∩ U
(2’) For any open neighborhood U of g ∈ G, the inclusion U ∩ H ⊂ H is a

homeomorphism onto the image.
We know that any open neighborhood of g ∈ G contains an adapted (to Eh )

coordinate neighborhood. So we may assume that U ' (−1, 1)n is an adapted
coordinate neighborhood and P the set of slices, P ' (−1, 1)n−k and U ' (−1, 1)k ×
P (these are all topological isomorphisms, i.e. homeomorphisms). Let PH ⊂ P
denote the set of slices that are contained in U ∩ H. We know that PH ⊂ P is at
most countable.
For the induced topology, we have the homeomorphism U ∩ H ' (−1, 1)k × PH .
On the other hand, for the intrinsic topology we have the homeomorphism U ∩ H '
(−1, 1)k × PH when PH is given the discrete topology.
This reduces the problem to showing that for any adapted U , PH ⊂ P is closed
if and only if PH is discrete. Suppose PH ⊂ P is not closed; then there exists an
adapted U such that PH is not closed with this U . Then there exists a sequence
pn ∈ PH converging to some p ∈ P where p ∈ / PH .
The pn , p ∈ P correspond to hn , h with hn ' 0 × pn and h ' 0 × p. For N large
and all n ≥ N , h−1N hn will lie in a particular adapted coordinate neighborhood of
the identity. Now, h−1 −1
N hn ∈ H but hN h ∈ / H, so h−1N hn lie in slices of Ue ∩ H which
accumulate at the slice of e. Since by construction the hn are “infinitely far apart”
in H, this tells us that PH is not discrete.
Now suppose that there exists U such that PH is not discrete. By left translation,
we may arrange that U is an adapted neighborhood of the identity and the slice of
e in U is not isolated in PH . Translating again, we see that no slice is isolated. If
PH were closed, then for p ∈ PH the set PH − {p} would be dense and open in PH .
So \
(PH \ {p})
p∈PH
is a countable intersection of open dense subsets, which is empty. This contra-

dicts the Baire category theorem if PH were a complete metric space in its induced
topology. Hence PH is not closed.
Lemma 4.4.3. Suppose that H ⊂ G is a closed Lie group. Then G/H, equipped
with the quotient topology, is Hausdorff.
The fact that H is closed implies that the identity coset in G/H is closed, so
every point of G/H is closed, i.e. G/H has the “T1” axiom. It is a general fact that
for topological groups, this implies “T2.” However, we will go through the details.
44
Proof. Suppose g ∈ G and g ∈ / H. Then g has an open neighborhood which does

not intersect H. We can expression this open neighborhood as U1 g, where U1 is an
open neighborhood of e. Now we may choose neighborhoods U2 , U3 of e such that
U22 ⊂ U1 (because multiplication is continuous) and U2 = U2−1 (by replacing U2 with
U2 ∩ U2−1 if necessary) and U3 ⊂ U2 and gU3 g −1 ⊂ U2 .
If gU3 H ∩ U3 H = ∅, then these two opens descend to open neighborhoods of gH
and eH in G/H which are disjoint, as had to be shown. If not, there exists some
x ∈ gU3 H ∩ U3 = gU3 g −1 gH ∩ U3 ⊂ U2 gH ∩ U2 . This gives an element h ∈ H lying
in U2−1 U2 g ⊂ U1 g, which is a contradiction.
Theorem 4.4.4. Keeping the notation above, let p : G → G/H denote the quotient
map. There exists a unique structure of a C ∞ manifold on G/H which is compat-
ible with the quotient topological structure, such that for a continuous function f
defined on an open subset U ⊂ G/H, f ∈ C ∞ (U ) if and only if p∗ f ∈ C ∞ (p−1 U ).
Furthermore, this structure has the following properties.
• p : G → G/H and the action map G × G/H → G/H are smooth.
• p∗ induces a linear isomorphism g/h ' TeH (G/H).
• Each point in G/H has an open neighborhood U over which p : p−1 (U ) → U

has a C ∞ section.
Proof. Uniqueness is obvious: to know the notion of C ∞ fnction on open subsets is

to know the manifold structure. Assuming that G/H equipped with this structure
is a manifold, p : G → G/H is C ∞ because the pullbacks of C ∞ functions are C ∞ .
m
The fact that G × G → G is C ∞ is C ∞ , since the pullback of a C ∞ function on
G/H is a function on G × G/H whose pullback to G × G is right H-invariant and
smooth.
We shall see, in the proof of existence of the smooth structure, that p∗ is surjec-
tive and dim(G/H) = dim G−dim H. Now, TeH G/H ' g/ ker p∗ . The fact that C ∞
functions on G/H are right H-invariant implies that h ⊂ ker p∗ : Te G → TeH (G/H).
By dimension reasons, h = ker p∗ .
To complete the proof, we must construct the manifold structure and local sec-
tions near the identity coset (because left translation by any g ∈ is a diffeomorphism)
which relates local sections at the identity coset to sections near gH.
To establish the manifold structure, we need to show that locally G/H, with
the presumed smooth structure, is diffeomorphic to an open set in Rn . Again, it
suffices to do this for an open neighborhood of e. Note that this is an entirely local
question.
As before, let Eh denote the left-invariant tangent sub-bundle of T G whose fiber
at e is h. Let U be an adapted coordinate neighborhood of e. We may suppose
that the coordinates are centered at e, i.e. xj (e) = 0 for all j. In the following,
we will shrink U and and tacitly scale the coordinates so that the shrunk U is
45
an adapted coordinate neighborhood (recall that adapted coordinates have as their

image (−1, 1)n ). As before, we have U ' P × S0 where P = (−1, 1)n−k and S0 is
the slice through e ' 0, isomorphic to (−1, 1)k .
Note that each slice is contained in a coset gH (by left invariance of the tangent
sub-bundle h, integral manifolds are preserved). After shrinking U , we can arrange
that U ∩ H = S0 . Shrinking further if necessary, we claim that we may arrange
that no two distinct slices in U lie in the same coset gH. If this were not true,
there would exist sequences p0n and p00n lying in distinct slices in P both converging
to 0 and lying in the same coset. Let gn0 and gn00 be the group elements to (p0n , 0)
and (p00n , 0). Then gn0 → e, and gn00 → e, but gn0 H = gn00 H. Then (gn00 )−1 gn0 → e and
(gn00 )−1 gn0 H = H, so (gn00 )−1 gn0 ∈ S0 for n 0. So we get convergence (gn00 )−1 gn0 → e
in H, which implies that gn00 → gn0 in H, but this is impossible because they are “far
apart” in H (the different slices having the discrete topology).
It must then be the case that p−1 (P ) = U ' P × H. That implies p(U ) ' P '
(−1, 1)n−k and hence p(U ) is isomorphic to an open subset of Rn−k , the identification
preserving the smooth structure. The functions on p(U ) are the right H-invariant
functions on P × H, i.e. functions on P .
The section s : (−1, 1)n−k ' P → U sending x 7→ (x, 0) is smooth by construc-
tion. Then p : G → G/H “looks like” the projection U ' (−1, 1)n−k × (−1, 1)k →
(−1, 1)n−k .
Theorem 4.4.5. Let G be a Lie group, H ⊂ G a subgroup in the algebraic sense

such that H as a subset of G is closed. Then H has a natural, unique structure of
a Lie subgroup.
Proof. Let g be the Lie algebra of G. Define h = {X ∈ g | exp tX ∈ H for all t}.
Lemma 4.4.6. h ⊂ g is a linear subspace.
Proof. From the defninion it is immediate that h is closed under scalar multipli-
caiton, so it suffices to show that h is closed under addition. Define M : V × V → g
as before, i.e. multiplication on G pulled back to g near 0 via exp. Suppose X, Y ∈ h
and t ∈ R. For n 0,
t t
X, Y ∈ V.
n n
Then
t t t 1
M X, Y = (X + Y ) + O( 2 ).
n n n n
Then exp(t(X + Y )) is the limit as n → ∞ of
n
t t t t
exp nM X, Y = exp M X, Y
n n n n
n
t t
≈ exp X exp Y ∈H
n n
46
The fact that H ⊂ G is closed implies that exp(t(X + Y )) ∈ H for all t.
Let h0 ⊂ g be a linear complement, i.e. g ' h ⊕ h0 .

Lemma 4.4.7. If U is a sufficiently small open neighborhood of 0 ∈ g, then
exp(U ∩ h) = exp(U ) ∩ H.
Proof. Note that exp h ⊂ H by definition. Therefore, exp(V ∩h) ⊂ H ∩exp V for any
open neighborhood V of 0 in g. If the lemma were false, we could find a sequence
hn ∈ H converging to e such that hn ∈ / exp h. Let q ⊂ g be a linear complement to
h. Then the map
q⊕h→G
(X, Y ) → exp X exp Y
is a local diffeomorphism of a neighborhood of 0 in q ⊕ h into a neighborhood of

e in G. Eventually, the hn lie in the image of this map, so their pre-images have
non-zero q-component. This says that there exist sequences {Xn } ⊂ q and {Yn } ⊂ h
such that exp Xn exp Yn = hn , Xn → 0, Yn → 0, and Xn 6= 0 for all n.
Introduce a linear norm || · || on g and write Xn = tn X fn where ||X
en || = 1.
Passing to a subsequence if necessary, we may assume that Xn → X ∈ q. We must
e e
necessarily have ||X||
e = 1. Let t ∈ R be fixed. We know that tn → 0, so we may
choose kn ∈ Z such that t − tn < kn tn ≤ t. Then kn tn → t, so
en ) → exp(tX).
exp(kn Xn ) = exp(kn tn X e
But on the other hand, exp(kn Xn ) = (exp Xn )kn , so
exp(kn Xn ) = (exp Xn )kn → exp tX.

e
e ∈ H. Since this holds for all t, it must be the case that X

So exp(tX) e ∈ h. Hence
X ∈ h ∩ q = {0}. But X is a unit vector, so this is impossible.
e e
Near the origin, exp is a diffeomorphism. By the preceding lemma, e has an

open neighborhood Ue such that H ∩ Ue is a closed, embedded submanifold of Ue .
By translation, every h ∈ H has an open neighborhood Uh with the same property.
Since H is closed, for any g ∈ G − H there exists an neighborhood Ug of g
such that Ug ∩ H = ∅. Therefore, H ,→ G is a closed embedding of a submanifold.
Hence the multiplication map H × H → G and the inversion map H → G are
restrictions to H × H (resp. H) of smooth maps from G × G (resp. G), hence are
smooth maps. Moreover, they take values in H, hence they are C ∞ as maps into
H (precisely because this is a smooth embedding; we gave counterexamples in the
other cases).
47
4.5 Lie’s Theorems

Theorem 4.5.1. Suppose Φ : G → H is a homomorphism of Lie groups such that
on the level of Lie algebras, Φ∗ : g → h is injective. Then
(i) ker Φ ⊂ G is discrete.
(ii) If Φ is onto, then Φ : G → H is a covering map.
Proof. ker Φ is a closed, normal Lie subgroup (e.g. by the theorem we just proved).
By a homework problem, G/ ker Φ has a natural Lie group structure. The map
Φ : G → H factors through G/ ker Φ → H by the definition of the C ∞ structure.
Therefore, Φ∗ : g → h factors through g/Lie(ker Φ) → h. Since Φ∗ is injective, ker Φ
must have dimension 0, which implies that ker Φ has the discrete topology. This
establishes (i).
Note that we have implicitly used the Baire category theorem; it is an exercise
to give a proof not using this theorem.
Φ factors through G/ ker Φ → H. If Φ is onto, then this is an isomorphism of
Lie groups. Also, G/ ker Φ has the same Lie algebras as G, so Φ∗ : g → h is a linear
isomorphism. Locally near the identity, Φ is a diffeomorphism, so there exist open
neighborhoods UG,0 of eG ∈ G and UH,0 of eH ∈ H such that UG,0 ∩ ker Φ = {e}
and Φ restricts to a diffeomorphism UG,0 → UH,0 .
Now let UG be an open neighborhood of e such that UG = UG−1 and UG2 ⊂ UG,0 .
Let UH = Φ(UG ). Then Φ : UG → UH is a diffeomorphism. We claim that for
g ∈ ker Φ with g 6= 0, then UG g ∩ UG = ∅ (otherwise, we would have a non-identity
element g ∈ UG−1 UG ⊂ UG,0 , which is impossible by construction). By translation,
UG g1 ∩ UG g2 = ∅ whenever g1 , g2 are distinct elements of ker Φ. This implies that
[
Φ−1 (UH ) = UG g,
g∈ker Φ
i.e. the pre-image of UH is a disjoint union of neighborhoods of the form UG g such

that Φ : UG g → UH is a diffeomorphism for any g ∈ ker Φ.
By left translation, we obtain an analogous description for suitably small neigh-
borhoods of any given g ∈ G and UΦ(g) of Φ(g) ∈ H, hence Φ is a covering map.
Corollary 4.5.2. Suppose Φ : G → H is a Lie group homomorphism such that

Φ∗ : g → h is an isomorphism. If G, H are connected then Φ is a covering map. In
particular, if H is also simply connected, Φ is an isomorphism.
Proof. The point is to show surjectivity. By the universality of exp, the image of Φ
contains an open neighborhoods of the identity in H. Since H is connected, this open
neighborhood generates H, so Im Φ = H. By the previous theorem, Φ : G → H is
a covering map.
If H is simply connected, then obviously Φ must be a homeomorphism.
48
Math 222 4.5. LIE’S THEOREMS
Corollary 4.5.3. Let G, H be Lie groups with Lie algebras g, h and ϕ : g → h a Lie
algebra homomorphism. Suppose G and H are connected and G is simply connected.
Then there exists a unique Lie group homomorphism Φ : G → H such that Φ∗ = ϕ.
Proof. Consider the graph of ϕ as a subalgebra of g ⊕ h:
{(X, ϕ(X)) | X ∈ g} ⊂ g ⊕ h
Then we know that there exists a closed Lie subgroup Γ ⊂ G × H with this Lie
algebra. Let p1 , p2 be the two projection maps G × H → G and G × H → H. Well,
p1∗ restrict to the graph of ϕ is 1-1 and onto, so p1 : Γ → G is a covering map. Since
G is simply connected, this is an isomorphism. So p−1 1 : G → Γ is a well-defined Lie
−1
group homomorphism. Define Φ = p2 ◦ p1 ; then Φ∗ = ϕ by construction.
Corollary 4.5.4. Let G, H be Lie groups and Φ : G → H a homomorphism of

groups in the algebraic sense. If Φ is continuous, it is C ∞ , hence a Lie group
homomorphism.
Proof. Let Γ be the graph of Φ,
Γ = {(g, Φ(g)) | g ∈ G} ⊂ G × H.
This is a subgroup in the algebraic sense because Φ is a homomorphism, and a

closed subset since Φ is continuous. Hence this is a Lie subgroup of G × H. By
construction, p1 |Γ : Γ → G is 1-1 and onto, hence an isomorphism. By definition of
Γ, Φ = p2 ◦ p−1
1 .
Proposition 4.5.5. A discrete normal subgroup of a connected Lie group G is

central (lies in the center).
Proof. Suppose h ∈ H is not the identity. The map g 7→ ghg −1 is continuous, so

given an open Uh of h, there exists an open neighborhood U of e ∈ G such that
g ∈ U =⇒ ghg −1 ∈ Uh . We can do this for some Uh such that Uh ∩ H = h. By
normality, ghg −1 ∈ H ∩ UH , so ghg −1 = h. That tells us that an open neighborhood
of e ∈ G commutes with h, but such a neighborhood generates G, so all of G
commutes with h.
A more concise way to say this: the map g 7→ ghg −1 sends G to a discrete set,
hence is constant.
Note that subgroups of this type arise as kernels of Lie group homomorphisms
Φ : G → H such that Φ∗ is 1-1 and G is connected. In particular, this applies to
Lie group shomomorphisms Φ : G → H that are covering maps, with G connected.
Suppose G is a connected Lie group and G e the universal cover.
Theorem 4.5.6. There exists a natural structure of a Lie group on G

e such that the
covering map G → G is a Lie group homomorphism.
e
49
Exercise 4.5.7. Prove this theorem.

