1.

Kinematics of Particles
1.1 Introduction to Dynamics
— Dynamics
- Kinematics: the study of the geometry of motion; relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and
time, without reference to the cause of the motion.
- Kinetics: the study of the relation existing between the forces acting on a body, the mass of the
body, and the motion of the body; predict the motion caused by given forces or determine the
forces required to produce a given motion.

1.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

— Rectilinear motion: motion along a straight line

— Position coordinate: x
— SI Units: m, sec
— Average velocity = Δx
Δt
Δx dx
— Instantaneous velocity (m/s) = v = lim Δt =
Δt →0 dt

— Speed: magnitude of v
Δv
— Average acceleration (m/s2) =
Δt
Δv dv d 2 x
— Instantaneous acceleration = a = lim = =
Δt →0 Δt dt dt 2

or dv dv dv
a= = =v
dt dx v dx

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1.3 Determination of the Motion of a Particle
In general, the acceleration of a particle can be expressed as a function of one or more of variables x, v,
and t. Let us consider three common classes of motion:

— a = f (t )

= f (t )
dv
a=
dt
dv = f (t )dt
dv = ∫ f (t )dt
v t
∫
v0 t0

v − v 0 = ∫ f (t )dt
t

t0

v = v(t )

dx = v(t )dt
x − x0 = ∫ v(t )dt
t

t0

— a = f (x )

= f (x )
dv vdv
a= =
dt dx
vdv = f ( x )dx

∫ vdv = ∫ f (x )dx
v x

v0 x0

v − v0 = ∫ f ( x )dx
1 2 1 2 x

2 2 x 0

v = v( x )
dx
= dt
v( x )
x dx
t − t0 = ∫
x0 v( x )

— a = f (v )

= f (v )
dv vdv
a= =
dt dx
dv
dt =
f (v )
vdv
dx =
f (v )

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Example 1) The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the
relation x = t 3 − 6t 2 − 15t + 40 , where x is expressed in meters and t in seconds. Determine (a)
the time at which the velocity will be zero, (b) the position and distance traveled by the particle at the
time, (c) the acceleration of the particle at that time, (d) the distance traveled by the particle from t = 4s to
t = 6s.

Ans) The equations of motion are

(1)
x = t 3 − 6t 2 − 15t + 40

dx (2)
v= = 3t 2 − 12t − 15
dt
dv
a= = 6t − 12 (3)
dt

a) Time at which v = 0.

t 2 − 4t − 5 = (t − 5)(t + 1) = 0

t = 5s
b) Position and Distance Traveled when v = 0.
Position at t = 5s:

x5 = 5 3 − 6 × 5 2 − 15 × 5 + 40 = −60(m)

Distance at t = 5s: 100m

x0 = 40(m)

x5 − x0 = −60 − 40 = −100
c) Acceleration when v = 0.

(
a5 = 6 × 5 − 12 = 18 m / s 2 )
d) Distance traveled from t = 4s to t = 6s.
The particle moves in the negative direction from t = 4s to t = 5s and in the positive direction from t = 5s
to t = 6s.

total dis tan ce = dis ( x5 − x 4 ) + dis (x 6 − x5 ) = − 8 + 10 = 18(m )

Example 2) A ball is tossed with a velocity of 10m/s directed vertically upward from a window located
20m above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of the ball is constant and equal to 9.81m/s2

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downward, determine (a) the velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t, (b) the
highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value of t, (c) the time when the ball will hit
the ground and the corresponding velocity.

Ans)
a) velocity and elevation

dv
dt
(
= a = − g , g = 9.81 m / s 2 )
v − v0 = − gt , v0 = 10(m s )

v = 10 − 9.81t
dy
= 10 − 9.81t
dt
y − y 0 = 10t − 4.905t 2 , y 0 = 20(m )
y = 20 + 10t − 4.905t 2

b) highest elevation

dy
= 10 − 9.81t = 0
dt
t = 1.019 s
y highest = 20 + 10 × 1.019 − 4.905 × 1.019 2 = 25.1(m )

c) ball hits the ground

y = 20 + 10t − 4.905t 2 = 0
t = −1.243s or 3.28s
vt =3.28 = 10 − 9.81 × 3.28 = −22.2(m s )

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1.4 Uniform Rectilinear Motion
When the velocity of a particle is constant,

dx
= v = cons tan t
dt
x t
∫x0
dx = v ∫ dt
t0

x = x 0 + vt

1.5 Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

When the acceleration is constant,

dv
= a = cons tan t
dt
v t
∫
v0
dv = a ∫ dt
t0
dv vdv
v = v0 + at or = = a = cons tan t
dt dx
dx
= v = v0 + at v x

dt ∫ vdv = a ∫
v0 x0
dx
1 v 2 = v 0 + 2a ( x − x 0 )
2
x = x0 + v 0 t + at 2
2

1.6 Motion of Several Particles

Relative Motion of Two Particles

The relative position coordinate of B with respect to A is denoted by

xB A = xB − x A
or
xB = x A + xB A

The relative velocity of B with respect to A is denoted by

vB A = vB − v A
or
vB = v A + vB A
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The relative acceleration of B with respect to A is denoted by

aB A = aB − a A
or
aB = a A + aB A

Dependent Motions
In the case of three blocks of Fig. 11.9,

2 x A + 2 x B + xC = constant : 2DOF
1 linearly dependent equation
3 state variables
then
2v A + 2v B + vC = 0
2a A + 2a B + a C = 0

Example 4)
A ball is thrown vertically from the 12-m level in an elevator shaft with an initial velocity of 18 m/s. At
the same instant an open-platform elevator passes the 5-m level, moving upward with a constant velocity
of 2m/s. Determine (a) when and where the ball will hit the elevator, (b) the relative velocity of the ball
with respect to the elevator when the ball hits the elevator.

Ans)
Motion of the Ball
: uniformly accelerated motion
v B = v0 + at = 18 − 9.81t
1 2
y B = y 0 + v0 t + at = 12 + 18t − 4.905t 2
2
Motion of the Elevator
: uniform motion
v E = +2 m s
y E = y 0 + v E t = 5 + 2t

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 Ball Hits the Elevator
When the ball hits the elevator,
yE = yB
5 + 2t = 12 + 18t − 4.905t 2
t = −0.39 or
t = 3.65
y E = 5 + 2 × 3.65 = 12.30(m )
v B E = v B − v E = 18 − 9.81t − 2 = 16 − 9.81t
= 16 − 9.81 × 3.65 = −19.81(m s )

Example 5)
Collar A and block B are connected by a cable passing over
three pulleys C, D, and E as shown. Pulleys C and E are
fixed, while D is attached to a collar which is pulled
downward with a constant velocity of 75m/s. At t=0,
collar A starts moving downward form position K with a
constant acceleration and no initial velocity. Knowing that
the velocity of collar A is 300 mm/s as it passes through
point L,

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determine the change in elevation, the velocity, and the acceleration of block B when collar A passes
through L.

Ans)
Motion of Collar A
We place the origin O at the upper horizontal surface
and choose the positive direction downward.
At t = 0 (v A )0 = 0
x A = ( x A )0

When xA = L
v A = 300mm / s
v A = (v A )0 + 2a A [x A − ( x A )0 ]
2 2

300 2 = 0 + 2a A × 200
a A = 225mm / s 2

v A = (v A )0 + a A t
300 = 0 + 225t
t = 1.333s
Motion of Pulley D

aD = 0
v D = 75mm / s
x D = ( x D )0 + v D t = ( x D )