Exercise 4.5.8. Let g be a finite dimensional Lie algebra over R. Does there exist a
Lie group G with Lie algebra g?
An approach to this problem is through Ado’s theorem:
Theorem 4.5.9 (Ado). Any such g can be realized as a Lie subalgebra of End(RN )
for some N .
Combined with our work above, this tells us the answer is yes.
50
Chapter 5
The Universal Enveloping

Algebra
5.1 Construction of the universal enveloping algebra

Let K be an arbitrary field, g a Lie algebra over K. We define
O ∞
M
g= g⊗k .
k=0
This is a graded associative algebra

N over K with unit, freely generated by g⊗1 = g.
These conditions characterize g as an algebra.
Similarly, we define
M∞
S(g) = S k g,
k=0
where S k g is the k th symmetric power of g. This is a commutative algebra over K

with unit, freely generatd by S 1 g = g, which uniquely characterizes S(g).
Now define
O
U (g) = g/({XY − Y X − [X, Y ] : X, Y ∈ g}).
This is the tensor algebra modded out by the two sided ideal generated by relations
of the form XY − Y X − [X, Y ]. The composition
g = g⊗1 → U (g)
is a Lie algebra homomorphism when U (g) is considered as a Lie algebra via com-
mutators.
We have constructed U (g) to have the following properties:
51
Math 222 CHAPTER 5. THE UNIVERSAL ENVELOPING ALGEBRA
• it is an associative algebra over K with unit (*),
• it is filtered (**),
• it is equipped with a linear map i : g → U1 (g) which is a Lie algebra homo-

morphism via commutators, generated by i(g).
(**) Let Uk (g) denote the image of `≤k g⊗` . Then we have a filtration
L
U0 (g) ⊂ U1 (g) ⊂ . . . ⊂ Uk (g) . . . ⊂∞

k=0 Uk (g) = U (g)
satisfying Uk (g)U` (g) ⊂ Uk+` (g).
(*) Note that O

| {z· 1} ⊕ g
g=K ⊗g .
| {z }
g⊗0 L ∞
g ⊗k
k=1
The second summand is called the augmentation ideal. Note that the ideal we
are quotienting out by lies in the augmentation ideal, and hence never harms the
constants. Hence U0 (g) = K · 1.
Definition 5.1.1. The pair (U (g), i) is called the universal enveloping algebra of g.
5.2 Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt
Question. Is i : g → U1 (g) injective? Well, there isn’t anything that is trans-
parently in the kernel, but it also isn’t necessarily obvious that the relations can’t
somehow kill something at degree 1. In fact, it is injective, as we shall eventually
prove.
Observe that for each k, “Uk (g) is commutative modulo Uk−1 (g).” In other
words, the commutator of two elements in Uk (g) differ by an element of Uk−1 (g).
This is because the elements of i(g) in U2 (g) commute modulo i(g). For instance,
in U3 (g) the elements XY Z, Y ZX, XZY , etc. all commute up to elements in U2 (g)
(note that this is a different meaning of “commute” from what is sometimes used
elsewhere). Consider the associated graded algebra to U (g):
∞
M
gr(U (g)) := Uk (g)/Uk−1 (g).
k=0
This is a graded associative algebra over K with unit, generated by i(g). It is

commutative by the remarks above.
Hence by the universality of S(g), the map linear map i : g → U1 (g) induces a
unique algebra homomorphism S(g) → gr(U (g)) of commutative algebras with unit.
Moreover, this map is surjective by construction, since g generates gr(U (g)).
52
Math 222 5.2. POINCARÉ-BIRKHOFF-WITT
Theorem 5.2.1 (Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt). This morphism of algebras is an iso-

morphism:
S(g) ' gr(U (g)).
Corollary 5.2.2. i : g → U1 (g)/U0 (g) is an isomorphism, hence i : g → U (g) is
injective.
This tells us how to think of U (g): it is the universal associative algebra which
contains g as a Lie sub-algebra with the Lie bracket of commutators.
Before embarking on the proof, we observe some more consequences. Suppose
dim g < ∞, and let X1 , . . . , Xn be a basis of g over K.
Corollary 5.2.3. {X1j1 . . . Xnjn | 0 ≤ j1 , . . . , jn < ∞} is a basis for U (g).
Proof. The subset of elements above with j1 + . . . + jn = k obviously comprise a
basis for S k (g), hence they push forward to a basis for Uk /Uk−1 .
What if g is infinite-dimensional? Similar considerations apply, but one has to

be more careful about stating the result.
Corollary 5.2.4. Let h ⊂ g be a Lie subalgebra. Then U (h) is a subalgebra of U (g).
Proof. Choose the basis of g to contain a basis for h as a subset, and then use the
form of solutions in Corollary 5.2.3.
Corollary 5.2.5. Suppose h1 , h2 are Lie subalgebras of g such that g = h1 ⊕ h2

as vector spaces. Then U (g) ' U (h1 ) ⊗K U (h2 ) as left U (h1 )-modules and right
U (h2 )-modules.
Proof. This is clear by considering bases: hoose the basis of g so that the first things
are a basis of h1 and the second things are a basis of h2 . Any basis element in the
form of Corollary 5.2.3 may be expressed as a tensor of two such elements for h1
and h2 .
Now suppose that K has characteristic 0. Define

sek : g⊗k → Uk (g)
1 X
Y1 ⊗ . . . ⊗ Yk 7→ Yσ(1) . . . Yσ(k) .
k!
σ∈Sk
We initially define this for basis elements only, and then extend by linearity to the
whole tensor product. Note that sek factors through S(g), hence induces
sk : S k (g) → Uk (g).
This map sk is called the “symmetrization map.” Note that this definition doesn’t
depend on PBW and, in fact, even without PBW it is clear that Im Sk spans
Uk (g)/Uk−1 (g). What PBW tells us is that this is not only a surjection, but an
isomorphism.
53
L∞
Corollary 5.2.6. The symmetrization map s = k=0 sk defines a vector space
isomorphism S(g) ' U (g).
5.3 Proof of Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt

We shall prove PBW in the following situation: g is the Lie algebra of a Lie group,
so in particular K = R or C, and dim g < ∞. Granted Ado’s theorem, this furnishes
a proof for arbitrary real or complex Lie algebras.
We know that the map from the symmetric algebra to the universal enveloping
algebra is surjective; we want it to be injective. To do this, we want to show that the
universal enveloping algebra is as big as we expect: that there are no unexpected
relations. We achieve this by finding a space (the space of functions on G) on which
it acts sufficiently nontrivially.
We first set up some preliminaries. Let M by a C ∞ manifold of dimension n. To
an open set U ⊂ M , define D(U ) to be the algebra of linear differential operators
on U with C ∞ coefficients of finite order. Let Dk (U ) be the space of differential
operators of order ≤ k.
Let (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) be a coordinate neighborhood. Then
 
 k

∂ j1 ∂ j2 ∂ jn

X 

X
∞
Dk (U ) = aj1 ...jn j1 j2 . . . jn | aj1 ...jn ∈ C (M ) .

 `=0 0≤j1 ,...,jn <∞
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn 


j1 +...+jn =`
Define
 
k
X X ∂ j1 ∂ j2 ∂ jn  X ∂ j1 ∂ j2 ∂ jn
σk  aj1 ...jn ... = aj1 ...jn ... .

`=0 0≤j1 ,...,jn <∞ ∂xj11 ∂xj22 ∂xjn 
n j1 +...+jn =k ∂xj11 ∂xj22 ∂xjnn
j1 +...+jn =`
This is called the k th principal symbol (it picks out the “homogeneous” piece of de-
gree k). It could depend on the choice of coordinates, but since differential operators
of degree k commute with multiplication by smooth functions modulo differential
operators of degree k − 1, this becomes well defined as a linear map on the quotient:
σk : Dk (U )/Dk−1 (U ) → C ∞ (U ; S k T M )
where S k T M is the k th symmetric power of T M , i.e. the vector bundle over M

where the fiber at x is S k (Tx M ). To see that S k T M is a vector bundle, note that
there exist local frames, e.g.
( )
∂ j1 ∂ j2 ∂ jn
. . . jn | j1 + . . . + jn = k
∂xj11 ∂xj22 ∂xn
54
Math 222 5.3. PROOF OF POINCARÉ-BIRKHOFF-WITT
over (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ). So in fact, the principal symbol induces an isomorphism
σk : Dk (U )/Dk−1 (U ) ' C ∞ (U ; S k T M ), (5.3.1)
at least when U is a coordinate neighborhood. In fact, this holds for any open subset
U ⊂ M , and in particular U = M , by the usual partition of unity arguments.
Let G be a Lie group. Then G acts on D(G) by left (and also right) translation.
For D ∈ D(G) and f ∈ C ∞ (G), define
(`g D)(f ) = `∗g (D(`∗g−1 f )).
G also acts by left translation on S k T M , and the isomorphism (5.3.1) is equivariant

with respect to this action.
Now let D` (G) denote the associative algebra of left-invariant differential oper-
ators. Then σk induces an isomorphism
`
σk : Dk` (G)/Dk−1 (G) ' C ∞ (G, S k T G)G
(The notation C ∞ (G, S k T G)G means the G-invariants). This is clear from geometric
reasons because we can patch differential operators using partitions of unity. This is
a model for PBW. Composing with evaluation at e, we get an element of S k Te G =
S k g. Since this was obtained by restricting the isomorphism σk to a subspace, this
is injective. As we indicated above, a partition of unity argument shows that it is
in fact an isomorphism.
Identifying g with left-invariant vector fields on G induces a map g → D1` (G)/D0` (G).
But D0` (G) are left-invariant degree 0 operators, i.e. constant functions. This in-
duces a map U (g) → D` (G) since the relations in U (g) were precisely constructed
from the model of vector fields. Furthermore, this map preserves degree, so we get
for each graded component k maps:

(G)
σk
`
Dk` (G)/Dk−1 / Skg
h
gr
xx
Uk (g)/Uk−1 (g)
We claim that this is a commutative diagram. This is clear for k = 0 and k = 1,

since when k = 0 everything is the space of constants, and when k = 1 everything
is the space of left-invariant vector fields. Furthermore, these are compatible with
composition of differential operators and multiplication in S(g), U (g), so we deduce
the commutativity for all k.
But since this is a commutative triangle, all the maps are automatically isomor-
phisms.
Corollary 5.3.1. U (g) ' D` (G), i.e. U (g) is the algebra of left-invariant differen-
tial operators on G.
55
To give a conceptual review of the proof, we wanted to show that the universal
enveloping algebra is really big, with no unexpected relations. We achieve this by
finding a space (the space of functions on G) on which it acts sufficiently nontrivially.
Another variant of this argument runs as follows. Viewing U (g) as differential
operators on the space of functions on G, we can analyze its action on the space
of power series which vanish to order k − 1, evaluated at 0. This is equivalent to
picking the k th degree term, i.e. the k th principal symbol.
56
Chapter 6
Representations of Lie groups
6.1 Haar Measure

We need the notion of Haar measure in discussing the representation theory of
Lie groups. This is fairly transparent on Lie groups, but to satisfy the “general
education” requirement we will discuss Haar measure in greater generality.
Let G be a locally compact Hausdorff topological group.
Theorem 6.1.1 (Haar). There exists a nontrivial, regular, left-invariant Borel mea-
sure on G. It is unique up to scaling and satisfies m(U ) > 0 for every nonempty
open Borel set U .
We clarify some of the terms in this theorem.
• A Borel set (in a locally compact Hausdorff space) is an element of the σ-ring
(closed under set differences and countable unions) generated by the compact
subsets.
• A Borel measure is defined on Borel sets and finite on compact sets.
• A Borel measure is regular if for every Borel measurable set S,
m(S) = sup{m(C) | C compact ⊂ S},

= inf{m(U ) | U open, Borel set ⊃ S}
G acts on measures by right translation S 7→ Sg −1 7→ m(Sg −1 ). Let m be the

Haar measure, normalized in some way. Then for g ∈ G, r(g)m is again the Haar
measure, possibly with a different normalization. So
r(g)m = ∆(g)m for some ∆(g) ∈ R>0 .
In fact, ∆ is a homomorphism G → R>0 .
57
Math 222 CHAPTER 6. REPRESENTATIONS OF LIE GROUPS
Exercise 6.1.2. Show tha ∆ is continuous.

Recall that Haar measure is left-invariant by definition.
Definition 6.1.3. G is unimodular if Haar measure is also right-invariant, i.e. ∆ ≡
1.
So ∆ is called the “unimodular function.”
Note that compact groups do not admit nontrivial continuous homomorphisms
into R>0 , since if anything not equal to 1 is in the image, we can generate arbitrarily
big elements of the image through multiplication, but the image must be compact.
Corollary 6.1.4. Compact groups are unimodular.
By definition, compact groups have finite Haar measure. The general convention
is to normalize the Haar measure of compact groups so that m(G) = 1.
If G is a Lie group, there obviously exists a left-invariant non-zero differential
form of top degree, unique up to scaling. This defines Haar measure.
6.2 Representations
Let G be a locally compact Hausdorff group, V a topological vector space which is
(a) finite-dimensional over R or C, or
(b) real or complex Hilbert space, or
(c) real or complex Banach space.
Let Aut(V ) be the group of bounded linear maps from V to itself which have
bounded inverses. This is a group, but we shall not topologize it unless dim V < ∞.
Definition 6.2.1. A representation of G on V is a homomorphism
π : G → Aut(G)
which is continuous in the following sense: the action map
G×V →V
(g, v) 7→ π(g)v
is continuous.
Definition 6.2.2. If V is a Hilbet space, a representation π of G on V is called unitary
if π(g) for g ∈ G is a unitary operator (i.e. preserves the inner product).
58
Math 222 6.2. REPRESENTATIONS
Example 6.2.3. Let L2 (G) denote the space of L2 (with respect to Haar measure)
Borel measurable functions1 . Then left translation defines a homomorphism
` : G → Aut(L2 (G)).
This preserves the inner product. We claim that its action is continuous, making `
a unitary representation of G on L2 (G). This is called the left regular representa-
tion. It is important that we use the weaker notion of continuity here, rather than
continuity of ` itself.
Exercise 6.2.4. Check the claim.

Example 6.2.5. By left translation, (R, +) acts on L∞ (R). This is not continuous.
Why? Consider the characteristic function χ for [0, 1]. If we translate slightly, we
get a function which differs in norm from χ by 1.
Let π : G → Aut(V ) be a homomorphism, u, v ∈ V and g, h ∈ G. Then
π(g)u − π(h)v = (π(g)u − π(h)u) + π(h)(u − v)

= π(g)(1 − π(g −1 h))u + π(g)π(g −1 h)(u − v).
So π is continuous if and only if it satisfies:

(i) G × V → V is continuous at (e, 0).
(ii) For any v ∈ V , the map g 7→ π(g)v is continuous (equivalently, continuous at

e).
The first condition ensure that both terms in
π(g)(1 − π(g −1 h))u + π(g)π(g −1 h)(u − v)
are small. The second term only seems to control the first term, a priori. It is clear
that (i) =⇒ (ii), but in fact we will show that (ii) =⇒ (i).
Lemma 6.2.6. In the notation above, (ii) =⇒ (i).
Proof. We apply the “uniform boundedness principle”: if V is a Banach space and
B a set of bounded linear operators on V , then {T v | T ∈ B} is bounded for all
v ∈ V if and only if {||T || | T ∈ B} is bounded.
Apply this to the set
{π(g) | g ∈ C}
where C is a compact neighborhood of e. Then (ii) =⇒ {π(g)v | g ∈ C} is
bounded for every v ∈ V because it is the image of a compact set under a continuous
map. Hence the boundedness principle implies that {||π(g)|| | g ∈ C} is bounded.
Substituting the bounds into the second equation above, we get what we want.
1
equivalently, the closure in the L2 norm of the compactly supported continuous functions.
59
Definition 6.2.7. A homomorphism π : G → Aut(V ) is strongly continuous if g 7→

π(g)v ∈ V is continuous for every v ∈ V .
We have shown that strong continuity implies continuity (note that strong continuity
is, formally, a weaker notion than continuity).
On the other hand, a homomorphism π : G → Aut(V ) is weakly continuous if
the map
g 7→ hτ, π(g)vi ∈ R or C
is continuous if for all v ∈ V, τ ∈ V ∗ . It is a fact, which we shall not prove, that
weak continuity implies strong continuity.
6.3 Schur orthogonality relations

Definition 6.3.1. Suppose π : G → Aut(V ) is a representation. We say that π is
irreducible if there does not exist a nontrivial closed subspace V1 ⊂ V which is
invariant under G, i.e. π(g)V1 ⊂ V for all g ∈ G.
Suppose π is a unitary representation of G on a Hilbert space V , V1 ⊂ V a
closed, invariant subspace. Then V1⊥ is also also a closed invariant subspace, giving
a decomposition V = V1 ⊕ V1⊥ . If in addition dim V < ∞, then we say (π, V ) is
completely reducible, i.e. a finite direct sum of irreducible representations.
Lemma 6.3.2. let (π, V ) be a finite-dimensional representation of a compact Lie

group G. Then it can be made unitary, i.e. we can put an inner product on V which
makes π unitary.
Proof. This is the usual “averaging trick.” Let (·, ·)0 be an arbitrary inner product
and define Z
(u, v) = (π(g)u, π(g)v)0 dg.
G
Corollary 6.3.3. Finite dimensional representations of compact groups are com-

pletely reducible.
Proof. This is the usual argument: if there is an irreducible subspace, then the
orthogonal complement is irreducible, etc.
Henceforth, we consider only representations over C; this can be used to deduce

the desired results for R.
Lemma 6.3.4 (Schur). Let (π1 , V1 ) and (π2 , V2 ) be finite-dimensional, irreducible

representations. Let T : V1 → V2 be a G-invariant linear map. Then
T
(a) T = 0 unless (π1 , V1 ) ' (π2 , V2 ), and
60
Math 222 6.3. SCHUR ORTHOGONALITY RELATIONS
(b) if (π1 , V1 ) = (π2 , V2 ), then T is a multiple of the identity.
Proof. ker T and Im T are invariant subspace, hence either 0 or the whole space,
which implies (a). If (π1 , V1 ) = (π2 , V2 ), then every eigenspace for T is G-invariant,
which implies (b).
Remark 6.3.5. We used algebraic closedness of C to deduce that T has an eigenvalue.
This certainly fails if the ground field is not algebraically closed.
Corollary 6.3.6. With (π1 , V1 ) = (π2 , V2 ) as before, let h : V1 × V2 → C be a

Hermitian pairing. Then
(a) h = 0 unless (π1 , V1 ) ' (π2 , V2 ).
(b) If (π1 , V1 ) = (π2 , V2 ), then h is a real multiple of a G-invariant inner product.
Proof. Let (·, ·) be a G-invariant (hermitian) inner product on V1 . Then (·, ·) defines
a G-invariant conjugate-linear isomorphism V1 ' V1∗ . Similarly, h defines a G-
invariant conjugate-linear map V2 → V1∗ . Then the second linear map composed
with the inverse of the first defines a G-invariant C-linear map V2 → V1 , which by
Schur’s Lemma is either 0 or an isomorphism, in which case it must be multiplication
by a constant, which must be real because h is Hermitian.
Corollary 6.3.7. If (π, V ) is a finite-dimensional irreducible representation, then

there exists only one G-invariant product, up to scaling.
Now suppose (π, V ) is a finite-dimensional irreducible representation with (·, ·) a

G-invariant inner product. An inner product on V determines an inner product on
V ∗ , by declaring the dual basis to an orthonormal basis of V to be an orthonormal
basis of V ∗ . It is left as an exercise to show that this doesn’t depend on the choice of
orthonormal basis for V . The inner product on V ∗ induced in this way is G-invariant
by construction. The two inner products scale inverse proportionally, so there exists
a distinguished inner product on V ⊗ V ∗ , which will clearly be G-invariant, which
is invariant under scaling the inner product on V .
We have V ⊗ V ∗ ' End(V ), defined by sending u ⊗ u∗ 7→ Tu⊗u∗ , where
Tu⊗u∗ (v) = hu∗ , viu.
Of course, one has to ensure that this is well-defined; this follows from observing
that this map is bilinear in u and u∗ . So we can and shall describe the distinguished
inner product on End(V ), rather than V ⊗V ∗ . Under these identifications, we define
the Hilbert-Schmidt inner product
(T1 , T2 )HS = tr(T2∗ T1 ).
61
In particular, (T, T )HS is the sum of the squares of the absolute values of the matrix
entries of T .
Let Gb be the set of isomorphism classes of finite-dimensional, irreducible, unitary
representations of G. (Note that the qualifier “unitary,” is somewhat extraneous,
since we can make any irreducible representation unitary in a unique way up to scal-
ing. It is much less trivial that irreducible and unitary imply finite-dimensionality,
and this depends on compactness of G). For each i ∈ G, b choose a concrete repre-
sentative (πi , V ).
Choose an inner product which rescales the canonical Hilbert-Schmidt inner
product on V ⊗ V ∗ by dim1 V , so that
1
(1V , 1V ) = (1V , 1V )HS = 1.
dim V
Define Φi : Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → C(G) by
Φi (v ⊗ v ∗ )(g) = hv ∗ , πi (g −1 )vi
Note that Φi is G × G-invariant with respect to πi ⊗ πi∗ on Vi ⊗ Vi∗ and ` × r on

C(G) because
(`(g1 )r(g2 )Φ(v ⊗ v ∗ ))(g) = Φ(v ⊗ v ∗ )(g1−1 gg2 )

= hv ∗ , πi (g2−1 g −1 g1 )vi
= hv ∗ , πi (g2 )−1 πi (g −1 )πi (g1 )vi
= hπi∗ (g2 )v ∗ , πi (g −1 )πi (g1 )vi
= Φi ((πi (g1 ) ⊗ πi∗ (g2 ))(v ⊗ v ∗ ))(g)
Proposition 6.3.8 (Schur orthogonality relations). Keeping the notation above,
(i) Im Φi ⊥ Im Φj in L2 (G) if i 6= j.
(ii) Φi : Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → C(G) → L2 (G) is an isometry.
Proof. Define S : V1 × V1∗ × V2 × V2∗ → C by
S(v1 , v1∗ , v2 , v2∗ ) = (Φi (v1 ⊗ v1∗ ), Φi (v2 ⊗ v2∗ ))L2 (G) .
Note that S is
• quadri-linear over R,
• C-linear in the first and last variables (basically because it is conjugated twice)
• conjugate-linear in the second and third variables,
• and G-invariant.
62
Math 222 6.4. THE PETER-WEYL THEOREM
Then for fixed v1∗ , v2∗ , this becomes a G-invariant Hermitian pairing from V1 ×
V2 → C. By the first corollary to Schur’s Lemma, this implies (i).
Now suppose that Vi = Vj (we’ve been operating under the notation i = 1, j = 2).
Then
S(v1 , v1∗ , v2 , v2∗ ) = h(v2∗ , v1∗ )(v1 , v2 ).
where h : Vi∗ × Vi∗ → C is a Hermitian pairing, hence some (real) constant multiple
of any one. But then h(v2∗ , v1∗ ) = λ(v2∗ , v1∗ )Vi∗ for some λ ∈ R. We must show that
λ = dim1 Vi . The point is that we want to show that S is the product of the inner
products on Vi and Vi∗ , which is the Hilbert-Schmidt inner product.
To establish this, choose an orthonormal basis {vα } of Vi and the dual basis {vβ∗ }
of Vi∗ . Then {vα ⊗ vβ∗ } is an orthonormal basis for (·, ·)HS on Vi ⊗ Vi∗ . Note that as
linear functions on Vi ,
v 7→ hvβ∗ , vi
coincides with v 7→ (v, vβ ), by definition of the dual basis. Now we calculate
X XZ
(Φi (vα ⊗ vβ∗ ), Φi (vα ⊗ vβ∗ ))L2 (G) = hvβ∗ , πi (g −1 )vα ihvβ∗ , πi (g −1 )vα i dg
α,β α,β G
XZ
= (πi (g −1 )vα , vβ )(vβ , πi (g −1 )vα ) dg
α,β G
XZ
= (πi (g −1 )vα , πi (g −1 )vα ) dg
α G
= dim V
On the other hand, the left hand side is

X
λ(vα , vα∗ )(vβ , vβ∗ ) = λ(dim V )2 .
α,β
1
This shows that λ = dim V .
6.4 The Peter-Weyl Theorem

We just saw that M M
Φi : Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → L2 (G)
i∈G
b i∈G
b
is a G × G-invariant (with respect to πi ⊗ πi∗ and ` × r) isometry (with respect to the

renormalized inner products on the Vi ⊗ Vi∗ ). Hence we can take the completion:
[
M M
Φ= Φi : Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → L2 (G).
d
i∈G
b
i∈G
b
63
Theorem 6.4.1 (Peter-Weyl). This is a Hilbert space isomorphism of unitary G×G

representations:
M
L2 (G) ' V ⊗ Vi∗
d
b i i∈G
Example 6.4.2. When G is compact and abelian, its irreducible representations are
all one-dimensional. Then
b ' Hom(G, C∗ ).
G
Then the Peter-Weyl Theorem tells us that
M
L2 (G) '
d
Cχi
χi ∈Hom(G,C∗ )
For i ∈ G,
b we had defined
Φi : Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → C(G) ⊂ L2 (G)
and taking the completion,
b = [Φi : [Vi ⊗ Vi∗ → L2 (G).

M M
Φ
i∈G
b i∈G
b
By Schur orthogonality, this is a G × G-invariant isometry. In fact, the Peter-Weyl

theorem asserts that it is an isomorphism.
Proof. We only need to show that A = Φ( i∈Gb Vi ⊗ Vi∗ ) is dense in L2 (G), or even
L
dense in C(G) in the sup norm (since C(G) is dense in L2 (G)).

Observe that Im Φi ⊂ C(G) is the the linear span of matrix coefficients of πi∗ (g),
or equivalently the linear span of matrix coefficients of πi (g −1 ), or equivalently the
linear span of the complex conjugates of πi (g). Why? Let {vα } be an orthonormal
basis of Vi and {vβ∗ } be the dual basis. Then im Φi is the linear span of
g 7→ hvβ∗ , πi (g −1 )vα i = hπi∗ (g)vβ∗ , vα i

= (πi (g −1 )vα , vβ )
= (vα , πi (g)vβ )
= (πi (g)vβ , vα ).
(The h·, ·i is the dual pairing and (·, ·) is the inner product on V .)
Definition 6.4.3. Suppose (π, V ) is an infinite-dimensional representation. A vector
v ∈ V is said to be G-finite if it is contained in a finite dimensional G-invariant
subspace.
Proposition 6.4.4. For f ∈ L2 (G), the following are equivalent.
(a) f ∈ A,
64
(b) f is G × G-finite with respect to ` × r,
(c) f is G-finite with respect to `,
(d) f is G-finite with respect to r,
(e) f is a linear combination of matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional represen-

tations.
Proof. (a) =⇒ (b): By definition, the image of Vi ⊗ Vi∗ under Φ is G × G-invariant,

hence if f ∈ A then f is a finite linear combination of G × G-invariant finite-
dimensional subspaces, hence is G × G invariant.
Clearly (b) implies (c) and (d).
(e) =⇒ (a): since finite-dimensional representations are completely reducible,
and the matrix coefficients of a direct sum are sums of matrix coefficients, f is a linear
combination of matrix coefficients of irreducible finite-dimensional representations.
The remaining directions are (c) implies (e) and (d) implies (e), which are es-
sentially similar.
We now set up more preliminaries for the proof. Let (π, V ) be a representation
of G on a Hilbert or Banach space. Then for ϕ ∈ C(G), define π(ϕ) ∈ End(V ) by
Z
π(ϕ)v = ϕ(g)π(g)v dg,
G
noting that ϕ(g)π(g) is a continuous V -valued function. This is bounded because

π : G × V → V is continuous and G is compact, hence sup ||π|| < ∞. So
||π(ϕ)|| ≤ sup |ϕ(g)| sup ||π(g)||.
Now apply this for (π, V ) = (`, L2 (G)). Then

Z
`(ϕ)f = ϕ(g)`(g)f dg ϕ ∈ C(G), f ∈ L2 (G)
G
so Z
(`(ϕ)f )(g) = ϕ(h)f (h−1 g) dh.
G
Notation. Denote by ϕ ∗ f the function whose value at g is

Z Z
−1
ϕ(h)f (h g) dh = ϕ(gh)f (h−1 )dh.
G G
This is called convolution (notice the similarity to the Fourier transform!). Note
65
that
Z
(r(ϕ)f )(g) = ϕ(h)r(h)f dh (g)
G
Z
= ϕ(h)f (gh) dh
ZG
= f (gh)ϕ̌(h−1 ) dh
G
= (f ∗ ϕ̌)(g).
where ϕ̌(g) = ϕ(g −1 ). Then

Z
ϕ ∗ f (g) − ϕ ∗ f (g1 ) = (ϕ(gh) − ϕ(g1 h))f (h−1 ) dh.
G
We conclude that
1. |ϕ ∗ f | ≤ sup |ϕ(g)| · ||f ||2 .
2. ϕ ∗ f is continuous for ϕ ∈ C(G) and f ∈ L2 (G).
3. sup |ϕ ∗ f (g)| ≤ sup |ϕ| · ||f ||2 .
4. The “modulus of continuity” of ϕ ∗ f depends only on ϕ and ||f ||2 .
Why? (1) is clear. (2) For g close to g1 , ϕ(gh) − ϕ(g1 h) is small; but since G is
compact, this can be made uniformly small. (3) is also clear from the formula, and
(4) is similar to (2). (Note that this is true even for the L1 norm on f )
Of course, all of this holds equally well for f ∗ ϕ.
Now we can finally prove that (c) =⇒ (e). Let V ⊂ L2 (G) be a finite-
dimensional `(G)-invariant subspace. We want to show that V is the linear span of
matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional representations. Without loss of generality,
we may suppose that V is `(G)-irreducible. Suppose f ∈ V , and let {fk } be an
orthonormal basis for V and {fk∗ } the dual basis.
X
`(g −1 )f = (`(g −1 )f, fi )fi
i
X
= (f, fj )(`(g −1 )fj , fi )fi
i,j
X
= (f, fj )hfi∗ , `(g −1 )fj ifi
i,j
X
= (f, fj ) h`(g)∗ fi∗ , fj i fi
| {z }
i,j
matrix coeff of (`∗ , V ∗ )
66
We claim that V ⊂ C(G). Assuming this for the moment, we may evaluate the
preceding identity at e to find that
X
f (g) = (f, fj )fi (e)h. . .i.
i,j
This expresses f as a finite linear combination of matrix coefficients, as desired.

Now it suffices to prove the claim. The actions ` and r commute, so if ϕ ∈ C(G),
then
r(ϕ)V ⊂ V.
So r(ϕ)V is `(G)-invariant and consists of continuous functions (a convolution with
continuous functions is coninuous). If the claim were false, we would have to con-
clude (by irreducibility) that for every ϕ ∈ C(G) and every r(ϕ)f = f ∗ ϕ̌ ≡ 0.
But Z
r(ϕ)f (e) = f (h)ϕ(h−1 ) dh = (f, ϕ̌)
so V ⊥ {ϕ̌ | ϕ ∈ C(G)} = C(G). But C(G) is dense in L2 , which is a contradiction.
Now to prove the Peter-Weyl theorem, it suffices to show that A is dense in

C(G), because C(G) is dense in L2 (G). Because of the proposition, it suffices to
show that the linear span of finite dimensional `-invariant subspaces of L2 (G) is
dense in C(G).
Lemma 6.4.5. For ϕ ∈ C(G), r(ϕ) ∈ End(L2 (G)) is a compact operator, i.e. the
r(ϕ) image of any bounded set has compact closure in L2 (G). Furthermore, if ϕ̌ = ϕ,
then r(ϕ) is self-adjoint, i.e.
(r(ϕ)f1 , f2 ) = (f1 , r(ϕ)f2 ).
Proof. Suppose F ⊂ L2 (G) is a bounded set. Then we know that the set of functions
{r(ϕ)f | f ∈ F }
lies in C(G), is bounded, and is equicontinuous. By Ascoli’s theorem, this set has a
compact closure in C(G). Since C(G) is dense in L2 (G), it has compact closure in
L2 (G).
For f1 , f2 ∈ L2 (G) and ϕ ∈ C(G),
Z
(r(ϕ)f1 , f2 ) = f1 (gh)f2 (g)ϕ(h) dg dh
G×G
Z
= f1 (g)f2 (gh−1 )ϕ(h) dgdh
G×G
Z
= f1 (g)f2 (gh)ϕ̌(h−1 ) dgdh
G×G
= (f1 , r(ϕ̌)f2 )
67
Now suppose ϕ ∈ C(G) is real-valued and ϕ = ϕ̌. Then r(ϕ) is compact and
self-adjoint. By the spectral theorem for such operators, the eigenvalues of r(ϕ)
are real and discrete except at 0 (i.e. if λn is a convergent sequence of distinct
eigenvalues, then λn → 0). Moreover, the eigenspaces corresponding to non-zero
eigenvalues are finite-dimensional.
What do we know about Im r(ϕ)? We claim that Im r(ϕ)∩A is dense in Im r(ϕ),
because Im r(ϕ) ∩ {0 − eigenspace}⊥ is dense in Im r(ϕ). Indeed, the eigenspaces
are `-invariant (because left and right translation commute), and finite-dimensional,
hence lie in A.
Now let ϕn run
R through an approximate identity satisfying ϕˇn = ϕn for all n,
i.e. ϕn ≥ 0 and G ϕn (g) dg = 1 and such that supp ϕn ↓ {e}. (If G doesn’t satisfy
first countability, we need to use a net instead of a sequence). For any f ∈ C(G),
r(ϕn )f → f
(this is the point of “approximate identity.”)

The conclusion is that any f ∈ L2 (G) can be approximated arbitrarily well by
r(ϕn )Fe with Fe ∈ C(G), therefore arbitrarily well by r(ϕn )fe, fe ∈ L2 (G), hence by
fe ∈ A.
68
Chapter 7
Compact Lie groups
7.1 Compact tori

Suppose T is a connected, compact, abelian Lie group. By Campbell-Baker-Hausdorff,
the map
exp : t → T
is a homomorphism of Lie groups. Let L ⊂ t be the kernel. We know:
1. L ⊂ t is closed and discrete,
2. t/L is compact,
It is a fact from algebra that any finitely generated, torsion-free Z-module is free,
so L ⊂ t is a lattice, i.e. the Z-linear span of an R-basis.
We quickly sketch the proof. Let {v1 , . . . , vr } ⊂ L be a maximal R-independent
subset and L0 be the Z-linear span of {v1 , . . . , vr }. Then R ⊗Z L0 /L0 ' Rr /Zr , and
hence has a compact fundamental domain. By (i), {v1 , . . . , vr } must be maximal
among any Z-linearly independent subsets, since the multiples of any other element
would otherwise have an accumulation within the fundamental domain, and L/L0
must be finite or else it would again have an accumulation point in the fundamental
domain. Therefore, L has a Z-basis and (ii) compactness of t/L implies that the
Z-basis is an R-basis.
The conclusion is that T ' Rn /Zn ' (R/Z)n is a torus.
By Schur’s Lemma, all irreducible finite-dimensional representations of T are
one-dimensional. Therefore,
Tb = Hom(T, C∗ ) = Hom(T, S 1 )
(since T is compact, its image is compact). This is called the character group.
Remark 7.1.1. In the context of abelian groups, “character” normally means “ho-
momorphism to C∗ ” as equivalently “one-dimensional representation.” This is not
so for non-abelian groups, as will be explored in the homework exercises.
69
Math 222 CHAPTER 7. COMPACT LIE GROUPS
7.2 Weight decomposition

Let (π, V ) be a finite-dimensional representation of T . Then by complete reducibil-
ity, π is a direct sum of one-dimensional representations. We know T ' t/L, so we
can lift π : T → S 1 to a homomorphism t → S 1 , which must be purely imaginary in
order to take values in S 1 . That implies that
Tb ' Λ = {λ ∈ it∗ | hλ, Li ⊂ 2πiZ}.
This identification sends λ to eλ , where
eλ (exp X) = ehλ,Xi .
By complete reducibility, we have a decomposition

M
V = Vλ
λ∈Λ
where
V λ = {v ∈ V | π(t)v = eλ (t)v for all t ∈ T }

= {v ∈ V | π∗ (X)v = hλ, Xiv for all X ∈ t}.
We say that
• λ is a weight of π if V λ 6= 0, and
• dim V λ is the multiplicity of the weight, and
• V λ is the λ-weight space.
Observation: if (π1 , V1 ) and (π2 , V2 ) are two finite-dimensional representations of T

and λ ∈ Λ, then
(V1 ⊕ V2 )λ = V1λ ⊕ V2λ
and
V1µ ⊗ V2λ−µ
M
(V1 ⊗ V2 )λ =
µ∈Λ
and
(V1∗ )λ = (V1−λ )∗ .
Proposition 7.2.1. Suppose that G is a connected, compact Lie group and T ⊂ G

is a connected Lie subgroup with Lie algebra t. Then the following are equivalent:
1. T is a torus, and is maximal among tori in G,
2. T is abelian, and is maximal among connected abelian Lie subgroups,
70
Math 222 7.2. WEIGHT DECOMPOSITION
3. t is abelian, and is maximal among abelian subalgebras.

Proof. (1) =⇒ (2). Suppose T is a maximal torus and A is connected and abelian,
T ⊂ A. Then the closure of A is abelian, closed (hence compact), and connected,
therefore a torus. By maximality, A = T .
(2) is equivalent to (3) because of the connection between connected Lie sub-
groups and Lie subalgebras, and abelian Lie groups and abelian Lie algebras.
It is clear that (2) implies (1).
In particular, if G 6= {e}, then G must contain a maximal torus T of positive

dimension.
Our general strategy for analyzing Lie groups is to understand the maximal
torus. Being abelian, they are easy to understand, and they turn out to be quite
large in G.
Consider a particular compact, connected Lie group G. Fix T ⊂ G a maximal
torus. We shall see later that T is unique up to conjugacy. We note a systematic
change of notation: for any Lie groups G, H, . . . we shall denote by gR , hR the Lie
algebras of G, H, . . . and g = C ⊗R gR , h = C ⊗R hR , i.e. the complexifications.
Let T ' tR /L,
Tb = Λ = {λ ∈ it∗R | hλ, Li ⊂ 2πiZ}.
L is called the “unit lattice” and Λ the “weight lattice.” Moreover,T acts on g Ad .
Definition 7.2.2. A root of (g, t) is a non-zero weight of T acting on g.
Let Φ ⊂ Λ − {0} be the set of roots (it is finite). We write Φ = Φ(g, t) when
there is any ambiguity.
Proposition 7.2.3. With the notation above,
!
M
g=t⊕ gα .
α∈Φ
Proof. We know that g = g0 ⊕ α 0

L
α∈Φ g . Clearly t ⊂ g because T is abelian,
∗
hence acts trivially on its own Lie algebra. Since Λ ⊂ itR ,
gα = g−α ,
and in particular g0 = g0 (complex conjugation with respect to gR ⊂ g). Hence if

t 6= g0 , there must exist X ∈ g0 ∩gR not in tR . Then tR ⊕RX is abelian, contradicting
maximality.
Corollary 7.2.4. gα = g−α and Φ = −Φ.

We shall say that g α is the α-root space.
Remark 7.2.5. We shall not talk about the “multiplicity of a root” because we shall
see later that gα = 1 for all α ∈ Φ.
71
Let (π, V ) be a finite-dimensional representation of G. Then, when we consider

the action of T on V ,
M
V = V µ.
µ∈Λ
Observe that the action map g × V → V is G-invariant (with respect to Ad × π on

the left and π on the right). Hence, if α ∈ Φ is a weight, then
(
α ⊂ V µ+α
µ µ + α a weight
π∗ (g )V
=0 otherwise
Proposition 7.2.6. Suppose α, β ∈ Φ. Then


α+β
⊂ g
 α+β ∈Φ
α β
[g , g ] ⊂ t α+β =0 .

0 otherwise

Proof. This follows from the Jacobi identity:
[t, [gα , gβ ]] + [gα , [gβ , t]] + [gβ , [t, gα ]] = 0.
Definition 7.2.7. We define W = NG (T )/T to be the Weyl group.

We will use W = W (G, T ) when there is any ambiguity. This is a finite group,
which acts via conjugation and Ad on T, tR , t, L, Λ, Φ. Why finite? Note that NG (T )
acts continuously on L, which is discrete, so NG (T )0 acts trivially. Therefore,
NG (T )0 ⊂ Z(T )0 = T because T is maximal among connected abelian subgroups.
So
W = NG (T )/T = NG (T )/NG (T )0
is 0-dimensional and compact, hence finite.
7.3 The maximal torus

Lemma 7.3.1. Suppose A is a compact abelian Lie group such that A/A0 is cyclic
(A0 is a torus). Then A is “singly topologically generated”, i.e. there exists a ∈ A
such that
{an | n ∈ Z}
is dense in A.
72
Math 222 7.3. THE MAXIMAL TORUS
Proof. We know A0 ' Rn /Zn . Let
p : Rn → Rn /Zn = A0
be the projection, {Uk | k ∈ N} a countable neighborhood base for A0 . We claim

that there exists a sequence
Q0 ⊃ Q1 ⊃ Q2 ⊃ . . .
of compact n-dimensional rectangles with non-empty interior and integers mk , k ≥ 0

such that
p(mk Qk ) ⊂ Uk .
T
Suppose this for the moment. Then by compactness, there exists a0 ∈ p(Qk ). For
each k, am
0 ∈ Uk , so the cyclic group generated by a0 meets every Uk so its closure
k
is A0 .
Choose a generator for A/A0 , a1 ∈ A, and we may assume that am 0
1 ∈ A for
m −1 m
some m > 0. Then a1 a0 ∈ A0 = A0 . So
a0 = am m
1 a2 a 2 ∈ A0 ,
and we may replace a1 by a1 a2 and thereby arrange that am 1 = a0 . Then a1 is a

topological generator for A, since it generates a0 and meets every connected com-
ponent.
It only remains to prove the claim. We proceed by induction. Choose Q0 ⊂ [0, 1]n
so that p(Q0 ) ⊂ U0 and set m0 = 1. For the inductive step, suppose Q0 , . . . , Qk−1
and m0 , . . . , mk−1 have been so chosen. There exists mk ∈ Z and ` ∈ Zn such that
mk Qk−1 + ` ⊃ [0, 1]n .
Then we can choose Qk as required so that its projection lies inside Uk .
Let G be a connected compact Lie group, T ⊂ G the maximal torus. We know

that
TeT (G/T ) ' gR /tR
We saw that M
g't⊕ gα ,
α∈Φ
and gα = g−α ,so dimC g/t is even (the representations come in pairs!). We conclude
that G/T is a connected, compact, even dimensional manifold. We claim that it
is also orientable. Why? We can choose an orientation at the identity coset and
propagate it around using the action of G. However, there is an ambiguity which
comes from the action of T itself on G/T ; since T is connected and this is orientation-
preserving at e, it must be so everywhere.
73
Suppose g ∈ G. We get an action
`(g) : G/T → G/T
Observe that `(g) has a fixed point if and only if g is conjugate to an element of T .
This is just algebra:
`(g)g1 T = g1 T ⇐⇒ gg1 T = g1 T ⇐⇒ gg1 ∈ g1 T ⇐⇒ g ∈ g1 T g1−1 .
To prove the existence of fixed points, one can use the Lefschetz fixed point formula.
Lefschetz fixed point formula. Suppose X is an oriented, connected, compact

manifold and F : X → X is a smooth map. The Lefschetz number of F is defined
to be
dim
XX
L(F ) = tr (F ∗ : H p (X, R) → H p (X, R)).
p=0
This is a homotopy invariant and L(1χ ) = χ(X).
Theorem 7.3.2 (Lefschetz). Suppose F has only isolated many fixed points. Then
one can attach integers nj to each xj , namely the intersection number of the graph
of F with the diagonal in X × X at (xj , xj ) such that
X
L(F ) = nj .
The intersection numbers are defined as follows: near each intersection, the mani-
folds can be deformed to be transverse. Then the intersection number is just defined
to be ±1 according to the orientations.
If the intersection is already known to be transverse,
det(1 − F∗ ) : Txj X → Txj X
is non-zero, and nj = sign det(1 − F∗ ). If F has no fixed points, then the Lefschetz
number is 0.
Theorem 7.3.3. For every g ∈ G,
`g : G/T → G/T
has a fixed point. Moreover, L(`(g)) = #W .
Corollary 7.3.4. We have the following.
1. Every conjugacy class meets T , i.e. every g ∈ G is conjugate to some t ∈ T .
2. Any two maximal tori are conjugate.
74
Math 222 7.3. THE MAXIMAL TORUS
3. exp : gR → G is surjective.
4. Let S ⊂ G be a torus, g ∈ ZG (S). Then there exists a maximal torus in G

which contains both S and g.
5. With S as before, ZG (S) is connected, and is the union of the maximal tori
which contain S.
6. Every maximal torus is maximal among abelian subgroups of G (but not every
maximal abelian subgroup is a torus).
Proof. (1) Follows from the observation that g is conjugate to an element of T if

and only if `g has a fixed point.
(2) Follows from the existence of a topological generator in tori. A topological
generator for T1 is conjugate to an element of T , which must be a topological
generator.
(3) This follows from (1), the map Ad, and the corresponding statement for tori.
(4) Let Se be the smallest closed Lie subgroup of G containing S and g. Then Se
is abelian, since the smallest group containing S and g is abelian, hence its closure
is as well. Then Se0 is a torus and S/ e Se0 is generated by g. Se has a topological
generator by the lemma proved last time. By (1), it is conjugate to an element of a
maximal torus.
(5) Clear from (4).
Proof of Theorem 7.3.3. The fact that G is connected implies that L(`(g)) is inde-
pendent of the choice of g, and therefore must equal L(1G/T ) = χ(G/T ), which is
non-zero. Therefore, it suffices to find some g ∈ G such that
L(`(g)) = #W.
Fix a topological generator t0 ∈ T . Then gT ∈ G0 /T is a fixed point of `(t0 ), if and

only if t0 ∈ gT g −1 ⇐⇒ T = gT g −1 ⇐⇒ g ∈ NG (T ). So
W = NG (T )/NG (T )0 = NG (T )/T ⊂ G/T
is the set of fixed points of `(t0 ).

However, we are not done yet because we must check that the local multiplicities
are 1. Recall that in the case of a transverse intersections, these should be sign(1 −
det Ad t0 ).
Observe that W = NG (T )/T acts on G/T by right translation: for u ∈ NG (T ),
r(u)gT = gT u−1 = gu−1 uT u−1 = gu−1 T.
75
This action commutes with left translation, in particular with `(t0 ). So we have the
commutative diagram
`(t0 )∗
TuT G/T / TuT G/T
r(u)∗ r(u)∗
`(t0 )∗
TeT G/T / TeT G/T
So all the local Lefschetz numbers of `(t0 ) agree. At the identity coset,
M
TeT G/T ' g/t ' gα .
α∈Φ
By naturality, `(t0 )∗ corresponds to Ad(t0 ) because `(t0 )gT = t0 gT = t0 gt−1

0 T , so
if g = exp X then we have
`(t0 )(exp X)T = exp(Ad(t0 )X)T.
Then Y
det(1 − Ad(t0 )) : g/t → g/t = (1 − eα (t0 ))dim gα .
α∈Φ
We shall soon see that dim gα = 1, but it is not necessary right now. Since things
occur in complex conjugates, this is
Y
|1 − eα (t0 )|dim gα
α∈Φ
Ifeα (t
0 ) = 1, then t0 ∈ ker eα hence cannot generate T , so each term in the product
above is 1.
7.4 Trace forms

Let G be a connected compact Lie group, T a maximal torus. We now know that
T is unique up to conjugacy.
Definition 7.4.1. A symmetric bilinear form B : g × g → C is called Ad-invariant if
B(Ad(g)X, Ad(g)Y ) = B(X, Y )
for all g ∈ G, X, Y ∈ g. On the infinitesimal level (i.e. set g = exp tZ and

differentiate), this says
B([Z, X], Y ) + B(X, [Z, Y ]) = 0.
Since G is connected, the infinitesimal statement implies the global statement, and
the converse is obvious.
76
Math 222 7.4. TRACE FORMS
Let (π, V ) be a finite dimensional representation of G. Define
Bπ : g × g → C
Bπ (X, Y ) = tr π∗ (X)π∗ (Y )
(first for X, Y ∈ gR , then complexify).
Lemma 7.4.2. Bπ is symmetric, bilinear, Ad-invariant, and defined over R (i.e.

real if X, Y are real), negative semi-definite, and the radical of Bπ = ker π∗ (the
radical being the set of x such that B(x, −) = 0).
Proof. Symmetric and bilinear are obvious. Suppose X, Y ∈ gR and g ∈ G. Then
Bπ (Ad(g)X, Ad(g)Y ) = tr π∗ (Ad(g)X)π∗ (Ad(g)Y )

= tr π(g)π∗ (X)π(g −1 )π(g)π∗ (Y )π(g −1 )
= tr π∗ (X)π∗ (Y ).
This shows Ad-invariance. Now suppose X ∈ gR . Then, up to conjugacy, X ∈ tR .

The weight space decomposition diagonalizes the action of the maximal torus. So
X
Bπ (X, X) = tr π∗ (X)2 = hµ, Xi2 dim V µ
µ∈Λ
But we know that X ∈ tR and µ ∈ it∗R , so hµ, xi ∈ iR. Hence Bπ(X,X) < 0 unless
hµ, Xi = 0 for all weights µ of π i.e. unless π∗ (X) = 0. So the radical of Bπ is the
(complexification of the) kernel of π∗ : gR → End(V ), in other words the kernel of
π∗ : g → End(V ).
Finally, note that it takes real values on gR by polarization.
Bπ is called the trace form of π. If π = Ad, it is the Killing form. Note that
\
ker πi = {e}
i∈G
b
by Peter-Weyl. Therefore, on the infinitesimal level,

\
ker πi∗ = {0}.
i∈G
b
Therefore, there exists a finite-dimensional representation (π, V ) such that ker π∗ =

{0}. In other words, there exists a finite-dimensional (π, V ) such that G acts faith-
fully. Fix B = Bπ for some such (π, V ). We know that B is symmetric, bilinear,
defined over R, Ad-invariant, and negative definite on igR . In particular, B induces
a positive definite inner product (, )∗ on itR , and by duality on it∗R ⊃ Λ ⊃ Φ. This
inner product is W -invariant.
77
7.5 Representations of SU (2)

As usual, let G be a connected, compact Lie group and T ⊂ G a maximal torus.
Definition 7.5.1. Suppose (π, V ) is a finite-dimensional representation of G. Then
the character of π is
χπ (g) = tr π(g)
Note that χπ is conjugation-invariant, since the trace is invariant under conjugation.
The conjugates of T cover G, so π is determined up to isomorphism by χπ |T .
Let the weight space decomposition for V be
M
V = Vµ
µ∈Λ
Then χπ |T = µ dim V µ eµ . Hence the integers dim V µ , for µ ∈ Λ, determine π up

P
to isomorphism.
We now study in depth the following special case: G = SU (2), i.e. unitary 2 × 2
matrices of determinant 1.

α β 2 2
G= | |α| + |β| = 1 .
−β̄ ᾱ
This is described by two complex parameters and one real condition, hence dim G = 3.
What does this tell us about the maximal torus? It can’t have dimension 3, since
G is non-abelian. It can’t have dimension 2, because G/T has even dimension. It
has dimension at least 1, hence exactly 1. In fact, we have a representation

α 0
T = | |α| = 1 .
0 α−1
Topologically we have SU (2) ≈ S 3 so SU (2) is simply-connected. Any other Lie

group with the same Lie algebra would be covered by SU (2). The fundamental
group of such a space would be a discrete normal subgroup, hence contained in the
center of SU (2), which
onecan easily check is {±1}.
0 1
Note that n = normalizes T , so
−1 0
−1
0 1 α 0 0 −1 α 0
=
−1 0 0 α−1 1 0 0 α
Since n determines a nontrivial element of the Weyl group which acts faithfully on
tR ' R, we know that W = Z/2Z generated by Ad u.
For classical groups, g is the real Lie algebra. So

a b
su(2) = | b ∈ C, a ∈ iR .
−b̄ −a
78
Math 222 7.5. REPRESENTATIONS OF SU (2)
Hence the complexified Lie algebra consists of all 2 × 2 complex matrices of trace 0.
A basis for this is

1 0 0 1 0 0
H= , E+ = , E− = .
0 −1 0 0 1 0
Now, iH is “real” with respect to the structure of su(2). Let ¯ denote complex
conjugation with respect to su(2), so H̄ = −H, E¯+ = −E− . Finally,
[H, E+ ] = 2E+
[H, E− ] = −2E−
[E+ , E− ] = H.
Let
ix 0
tR = |x∈R
0 −ix
so
x 0
itR = = xH | x ∈ R ' R.
0 −x
Then the unit lattice (i.e. points whose exponential is trivial) is
L = {2πinH | n ∈ Z}
and Λ ⊂ it∗R ' R, so Λ ' Z ' Tb. Under this identification,

α 0 n
n 7→ 7→ α
0 α−1
When 1 ∈ Z ' Λ is evaluated on H, we get 1. Since H acts on E+ by 2 and E− by

−2, we see that the roots of su2 are
Φ(⊂ Λ ' Z) = {±2}.
(Recall that Φ was the set of weights for the representation of T on g.) The finite
dimensional representations of SU (2) are completely reducible. For any irreducible
representation (π, V ), we have a decomposition
M
V = V n,
n∈Z
as representations of T . From now on, we shall denote the action of X in the Lie
algebra on V not by π∗ (X), but simply by juxtaposition. Then for v ∈ V n , Hv = nv.
So
E+ V n ⊂ V n+2 E− V n ⊂ V n−2
79
Now let n be the “highest weight” of π. Pick vn ∈ V n non-zero, and define vn−2k =
k v . Then v n−2k . We have
E− n n−2k ∈ V
Hvn−2k = (n − 2k)vn−2k
E− vn−2k = vn−2k−2 .
What about E+ E− vn−2k ?

Lemma 7.5.2.
E+ vn−2k = k(n + 1 − k)vn−2k+2 .
Proof. Proceed by induction. We know that for k = 0, E+ vn ∈ V n+2 = 0. For the
induction step,
E+ vn−2(k+1) = E+ E− vn−2k
= (H + E− E+ )vn−2k
= (k(n + 1 − k) + (n − 2k))vn−2k
= (k + 1)(n − k)vn−2k
Hence the linear span of vn−2k is invariant under the action of su(2), hence
invariant under the action of SU (2). Dropping the 0 terms, we must get a basis for
V.
W acts on Λ, hence also on the weight space decomposition of any representation.
We saw that the generator flips the sign, so −n must be the lowest weight. The
conclusion is that
V has basis {vn−2k | 0 ≤ k ≤ n}.
We have already determined the action of the complexified Lie algebra of su(2).
Since SU (2) is simply connected, any finite-dimensional representation of the Lie
algebra lifts to SU (2).
Note that the raising/lifting identities also determine an irreducible representa-
tion of the Lie algebra. This proves:
Theorem 7.5.3. For each n ≥ 0, there exists an irreducible representation of SU (2)
of dimension n + 1, unique up to isomorphism. It has weights n, n − 2, . . . , −n.
Furthermore, E+ : V k → V k+2 is an isomorphism unless k = n, in which case it is
0; and E− : V k → Vk−2 is an isomorphism unless k = −n, in which case it is 0.
The representation on C2 is just the obvious action of SU (2) on C2 . What about
the three-dimensional representation? Representations are functorial; how can we
go functorially from C2 to C3 ?
The answer is by taking the symmetric square! In fact, the irreducible rep-
resentation of dimension n + 1 is the nth symmetric power of the 2-dimensional
representation.
80
Math 222 7.5. REPRESENTATIONS OF SU (2)
Corollary 7.5.4. Let (π, V ) be a finite-dimensional, possibly irreducible represen-

tation of SU (2). Then all weights are integral, and
1−1
E+ V −n −→ V −n+2 for n ≥ 1
1−1
E− V n −→ V n−2 for n ≥ 1.
For v0 ∈ V 0 , E+ v0 = 0 ⇐⇒ E− v0 = 0.
Proof. Decompose V into a direct sum of irreducibles and apply the results above.
81
82
Chapter 8
Root systems
8.1 Structure of roots

Let G be a connected, compact Lie group and T its maximal torus. We had con-
structed a bilinear form B : g × g → C which was symmetric, Ad-invariant, non-
degenerate, and negative definite on gR (it is the “trace form” associated to the
adjoint representation).
By restriction of B to itR plus duality, we get a positive definite inner product
(·, ·) on itR and on it∗R which are W -invariant.
Lemma 8.1.1. Suppose α, β ∈ Φ. Then
1. B(gα , gβ ) = 0 unless α + β = 0.
2. B(gα , t) = 0.
3. B : gα × g−α → C is non-degenerate.
e α ∈ itR such that for any Eα ∈ gα ,
4. There exists H
[Eα , E−α ] = B(Eα , E−α )H

eα
Proof. (1) B is Ad-invariant, but
B(Adg(gα ), Adg(gβ )) = eα+β B(gα , gβ ).
If α + β 6= 0, we must get 0.
(2) is clear since we must have α = 0, but g0 = t is abelian.
(1) and (2) and the non-degeneracy of B imply (3).
We know [gα , g−α ] ⊂ t. By non-degeneracy, [Eα , E−α ] is completely determined
by the action of B for H ∈ t,
B([Eα , E−α ], H) = B([H, Eα ], E−α ) = hα, HiB(Eα , E−α ).
83
Math 222 CHAPTER 8. ROOT SYSTEMS
So [Eα , E−α ] ∈ (α⊥ )⊥ , which is one-dimensional. Let’s clarify what we mean here.
The first ⊥ picks out the hyperplane in t on which α ∈ t∗ vanishes. The second ⊥ is
with respect to the inner product induced by B on t. Hence [Eα , E−α ] is completely
determined by B(Eα , E−α ).
Taking complex conjugates with respect to gR sends gα to g−α , hence we may

replace Eα by E−α , etc. to get
[E−α , Eα ] = B(Eα , E−α )H

eα.
That shows that H e α = −H e α ∈ itR is purely imaginary.

e α , i.e. H
Recall that B defined a negative-definite bilinear form on gR , hence an inner
product on igR . Define
2 e
Hα = Hα .
(α, α)
Choose Eα ∈ gα non-zero and define E−α = −E α . B is negative definite on gR so

B(X, X) < 0 for X ∈ g non-zero. Therefore, B(Eα , E−α ) > 0, and in particular Eα
spans the line in gα pairing non-degenerately with Eα .
Recale both Eα and E−α by the same positive factor so that
2
B(Eα , E−α ) = .
(α, α)
while preserving E−α = −E α . We have the relations
[Eα , E−α ] = B(Eα , E−α )H

eα.
[Hα , Eα ] = hα, Hα iEα
since Hα ∈ tR . We want to compute this quantity hα, Hα i, so pair with E−α .
hα, Hα iB(Eα , E−α ) = B([Hα , Eα ], E−α ) = B([Eα , E−α ], Hα )
Inserting the normalizations we made above, we conclude that

2
hα, Hα i = B(Hα , Hα )
(α, α)
α Hα 1
h , i = ||α|| · ||Hα ||.
||α|| ||Hα || 2
Hα
By construction, ||H α ||
is a unit vector in (α⊥ )⊥ (see above for a discussion of what
this means). Therefore, we must have
α Hα
h , i = ±1.
||α|| ||Hα ||
84
Math 222 8.1. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS
From the equation we see that the sign must be +1, so

1
1 = ||α||||Hα ||.
2
Therefore, we have
1
hα, Hα i = (||α||||Hα ||)2 = 2.
2
Summary. With our normalization, we have the relations
[Hα , Eα ] = 2Eα
[Hα , E−α ] = −2E−α
[Eα , E−α ] = Hα
and H α = −Hα , E α = −E−α .
Define ϕα : sl(2, C) → g by

1 0
7→ Hα
0 −1

0 1
7→ Eα
0 0

0 0
7→ E−α
1 0
Then by the data in the conclusion, ϕ is a Lie algebra homomorphism. By construc-

tion, for X ∈ sl(2, R) we have
ϕ(X) = ϕ(X),
where the complex conjugation is respect to su(2) and gR , respectively.
Let sα = ϕα (sl(2, C)). We shall see later that the dim gα = 1. Therefore,
sα = gα ⊕ g−α ⊕ [gα , g−α ]. This shows that everything depends only on α, not on
the particular choice of Eα , etc.
Now, SU (2) is simply connected with center {±1}. Therefore, ϕα lifts to a Lie
group homomorphism
fα : SU (2) → G
ϕ
Let Sα ⊂ G be the image. The kernel is a discrete central subgroup, hence a
subgroup of {±1}. Therefore, it must be the case that
Sα ' SU (2) or SU (2)/{±1}
Theorem 8.1.2. Let α, β ∈ Φ. Then
1. dim gα = 1, and
85
2. [gα , gβ ] = gα+β provided that α + β ∈ Φ.
3. The only roots proportional to α are ±α.
4. There exist integers p, q ∈ Z such that
{k ∈ Z | β + kα ∈ Φ ∪ {0}} = {k ∈ Z | p ≤ k ≤ q}.
(α,β)
Moreover, p + q = −2 (α,α) .
Proof. Let S be the set of integers k such that β + kα ∈ Φ ∪ {0}. Define

(
M CHα 0 = β + kα for some k ∈ S,
g(S) = gβ+kα ⊕ .
k∈S
0 otherwise
We claim that [sα , g(S)] ⊂ g(S). This is clear because bracketing any summand
above with Eα lands in another thing of this form, i.e. [Eα , gβ+kα ] ⊂ gβ+(k+1)α .
Via ϕα , we get a representation of sl(2, C) on g(S). What are the weights for this
representation?
(β, α) (β, α)
hkα, Hα i + hβ, Hα i = 2k + hα, Hα i = 2k + 2 .
(α, α) (α, α)
because Hα ∈ (α⊥ )⊥ . These must be integers by our classification of finite-dimensional

su2 -representations, so we must have
(β, α)
2 ∈ Z.
(α, α)

0 1
We know that in any finite dimensional representation of sl(2, C), maps
0 0
the weight spaces corresponding to to strictly negative weights injectively to the
subsequent weight space. Then
[Eα , g−α ] ⊂ CHα .
This is injective, hence dim g−α = 1.

The conclusion is that the weight spaces are one dimensional with all weights
having the same parity. Therefore, g(S) is irreducible under the action
of sα .

0 1
In an irreducible finite-dimensional representation of sl(2, C), maps the
0 0
n-weight space isomorphically to the n + 2 weight space unless one of two spaces is
zero. Therefore,
[Eα , gβ ] ' gβ+α
if β + α is a root (β is a root by assumption). This proves the second assertion.
86
Math 222 8.1. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS
Now suppose α, β = cα for c ∈ R are roots and β 6= ±α. Interchanging α and β

or negating α if necessary, we may assume that 0 < c < 1. From earlier, we know
that
(β, α) 1
2 ∈ Z =⇒ c = .
(α, α) 2
Now apply part (2) with α/2 in place of α and β:
[gα/2 , gα/2 ] = gα .
Since these are one-dimensional spaces,
[CEα/2 , CEα/2 ] = gα
but the left hand side of the equation is obviously 0. This establishes (3).
The set of weights of a finite dimensional representation of sl(2, C) is symmetric
about the origin, and is an uninterrupted string of integers of the same parity.
Therefore,
S = {p ≤ k ≤ q} for some p, q ∈ Z.
So it must be the case that

(β, α) (β, α)
2p + 2 = − 2q + 2
(α, α) (α, α)
so
(β, α)
−2 = p + q.
(α, α)
By definition of S, it contains 0, so p ≤ 0 ≤ q.
Corollary 8.1.3. Suppose α, β are roots and α 6= ±β.
1. If (α, β) > 0 then β − α ∈ Φ.
2. If (α, β) < 0 then β + α ∈ Φ.
3. If (α, β) = 0 then p + q = 0, so either α + β and α − β are both roots, or
neither is a root.
4. If α ± β ∈
/ Φ, then (α, β) = 0.
Suppose α, β are roots and α 6= ±β. If α ± β ∈
/ Φ, then one says that α, β are
“strongly orthogonal.” In this situation,
[sα , sβ ] = 0,
i.e. sα and sβ commute. In fact, this is an if and only if condition.
Suppose now that (π, V ) is an irreducible, finite-dimensional representation of
G. Suppose α ∈ Φ and λ is a weight of π. Define
S = {k ∈ Z | λ + kα is a weight.}
87
Corollary 8.1.4. In the notation above,
S = {k ∈ Z | p ≤ k ≤ q}
for some p + q ∈ Z, and

(λ, α)
p + q = −2 .
(α, α)
Proof. Let M
V (S) = V λ+kα .
k∈S
Then sα V (S) ⊂ V , and the rest of the proof goes through as before.
Corollary 8.1.5. In the notation above,
1. If (α, λ) > 0 so then λ − α ∈ Φ.
2. If (α, λ) < 0 then λ + α ∈ Φ.
3. If (α, λ) = 0 then p + q = 0, so either α + λ and α − λ are both roots, or neither

is a root.
In SU (2), consider

0 1
.
−1 0
We saw that this normalizes the diagonal maximal torus in SU (2) and acts on it by
sending −1
α 0 α 0
→
7 .
0 α−1 0 α
Now, t normalizes sα and T normalizes Sα , and
ker{eα : T → C∗ }
centralizes Sα . Define
0 1
nα := ϕ .
−1 0
−1
α 0
This normalizes T and inverts . On the level of Lie algebras, Ad nα is
0 α
the identity on {X ∈ t | hα, Xi = 0} and sends Hα to −Hα . Dually, on it∗R , Ad nα
is (orthogonal) reflection about α⊥ .
Definition 8.1.6. There exists an element sα ∈ W , with W viewed as a group acting
on it∗R , which is reflection about α (namely, sα = Ad nα ).
88
Math 222 8.2. WEYL CHAMBERS
8.2 Weyl Chambers

For each root α, we constructed a subgroup Sα ⊂ G with complexified Lie algebra
sα = gα ⊕ g−α ⊕ [gα , g−α ],
so Sα ' SU (2) or SU (2)/{±1}. Sα is normalized by T and commutes with
ker{eα : T → C∗ }.

0 1
We constructed sα ∈ W , sα = Ad nα the image of ∈ SU (2), such that sα
−1 0
is the reflection about α⊥ : for µ ∈ it∗R ,
(µ, α)
sα µ = µ − 2 α.
(α, α)
(µ,α)
We saw that 2 (α,α) α ∈ Z, and has significance concerning the roots of the form
µ + kα.
The point is that SU (2) commutes with ker eα . So sα fixes the kernel of eα and
acts as −1 on the other piece of t (or inversion on the other piece of T ).
Definition 8.2.1. An element H ∈ itR , respectively µ ∈ it∗R , is regular if hα, Hi 6= 0
(resp. (α, µ) 6= 0), for all α ∈ Φ.
The picture is that the regular set in itR (resp. it∗R ) is the complement of a finite
number of hyperplanes, which slice up the vector space into wedges.
Definition 8.2.2. An open Weyl chamber in itR (resp. it∗R ) is a connected component
of the regular set.
A Weyl chamber is the closure of an open Weyl chamber.
89
We can think of itR ' it∗R under the inner product, sending the regular sets to
each other. Therefore, the Weyl chambers in itR correspond bijectively to those in
it∗R via this isomorphism.
Choose a regular H0 ∈ itR and define
Φ+ = {α ∈ Φ | hα, H0 i > 0}.
Lemma 8.2.3. Keeping the notation above,
(i) Φ = Φ+ t Φ− .
(ii) For α, β ∈ Φ+ , if α + β ∈ Φ then α + β ∈ Φ+ .
(iii) Φ+ depends only on the Weyl Chamber in which H0 lies, not on the particular
choice of H0 .
(iv) The Weyl chamber C + in which H0 lies is characterized by
int(C + ) = {H ∈ itR | hα, Hi > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ }.
C + = {H ∈ itR | hα, Hi ≥ 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ }.
Proof. (i) and (ii) are obvious. For (iii), observe that if we can connected H0 to
some other regular H by a path in this regular set, then by the intermediate value
theorem
hα, H0 i > 0 ⇐⇒ hα, H1 i > 0.
Therefore,
int(C + ) ⊂ {H ∈ itR | hα, Hi > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ }.
/ int(C + ) such that
If the two sets were not equal, there would exist H1 ∈
hα, H1 i > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ .
By convexity, the entire line connecting H1 and H0 is in the regular set, furnishing
a contradiction. This proves (iv).
An obvious observation that we used in the proof is:
Corollary 8.2.4. The open Weyl chambers are convex.
Theorem 8.2.5. W is generated, as a group, by the sα for α ∈ Φ. Moreover, it

acts simply transitively on the set of Weyl chambers.
(Recall that a simply transitive action is one in which no element but the identity
fixes anything, i.e. the stabilizers are all trivial).
90
Proof. The Weyl group W acts on Φ, hence on the regular set, hence also on the
Weyl chambers. Also, sα ∈ W for every α ∈ Φ. Suppose C + and C1 are two Weyl
chambers with H0 ∈ int(C + ), and choose H1 ∈ int(C1 ).
Moving H1 slightly, we can arrange that the straight line segment ` from H0 to
H1 does not cross any intersection of two or more root hyperplanes (think about
the codimension).
Let N denote the number of hyperplanes α⊥ crossed by `, and let N (C + , C1 )

denote the minimum possible N over all possible choices of H0 , H1 . Then N (C + , C1 )
measures the “distance” between C + and C1 ; in particular, N (C + , C1 ) = 0 if and
only if C + = C1 .
Now choose H0 and H1 such that N = N (C1+ , C1 ). Replace H1 by a “new” H1
which is very close to one root hyperplane α⊥ but not comparably close to any other
(traverse the line ` from H0 to H1 , and choose the new H1 to be just after the last
crossing of a hyperplane).
Then sα H1 is regular (just the reflection of H1 across across the very close hyper-
plane α⊥ ) and lies in a different Weyl chamber, namely sα C1 . By construction,
91
N (C + , sα C1 ) < N (C + , C1 ). Repeating this argument, we find α1 , . . . , αn ∈ Φ such

that
N (C + , sα1 . . . sαn C1 ) = 0
i.e. C + = sα1 . . . sαn C1 . This shows that the subgroup of W generated by the sα
for α ∈ Φ acts transitively on the set of Weyl chambers.
To complete the proof, we must show that if w ∈ W and wC + = C + , then
w = e. Supposing that w fixes C + , choose H e 0 ∈ int(C + ). By convexity,
|W |
1 X ke
w H0 = H0 ∈ int(C + )
|W |
k=1
and wH0 = H0 . Choose n ∈ NG (T ) such that w = Ad n. Let S be the closure of

{exp(itH0 ) | t ∈ R} ⊂ T (since H0 ∈ itR ). Then S is connected, compact, abelian,
and contained in T , hence it is a torus. Also Ad n(H0 ) = H0 , therefore n ∈ ZG (S),
which is connected.
Since T ⊃ S the complexified Lie algebra z of ZG (S) contains t, hence has a
weight decomposition
M
t⊕( gα ) B ⊂ Φ.
α∈B
By construction, for each α ∈ B we must have eα = 1 on S, hence hα, H0 i = 0

(since ZG (S) = Zg (H0 ), but there are no such α since H0 is in the interior of a Weyl
chamber, so B = ∅. Therefore z = t, hence ZG (S)0 = T , and by connectedness
ZG (S) = T , so n ∈ T . Therefore, w = id.
With the original choices of H0 , Φ+ ,
int(C + ) = {H ∈ itR | hα, Hi > 0∀α ∈ Φ+ }.
Φ+ is a “system of positive roots” and C + is called the “dominant Weyl Chamber.”

Definition 8.2.6. α ∈ Φ+ is a simple root if α cannot be expressed as α = β + γ
with β, γ ∈ Φ+ .
Of course, this notion depends on the choice of dominant Weyl chamber C +
which was used to define Φ+ . Let Ψ ⊂ Φ+ denote the set of simple roots.
Theorem 8.2.7. Keeping the notation above,
(a) For α, β ∈ Ψ such that α 6= β, then (α, β) ≤ 0, and if equality holds then α
and β are strongly orthogonal (α ± β are both not roots).
(b) Ψ is a vector space basis of the R-linear span of Φ.
92
(c) If any α ∈ Φ is expressed as a linear combination of simple roots, then the

coefficients are integers, either all nonnegative (in which case α ∈ Φ+ ) or all
nonpositive (in which case α ∈ Φ− ).
(d) Every α ∈ Φ is W -conjugate to a simple root.
(e) W is generated by sα with α ∈ Ψ.
Proof. (a) Suppose α, β ∈ Ψ are distinct simple roots with (α, β) > 0. From the
discussion last time, we know that β − α ∈ Φ. Interchange the roles of α and β if
necessary so that α − β = γ ∈ Φ+ . Then α = β + γ, which is a contradiction.
In particular, this argument shows that α − β ∈/ Φ. Therefore, if (α, β) = 0 then
they must be strongly orthogonal (again, look at the corollary from last time: for
orthogonal roots, either both their sum and difference are roots or neither is).
(b),(c) Now suppose that α ∈ Φ+ . If α ∈ / Ψ, then there exist positive roots
α , α00 ∈ Φ+ such that α = α0 + α00 . Observe that
0
hα, H0 i = hα0 , H0 i + hα00 , H0 i
with all terms positive. Since there are only finitely many positive roots, Φ is a
discrete set, and this process must eventually terminate, in which we have expressed
α as a integer combination of simple roots. Therefore, Ψ spans the R-linear span of
Φ. We also get (c) after showing linear independence of the simple roots.
Suppose that Ψ is not linearly dependent over R. Say
r
X
cj αj = 0
j=1
where Ψ = {α1 , . . . , αr } and the cj real and not all zero. Renumbering the sim-
ple roots and multiplying the identity by −1 if necessary, we may assume that
c1 , . . . , ck > 0 and k ≥ 1, while ck+1 , . . . , cr ≤ 0. Then
X X
cj αj = −cj αj ,
j≤k j>k
so taking the inner product gives something non-negative:

X X
0 ≤ || cj αj ||2 = cj (−ci )(αj , αi )
j≤k j≤k<i
but cj > 0, −ci ≥ 0, and (αj , αi ) ≤ 0. That forces

X X
cj αj = 0 =⇒ h cj , H0 i = 0
j≤k j≤k
which is a contradiction since the αj were positive roots and cj ≥ 0 in this range.
93
By (a)-(c), we have now characterized
C + = {H ∈ itR | hα, Hi ≥ 0 for all α ∈ Ψ}.
Note that itR is the direct sum of the central part and the linear span of the duals
of the roots
t = z ⊕ (t ∩ [g, g]),
and C + is a “partial quadrant” in the latter summand. In particular, every face of

C + (i.e. any codimension 1 component of ∂C + is contained in exactly one of the
hyperplanes α⊥ for α ∈ Ψ). Conversely, every one of these hyperplanes contains a
face of C + since the simple roots impose independent conditions.
Let α be a root. Then the hyperplane α⊥ contains a face of some Weyl chamber
C1 . We know that C1 = wC + for some w ∈ W since W acts simply transitively
on the set of Weyl chambers. So (wα)⊥ contains a face of C + , so (wα)⊥ = β ⊥ for
β ∈ Ψ. By independence, wα = ±β. But sα α = −α, so β = wα or β = wsα α. This
establishes (d).
To prove (e), recall the proof of the generation of W by the sα , α ∈ Φ. Given
any two Weyl chambers C1 , C2 we defined N (C1 , C2 ) with N (C1 , C2 ) ≥ 0 and
N (C1 , C2 ) = 0 ⇐⇒ C1 = C2 . We had seen that there exists α ∈ Φ such that
α⊥ is a face of C1 and N (sα C1 , C2 ) < N (C1 , C2 ),
94
Apply this with C1 = C + : there exists a simple root such that N (sα C + , C2 ) <
N (C + , C2 ). W acts on the chambers, so N (sα C + , C2 ) = N (C + , sα C2 ). Repeating
this argument, we eventually arrive at C + = sαn . . . sα1 C2 with αj ∈ Ψ, which
establishes 5.
We have almost completed the ingredients for the classification of the compact
Lie groups. As a consequence of the theorem, we see that knowledge of Ψ as an
abstract set, along with the data ||α||, α ∈ Ψ, and the inner products (α, β) with
α, β ∈ Ψ, completely determine Φ as a subset of the inner product space spanned
by Φ over R.
Now suppose α, β ∈ Φ such that α 6= ±β. Switching the roles of α and β if
necessary, we may suppose that ||α|| ≥ ||β||.
Theorem 8.2.8. In this situation, if α and β are not orthogonal then
||α||2 = k||β||2 k = 1, 2, 3
and
(α, β)2 k
(cos ∠(α, β))2 = 2 2
= .
||α|| ||β|| 4
Proof. We know that
(α, β) (α, β)
2 ,2 ∈ Z.
||α||2 ||β||2
Taking the product,
(α, β)2
4 ∈Z
||α||2 ||β||2
(α,β) 2
k
but α and β are neither proportional nor perpendicular, so ||α|| 2 ||β||2 = 4 where
k = 1, 2, or 3. Since ||α|| ≥ ||β||, the first term in the first equation is the smaller
95
integer, hence
(α, β)
2
||α||2 = 1.

Straightforward manipuulations of this imply what we want.
Corollary 8.2.9. Suppose α, β are distinct simple roots and (α, β) 6= 0. Then

◦
120 k = 1

∠(α, β) = 135◦ k = 2 .

 ◦
150 k = 3
with ||α||2 = k||β||2 , or vice versa.
This potentially allows us to reconstruct the root system from the knowledge of
a couple of roots.
96
Chapter 9
Classificiation of compact Lie

groups
9.1 Classification of semisimple Lie algebras

Definition 9.1.1. A Lie algebra g over a field k is simple if it contains no proper
ideal and has dimension at greater than 1.
Note that this rules out abelian Lie algebras, since every subalgebra of a Lie
algebra is an ideal.
Definition 9.1.2. A Lie algebra g over a field k is semisimple if it is a direct sum of
commuting simple ideals.
Definition 9.1.3. A Lie group G is simple (resp. semisimple) if its Lie algebra gR is
simple (resp. semisimple) as a Lie algebra over R.
Proposition 9.1.4. Suppose G is a connected, compact, simple Lie group. Then g

is simple over C.
This says that gR is “absolutely simple” (simple when tensored up with the
algebraic closure).
Proof. Suppose not; then g contains a simple ideal g1 . Then g1 6= g1 because gR is

simple. We claim that g = g1 ⊕ g1 . Indeed, if g1 ⊕ g1 isn’t the whole space, then its
intersection with gR is a proper ideal (because the Galois group of C/R interchanges
the two factors). Note also that [g1 , g1 ] = 0.
Define J : g → g by (
iX X ∈ g1
JX = .
−iX X ∈ g1
Then J = J, so
J : gR → gR
97
Math 222 CHAPTER 9. CLASSIFICIATION OF COMPACT LIE GROUPS
with J 2 = −1. Suppose u, v ∈ gR . Then
u = u1 + ū1 , v = v1 + v̄1 u1 , v1 ∈ g1
so
[Ju, v] = [J(u1 + ū1 ), v1 + v̄1 ] = [iu1 − iū1 , v1 + v̄1 ] = i[u1 , v1 ] − i[ū1 , v̄1 ]
Observe that this coincides with
J[u, v] = J[u1 + ū1 , v1 + v̄1 ] = J([u1 , v1 ] + [ū1 , v̄1 ]) = i[u1 , v1 ] − i[ū1 , v̄1 ].
So J : gR → gR with J 2 = −1 and
[Ju, v] = J[u, v] = [u, Jv].
Turn gR into a Lie algebra over C by defining iX = JX.

What are we doing? Turning a finite dimensional real vector space into a complex
vector space amounts to giving a linear map that squares to −1. We have just proved
that the complex structure is compatible with the Lie bracket. We had seen earlier
that this implies that G is a complex Lie group. By assumption, it is compact and
non-abelian, which is impossible (see homework).
On the homework, we saw that if G is a connected, compact Lie group then G

is semisimple if and only if ZG is finite. If so, then there exist connected compact
simple Lie groups G1 , . . . , Gn with a finite covering map G1 × . . . × Gn → G. So,
to understand connected, compact, semisimple Lie groups, it suffices to understand
connected, compact, simple Lie groups and their centers.
As usual, let G be a connected compact Lie group and T a torus. Observation:
G is semisimple if and only if the R-linear span of Φ is it∗R , which is the case if and
only if Ψ is an R-basis of it∗R .
Definition 9.1.5. Φ is irreducible if Φ cannot be expressed as a disjoint union
Φ = Φ1 t Φ2
with Φi = −Φi non-empty, and Φ1 ⊥ Φ2 .

Definition 9.1.6. Ψ is irreducible if Ψ cannot be expressed as
Ψ = Ψ1 t Ψ2
with Ψi non-empty and Ψ1 ⊥ Ψ2 .

Another observation: if G is semisimple, then G is simple if and only if Φ is
irreducible, which is the case if and only if Ψ is irreducible. This is again straight-
forward, and its proof is left as an exercise.
Now suppose that G is connected, compact, and simple. The Dynkin diagram
of G is the graph constructed as follows:
98
Math 222 9.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SEMISIMPLE LIE ALGEBRAS
• The vertices are the simple roots.

• α1 , α2 ∈ Ψ are connected by k edges if (α1 , α2 ) 6= 0 and ||α1 || = k||α2 ||2 or vice
versa, and are not connected if (α1 , α2 ) = 0 (equivalently strongly orthogonal).
If k 6= 1, the edge is directed from the longer root to the shorter.
By the observation, the Dynkin diagram must be connected, since the connected
components correspond to reducible pieces.
Theorem 9.1.7. The only possible Dynkin diagrams of connected, compact, simple
Lie groups are:
Each of these does correspond to a connected, compact, simple Lie group, which is
unique up to covering.
Proof sketch. The first part follows from some elementary analysis using inner prod-
ucts, etc. For instance, one quickly realizes that cycles are impossible, and then only
one pair of nodes can have multiple edges.
An is SU (n + 1), Bn = SO(2n + 1), Cn = Sp(2n) ∩ U (4n), and Dn = SO(2n).
These are the classical groups.
99
Why the uniqueness? From the Dynkin diagram we can reconstruct the roots
and root system (see remarks above). For simple α, take Eα , E−α , and Hα as
above, and normalize the scaling. Additional roots are obtained by bracketing these
for simple roots.
Compact semisimple Lie groups are adjoing groups (the image under the adjoint
representation). The last question concerns the centers; we will address this next
time.
9.2 Simply-connected and adjoint form

The homework, together with the discussion last time, implies that to “understand”
all connected, compact Lie groups, it suffices to “understand” the coverings of sim-
ple, connected, compact Lie groups.
Suppose G is connected, compact, and semisimple, T ⊂ G a maximal torus and
L, Λ as usual. We define
GAd := G/ZG
which is isomorphic to the image of G under the adjoint representation (something
commutes with a neighborhood of 0 if and only if it commutes with everything,
since a neighborhood of 0 generates everything). Obviously, ZG ⊂ T is discrete,
hence finite. Similarly, we have TAd = T /ZG , etc. Identifying tR /L ' T , this maps
to TAd ' tR /LAd with kernel LAd /L, so ZG ' LAd /L.
Then
LAd = {H ∈ tR | exp H ∈ ZG }
= {H ∈ tR | exp H ∈ ker Ad }
= {H ∈ tR | eα exp H = 1 for all α}
= {H ∈ tR | hα, Hi ∈ 2πiZ for all α ∈ Φ}
= {H ∈ tR | hα, Hi ∈ 2πiZ for all α ∈ Ψ}
We have seen that

(∗) (α, µ)
Λ ⊂ {µ ∈ itR | 2 ∈ Z for all α ∈ Φ}
(α, α)
= {µ ∈ itR | hµ, Hα i ∈ Z for all α ∈ Φ}
= {µ ∈ itR | hµ, Hα i ∈ Z for all α ∈ Ψ}
:= Λsc
The inclusion (∗) is actually an equality for G simply connected, and depends
on knowing that every µ ∈ Λ is the weight of some finite dimensional irreucible
representation. We’ll get to this later.
100
Math 222 9.2. SIMPLY-CONNECTED AND ADJOINT FORM
If Λsc were the weight lattice of some covering group of G, then the corresponding
unit lattice would be Lsc = the Z-linear span of 2πiHα for α ∈ Ψ.
Theorem 9.2.1. With the notation above,
1. π1 (G) is finite.
2. Let Gsc be the universal covering. Then its unit lattice is Lsc and its weight
lattice is Λsc . In particular, π1 (GAd ) ' ZGsc ' LAd /Lsc .
Sketch. This is only a sketch; a more detailed argument will be posted online.
Define
Greg := {g ∈ G | dim ZG (g) = rank G},
where rank G is the dimension of the maximal torus. Then Greg is a conjugation
invariant. Then
G − Greg = {g ∈ G | dim ZG (g) > rank G}

= {g ∈ G | dim ker(1 − Ad g) > rank G}
since ker(1 − Ad g) = ZG (g). This implies that G − Greg is a real analytic subvariety
of G, i.e. cut out by real analytic equations. By invariance under conjugation, and
the fact that every element of G is conjugate to an element of T ,
G − Greg = {gtg −1 | t ∈ T − Treg , g ∈ G, “g ∈ G/T 00 }
where Treg = Greg ∩ T and “g ∈ G/T 00 means that we need only take coset reprenta-
tives of G/T (representatives of the same coset will give the same gtg −1 ). The
centralizer of t ∈ T contains T , and is bigger if and only if eα (t) = 1 for some α.
T − Treg = {t ∈ T | eα (t) = 1 for some α ∈ Φ}.
Then [
G − Greg = {gtg −1 | eα (t) = 1, “g ∈ G/T Sα00 }
α
where Sα is defined as in our proof of the structure theorem for roots, since any
such t will commute with sα as well, and T normalizes Sα . The condition eα (t) = 1
imposes a codimension-one condition, and T Sα has dimension dim T + 2 since Sα
has dimension 3 but intersects T in a one-dimensional piece. So dim(G − Greg ) ≤
(dim T − 1) + dim G − (dim T + 2) ≤ dim G − 3. In fact, this is an equality.
What does cutting out a codimension 3 thing mean? Cutting out codimen-
sion 1 disconnects. Cutting out codimension 2 doesn’t disconnect, but changes the
fundamental group. Codimension 3 doesn’t change the fundamental group, since
homotopies occur on a surface, and we can homotope things to be transverse to the
codimension 3 things.
101
Therefore, the inclusion

Greg ,→ G
induces an isomorphism on π1 . Consider the map
G/T × Treg → Greg

(gT, t) 7→ gtg −1 .
Facts:
1. This is a covering map with covering group W , which acts on G/T by right
translation and on Treg by conjugation.
2. Treg is connected.
Now,
π1 (G/T ) ' π1 (G/T × {pt}) ⊂ π1 (G/T × Treg ).
Since the map is a covering map, the induced map on fundamental groups is injective,
so
π1 (G/T × Treg ) → π1 (Greg ) ' π1 (G)
is injective. Let g(s) represent a loop in G/T , i.e.
g(1)T = g(0)T
and s 7→ g(s) is continuous. Then the image loops in π1 (G) is
s 7→ g(s)t0 g(s)−1 t0 ∈ Treg .
Note that we couldn’t choose t0 = e because t0 must be regular. However, this can
be contracted in G by letting t0 → e. The conclusion is that π1 (G/T ) = 0.
The map G → G/T is a fibration with fiber bundle T , so
π1 (T ) → π1 (G) → π1 (G/T )
is exact. Since the last term is 0,
π1 (T ) → π1 (G)
is surjective. But T = tR /L, so we get a surjection
L π1 (G).
That tells us that π1 (G) is finitely generated and abelian.

What we’ve seen is that if we pass to a covering, the unit lattice shrinks and the
weight lattice grows. But the inclusion (∗) that we haven’t proven yet shows that
the weight lattice is “bounded above.”
102
Math 222 9.2. SIMPLY-CONNECTED AND ADJOINT FORM
This already implies π1 (G) is finite because Λ is “bounded above.” (We know
that π1 (G) is finitely generated and abelian.)
Consider the map SU (2) → G, with image Sα .
“L of SU (2)00 /L

π1 (SU (2)) / π1 (G)
3
SU (2) '
We know that S is simply connected, and the path which represents the
2πi 0
generator in the unit lattice of SU (2) is
0 −2πi
2πis
e 0
s 7→ →G
0 e−2πis
the composite map being s 7→ exp(2πisHα ).
Conclusion. Under the surjection L → π1 (G), the 2πiHα all go to e. So π1 (G) is

a quotient of L/Lsc , in particular finite.
To complete the proof, we must show that this is an isomorphism when G = Gsc ,
the universal cover of G. This will be posted online.
We now establish the inclusion (*) from earlier. Suppose µ ∈ Λ, i.e. µ lifts to a
character
eµ : T → C∗ .
Consider
{f ∈ C(G) | f (gt) = eµ (t)f (g) for all t ∈ T }.
This is non-zero because locally the fibration G → G/T is a product, i.e. there are
local sections. So we can take a function on G/T with compact support contained
within the appropriate open set, and extend to the pre-image in G by multiplying
by eµ on the T factor. By Peter-Weyl, the L2 closure of this space is
[
M
Vi ⊗ (Vi∗ )µ
i∈G
b
so (Vi∗ )µ cannot be zero for all i ∈ G,

b hence µ is a weight of V ∗ .
i
103
104
Chapter 10
Representations of compact Lie

groups
10.1 Theorem of the highest weight

Now suppose that G is connected and compact (not necessarily semisimple, so we
could have a center of positive dimension). Let T ⊂ G be the maximal torus, C +
a dominant Weyl chamber. Thus we have Φ+ and Ψ. Let (π, V ) be an irreducible,
finite-dimensional representation of G.
Theorem 10.1.1 (“Theorem of the highest weight”). The following conditions on

a weight λ of π are equivalent.
(1) λ + α, for α ∈ Φ+ , is not a weight.
(2) There exists a non-zero vλ ∈ V λ such that
Eα vλ = 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ .
(3) Any weight of π can be expressed as
λ − α1 − α2 − . . . − αN
with α1 , . . . , αN ∈ Φ+ (repetitions allowed).
A weight with these properties exists and is unique. It is called the “highest weight”
of π, and it has the following properties.
1. dim V λ = 1.
2. (λ, α) ≥ 0 for every α ∈ Φ+ , i.e. λ is dominant.
3. λ determines π up to isomorphism.
105
Math 222 CHAPTER 10. REPRESENTATIONS OF COMPACT LIE GROUPS
Remark 10.1.2. We shall see later that every dominant λ ∈ Λ is the highest weight
of some irreducible representation. Therefore,
b ' {dominant λ ∈ Λ}.
G
Proof. (1) =⇒ (2). This is because Eα V λ ⊂ V λ+α (in fact, we get the result for
any such vλ ).
(2) =⇒ (3). Define
L+ = linear span of t and gα , α ∈ Φ+

M
M− = g−α .
α∈Φ+
Both are Lie subalgebras of g, so
g = L+ ⊕ M −
(a vector space direct sum). By PBW,
U (g) = U (M− )U (L+ ).
Suppose vλ ∈ V λ is non-zero. By irreducibility,
V = U (g)vλ = U (M− )U (L+ )vλ .
Now, (
Cvλ λ 6= 0
tvλ =
0 λ=0
so if Eα vλ = 0 then for all α ∈ Φ+ ,
U (g)vλ = U (M− ) U (L+ )vλ = U (M− )vλ .

| {z }
Cvλ
This is the linear span of E−α1 , E−α2 , . . . , E−αN vλ for all possible N -tuples of posi-
tive roots. This proves (3).
Also, U (M− )vλ = U (M− )(M− ⊕C)vλ . The summand coming from U (M− )M−
has weight strictly less than λ, so dim V λ = 1.
(3) =⇒ (1). Suppose λ + α is a weight for some α ∈ Φ+ . By (3), λ + α =
λ − α1 − . . . − αN , so therefore,
α + α1 + . . . + αN = 0.
Apply this to some regular H0 ∈ C + :
hα + α1 + . . . + αN , H0 i = 0,
106
Math 222 10.1. THEOREM OF THE HIGHEST WEIGHT
which is a contradiction.
For uniqueness, suppose for the sake of contradiction that λ1 and λ2 both satisfy
properties (1)-(3). Then
λ1 = λ2 − α1 . . . − αN αi ∈ Φ+
λ2 = λ1 − β1 − . . . − βM β j ∈ Φ+
Equating these, we find that
α1 + . . . + αN + β1 + . . . + βM = 0
which contradicts positivity by evaluating on any H0 in the dominant Weyl chamber.

To prove existence, suppose that µ0 is a weight of π. If µ0 satisfies (1), set
λ = µ0 . If not, we may choose a positive α ∈ Φ+ such that µ1 = µ0 + α1 is a weight.
If µ1 satisfies (1), set λ = µ1 ; if not, continue. The process must stop because V
is finite dimensional, so there are only finitely many weights. Eventually, we will
produce a λ = µk which satisfies (1).
Let λ be as in (1)-(3). For α ∈ Φ+ , λ + α is not a weight. Hence (λ, α) ≥ 0 (by
the p + q thing), which verifies dominance.
The last thing to verify is that λ determines π up to isomorphism. As before,
define subalgebras of g
L+ = linear span of t and gα , α ∈ Φ+

M
M− = g−α .
α∈Φ+
So g = L+ ⊕ M− . Define the U (g) module Mλ , where
Mλ = U (g)/left ideal generated by gα , H − hλ, Hi1 α ∈ Φ+ , H ∈ t.
This is called the “Verma module of highest weight λ.” Let mλ be the image of
1 ∈ Mλ under the quotient. Note that mλ 6= 0. Why? We had expressed
U (g) = U (M− )U (L+ ).
We are essentially dividing out by U (L+ ): the relations that lie in the augmentation
ideal (the gα ) obviously can’t kill 1, since they raise degrees; the other relations take
the constants to the Lie algebra of the torus, which doesn’t intersect gα for α ∈ Φ+ ,
hence also can’t kill 1.
By definition, t acts on mλ by λ and the gα for α ∈ Φ+ kill mλ , so
U (L+ )mλ = Cmλ .
107
Then we claim that
U (M− ) ' Mλ
X 7→ Xmλ
as vector spaces. This is because Mλ is obviously generated by mλ as a g module

(this is true even before quotienting), and U (g) = U (M− )U (L+ ), so
Mλ ' U (g)mλ ' U (M− )U (L+ )mλ ' U (M− )mλ .
We next claim that t acts finitely, i.e. every m ∈ Mλ lies in a finite dimensional,
t-stable subspace. Indeed, for X ∈ U (M− ), H ∈ t,
HXmλ = (HX − XH + XH)mλ

= ad H(X)mλ + XHmλ
= ad H(X)mλ + hλ, HiXmλ .
So H preserves the degree (by which we mean the filtered components of the filtra-
tion). This also implies that t acts semisimply (since it acts semisimply on the gα ),
with eigenvalues of the form λ − α1 − . . . − αN , αi ∈ Φ+ (the λ coming from the
second term in the equation above, and the other stuff from the first term.)
In particular, the weight λ occurs with multiplicity 1. Let N ⊂ Mλ be a proper
U (g) submodule. Then t acts on N , with weights as above except λ cannot be a
weight for N since mλ generates all of Mλ .
So Mλ contains a unique maximal, proper, U (g) submodule (i.e. not Mλ , but
conceivably zero), namely the linear span of all proper submodules. Therefore, Mλ
has a unique irreducible, simple U (g) quotient. If V is an irreducible representation
with highest weight λ, then note that the ideal defining Mλ annihilates V λ by (2),
so we get a surjective homomorphism of U (g) modules Mλ → V sending mλ 7→ vλ .
Hence V is this unique irreducible, simple quotient.
10.2 The Weyl character formula

Let G be a compact, connected Lie group, and T, Φ+ , Ψ be as usual. Define
1 X
ρ= α ∈ it∗R .
2 +
α∈Φ
2ρ is a sum of roots, hence 2ρ ∈ ΛAd , i.e. the Z-linear span of Ψ.
Lemma 10.2.1. We have
1. For w ∈ W , wρ − ρ ∈ ΛAd .
108
Math 222 10.2. THE WEYL CHARACTER FORMULA
(ρ,α)
2. 2 (α,α) = 1 for every α ∈ Ψ.
Proof. Choose α ∈ Ψ and let β ∈ Φ+ , β 6= α. Then
(β, α)
sα β = β − 2 α ∈ Φ.
(α, α)
We know that when β is expressed as a linear combination of simple roots, all

coefficients are non-negative integers. Therefore, the same must be true of sα β
because some coefficient in the expression for sα β is positive. That says
sα (Φ+ − {α}) = Φ+ − {α}.
(Obviously, sα α = −α.) So
 
1 X 1 
sα ρ = sα  β+ α
2 2
β∈Φ+ ,β6=α
1 X α
= β−
2 2
β∈Φ,β6=α
α α
=ρ− − = ρ − α.
2 2
So we’ve found that sα ρ = ρ − α. On the other hand, we know that
(ρ, α)
sα ρ = ρ − 2 α
(α, α)
so we can conclude that

(ρ, α)
2 = 1 for all α ∈ Ψ.
(α, α)
This also proves that sα ρ ∈ ρ + ΛAd and sα generate W , establishing (1).
The lemma implies that ρ ∈ Λsc , since
(µ, α)
Λsc = {µ ∈ it∗R | 2 ∈ Z for all α ∈ Ψ}.
(α, α)
In the following, we could take one of two courses:
(a) either use the fact that Λsc is the weight lattice of the universal covering of G,
or
(b) go to a 2-fold cover of T so that e2ρ : T → C∗ has a square root, namely

eρ from the twofold cover. Then keep track of computations to see that they
make sense.
109
We will do the second. Define the formal expression

Y Y
∆= (eα/2 − e−α/2 ) = eρ
|{z} (1 − e−α ) .
α∈Φ+ defined up to ±1 on T α∈Φ+
| {z }
well-defined on T
Weyl integration formula. Normalize the Haar measure on G, T to have total

measure 1, so the “quotient measure” on G/T also has this property (the quotient
measure satisfies the property that the measure of a set in the quotient is the measure
of its pre-image). Then for f ∈ C(G),
Z Z Z
1
f dg = |∆(t)|2 f (gtg −1 ) dg dt.
G #W T G/T
Corollary 10.2.2. If f is conjugation invariant, then

Z Z
1
f dg = |∆(t)|2 f (t) dt.
G #W T
Weyl character formula. Let (π, V ) be an irreducible representation for G of

highest weight λ and χλ its character. Then
(w)ew(λ+ρ)
P
w∈W
χλ |T = .
∆
Moreover, each dominant λ ∈ Λ is the highest weight of some finite dimensional

irreducible (π, V ).
Definition 10.2.3. For w ∈ W , we define
(w) = det{w : tR → tR } = ±1.
The value is ±1 because the Weyl group is finite dimensional, hence the deter-
minant is a root of unity; but this is a map of real vector spaces.
Remark 10.2.4. Some observations:
1. We have w(λ + ρ) = wλ + wρ = wλ + wρ − ρ + ρ. Obviously wλ ∈ Λ, and

Lemma 10.2.1 tells us that wρ − ρ ∈ Λ, so we deduce that w(λ + ρ) ∈ Λ + ρ.
Therefore, w(λ+ρ) has an ambiguity in sign, but it is the same ambiguity as
ρ
Q e −α ), so the quotient is well-defined.
∆=e α∈Φ+ (1 − e
2. Observe that χλ |T is a class function and T meets all conjugacy classes, so

this completely determines χ.
110
Math 222 10.3. PROOF OF WEYL CHARACTER FORMULA
3. A priori, the expression on the right hand side of the Weyl character formula
might have “poles.” However, this can only happen if e−α = 1, so the function
is well-defined on
Treg = {t ∈ T | eα (t) 6= 1∀α ∈ Φ},
which is open and dense in T .
10.3 Proof of Weyl character formula

For i ∈ G,
b let χi be the character. We know that {χi | i ∈ G} b is an orthonormal
2
basis of the space of L conjugation-invariant functions. Define
ϕi = χi |T · ∆.
By the Weyl integration formula,

(
i 6= j
Z Z
0
ϕi ϕj dt = #W χi χj dg = .
T G #W i=j
Also, if f is an L2 conjugation invariant function and ϕ = f |T · ∆, then

Z
ϕϕi dt = 0 for all i ∈ G
b =⇒ f = 0.
T
Fix i ∈ G
b and let λ ∈ Λ be the highest weight. We know that
(λ, α) > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+

(ρ, α) > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+
so (λ + ρ, α) > 0 for all α ∈ Φ+ , i.e. λ + ρ lies in the interior of the dominant Weyl
chamber in it∗R . In particular, the terms w(λ + ρ) for w ∈ W are distinct because
W acts freely on the interiors of the Weyl chambers.
We obviously have the identity
 
X Y
ϕi =  dim V µ eµ  eρ (1 − e−α ).
µ∈Λ α∈Φ+
The highest weight appears in the left term, with multiplicity one. So we can write
this as
ϕi = eλ+ρ + (an integral linear combination of terms) eµ+ρ
where µ = λ− sum of positive roots. In particular, the eλ+ρ term certainly doesn’t
get canceled.
111
Note that χi |T is W -invariant, since W acts on the torus by conjugation. We

had seen that for any simple root α ∈ Ψ, sα (Φ+ − {α}) = Φ+ − {α} and sα (α) = −α
(i.e. sα preserves all the positive roots except α, which it negates). Therefore
Y
sα ∆ = sα eβ/2 − e−β/2 = −∆
β∈Φ+
because exactly one factor changes sign. This implies that ∆ is “W -alternating” in
the sense that w∆ = (W )∆ for any w ∈ W . Then ϕi is W -alternating, so
X
ϕi = (w)ew(λ+ρ) + integral linear combination of other terms
with no cancellation
.
w∈W
By orthogonality, Z Z
2
|ϕi | dt = #W + |other terms|
T
but we also know that Z
|ϕi |2 dt = #W.
T
Therefore, the other terms must vanish. This proves the Weyl character formula: if
χ is the character of the irreducible representation with highest weight λ, then
(w)ew(λ+ρ)
P
χ|Treg = Q w∈W α/2 .
α∈Φ+ (e − e−α/2 )
This can also be written as

w(λ+ρ)−ρ
P
w∈W (w)e
χ|Treg = Q −α )
,
α∈Φ+ (1 − e
which shows it to be well-defined.

Applying this to the trivial representation, where the highest weight is λ = 0,
we obtain what is called the Weyl denominator formula.
Corollary 10.3.1 (Weyl denominator formula).
Y X
(eα/2 − e−α/2 ) = (w)ewρ .
α∈Φ+ w∈W
Remark 10.3.2. The Weyl character formula also implies the following statement
which we previously proved by algebraic means: the highest weight of an irreducible
representation π determines π up to isomorphism.
We had stated this proposition earlier.
Proposition 10.3.3. If λ ∈ Λ is dominant, i.e. (λ, α) ≥ 0 for each α ∈ Φ+ , then
λ is the highest weight of some irreducible representation.
112
Math 222 10.4. PROOF OF THE WEYL INTEGRATION FORMULA.
Proof. Let λi be the highest weight of πi , λ 6= λi for all i ∈ G.

b Define
X
ϕ= (w)ew(λ+ρ)
w∈W
There’s no cancellation here because the w(λ + ρ) are all distinct (as mentioned at
ϕ
the beginning of the lecture). Also, ϕ is W -alternating, hence W is W -invariant.
Then there exists a unique W -invariant (conjugation-invariant, since the group of
deck transformations for the covering in the section below is precisely W ) function
ϕ
f ∈ C(Greg ) such that f |Treg = ∆ . Since G − Greg has measure 0, we can regard f
2
as an element of L (G).
By the Weyl integration formula,
Z Z
1
f χi dg = f ∆χi ∆ dt
G #W T
Z X
1
= (w)ew(λ+ρ) (v)e−v(λi +ρ) dt
#W
w,v∈W
= 0 by orthogonality.
10.4 Proof of the Weyl integration formula.

We know that the map
F
G/T × Treg → Greg
(gT, t) 7→ gtg −1
is a covering map with group of deck transformations equal to W = NG (T )/T .

Therefore,
Z Z Z
1
f (g) dg = F ∗ f dt dg
G #W G/T T
Z Z
1
= | det F∗ |f (gtg −1 ) dt dg
#W G/T T
Left multiplication by g gives a map

M
TgT G/T ← TeT G/T ' g/t ' gα
α∈Φ
and Tt T ' t (this is the tangent space to T at t). So

M
T(gT,t) (G/T × Treg ) ' gα ⊕ t ' g ' Tgtg−1 Greg .
α∈Φ
113
These identifications we made are a little sketchy, but the measure is left invariant,
etc. so things are OK.
Suppose X ∈ α∈Φ gα ∩ gR and let f ∈ C ∞ (G). We want to compute F∗ ; let’s
L
trace through the identifications made above.
F (g exp(sX)T, t) = g exp(sX)t exp(−sX)g −1 = g exp(sX) exp(−s Ad tX)tg −1 .
So
∂
F∗ (X, 0)f (gtg −1 ) = f (g exp(sX) exp(−s Ad tX)tg −1 )|s=0
∂s
= `(− Ad g(1 − Ad t)X) f (gtg −1 )
| {z }
left infinitesimal translation by ...
Recall that if f ∈ C ∞ (G) and X ∈ gR , then
∂
r(X)f (g) = f (g exp(sX))|s=0 .
∂s
and
∂
`(X)f (g) = f (exp(−sX)g)|s=0 .
∂s
For Y ∈ tR ,
F (gT, exp(sY )t) = g exp(sY )tg −1 .
Hence
∂
F∗ (0, Y )f (gtg −1 ) = f (g exp(sY )tg −1 )|s=0 = `(− Ad g(Y ))f (gtg −1 ).
∂s
That means that

(
X ∈ α∈Φ gα
L
−1 7→ (1 − Ad t)X
Ad g ◦ F∗ :
Y ∈t 7→ Y
so
Y
det(Ad g −1 ◦ F∗ (t)) = (1 − eα (t))
α∈Φ
Y
= (1 − eα (t))(1 − e−α (t))
α∈Φ+
= |∆(t)|2 .
114
Math 222 10.5. BOREL-WEIL
10.5 Borel-Weil
Suppose (π, V ) is irreducible of highest weight λ. The theorem of the highest weight
implies that
V N+ (= space of N+ -invariant vectors) = V λ .
where N+ = α∈Φ+ gα (for groups, we look at the elements that map to the identity.
L
For Lie algebras, we look at things that get mapped to 0). This is an equality of
vector spaces with an action of T (or t) since T normalizes N+ . Also let
M
N− = g−α .
α∈Φ+
Dually we have
(V ∗ )N− = (V ∗ )−λ .
By Peter-Weyl,
[
M N
V = {f ∈ Vi ⊗ (Vi∗ − )−λ }
i∈G
b
i.e. all functions f on G on which T acts via right translation by e−λ . What this
says is: n o
r(X)f =0 for all X∈N
V ' f ∈ C ∞ (G) | f (gt)=e−λ (t)f (g)∀t∈T− .
Facts: G/T can be turned into a complex manifold such that
(a) G acts on G/T holomorphically.
(b) The holomorphic tangent space to G/T at eT is isomorphic to
M
N+ ⊂ gα ' Tet G/T
α∈Φ
(Note that N+ is in the complexified Lie algebra.)

(c) If λ ∈ Λ, there exists a unique (up to isomorphism) holomorphic line bundle
LX → G/T such that (i) the action of G on G/T lifts to Lλ and (ii) T acts on
the fiber of Lλ at eT by eλ . So G acts on the space of holomorphic sections
of Lλ .
Theorem 10.5.1 (Borel-Weil). For λ ∈ Λ dominant,
H 0 (G/T, O(Lλ ))
is the space of irreducible representations of highest weight λ and
H p (G/T, O(Lλ )) = 0 for p > 0.
Remark 10.5.2. The Borel-Weil-Bott theorem gives a description of H p (G/T, O(Lλ ))
for all λ ∈ Λ and integers p.
115

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Lie groups and Lie algebras

2 The Lie algebra of a Lie group 15

4 Geometry of Lie groups 37

5 The Universal Enveloping Algebra 51

6 Representations of Lie groups 57

7 Compact Lie groups 69

9 Classificiation of compact Lie groups 97

10 Representations of compact Lie groups 105

1.1 Lie groups

and multiplication map

A(g(A(h, m))) = A(gh, m).

Definition 1.1.4. Suppose G, H are Lie groups. A homomorphism from G to H is a

2. UH ⊂ UG is a closed submanifold, e.g. looks locally like Rk ⊂ Rn .

Example 1.1.7. The following are examples of Lie groups.

2. Giving Q the discrete topology, R×Q ⊂ R2 , + is a Lie subgroup of dimension 1

5. GLn (C), with matrix multiplication.

We can summarize Lie theory as the (shockingly successful) study of lineariza-

Theorem 1.1.8. Let G be a Lie group, H ⊂ G a subgroup in the algebraic sense.

1.2 Lie algebras

1. [a, a] = 0 for all a ∈ g.

Definition 1.2.4. A Lie subalgebra of g is a K-linear subspace h ⊂ g such that

1.3 Vector fields

Corollary 1.3.2. Suppose X is a vector field on M and U ⊂ M is open. Then X

Conversely, any such expression describes a unique vector field on M .

where h is a linear combination of products h1 h2 with h1 (p) = h2 (p) = 0 (this is

1.4 Tangent and cotangent spaces

Corollary 1.4.2. If Xp is a tangent vector at p and f ∈ C ∞ (M ), then Xp f depends

1.5 Pullbacks and pushforwards

In other words, the following diagram commutes.

Yet another equivalent formulation is that F∗ XM |p = XN |F (p) for every p ∈ M . You

The Lie algebra of a Lie group

2.1 Invariant vector fields

These are both diffeomorphisms by the definition of Lie group.

Exercise 2.1.2. Show that this map is an isomorphism: g ' Te G.

Theorem 2.1.3. The map F∗ : g → h is a homomorphism of Lie algebras.

Proof. Suppose X, Y ∈ g. Define X

e and Y, Ye are F -related. To see this, suppose g ∈ G. Then

X ee = `F (g)∗ F∗ Xe = (`F (g) ◦ F )∗ Xe

and similarly for Y, Ye .

Applying this to [X, e Ye − Ye X

2.2 Integral curves

1. If (I, ϕ) is an integral curve, then so is (I + a, ϕa ), where ϕa (t) = ϕ(t − a).

3. Suppose (U ; x1 , . . . , xn ) is a coordinate neighborhood and X is a vector field

Therefore, finding integral curves of vector fields amounts to solving an ODE.

Basic facts on ODE.

Theorem 2.2.2 (Existence of local solutions). If X is a vector field on M and

(ii) Φ(q, 0) = q for any q ∈ U .

Suppose X is a complete vector field on M . Define Φ : R × M → M by

(i) Φ(0, p) = p for all p ∈ M .

(ii) t 7→ Φ(t, p) is an integral curve for all p ∈ M .

Theorem 2.2.8 (Global C ∞ dependence on parameters). Φ : R × M → M is a

Proof. By Theorem 2.2.4, Φ is smooth on an open neighborhood of {0} × M (as a

Φ(t, Φ(s, p)) = Φ(s + t, p) for all p ∈ M and all s, t ∈ R.

Φ(t0 , p) = Φ(ηt0 , Φ((1 − η)t0 , p)).

If η is small enough, we can find an open neighborhood U of Φ(t0 , p0 ) such that

p 7→ Φ(ηt0 , Φ((1 − η)t0 , p)) = Φ(t0 , p)

Φ(t, p) = Φ(t − t0 , Φ(t0 , p)).

By hypothesis, (t, q) 7→ Φ(t − t0 , q) is smooth near t = t0 and q = Φ(p0 , t0 ). Since

(t, p) 7→ (t, Φ(t0 , p)) 7→ Φ(t − t0 , Φ(t0 , p)),

2.3 The exponential map

satisfying ΦX (0, g) = g and t 7→ ΦX (t, g) is an integral curve for X. Therefore, we

Proposition 2.3.1. Φ is C ∞ as a function of all variables.

X(m,n) ∈ Tm M × {0} ⊂ Tm M ⊕ Tn N = T(m,n) M × N.

|t| < 1 + =⇒ tX, tY ∈ V.

Define F (t) = M (tX, tY ). Then the map F : (−1 − , 1 + ) → g is smooth.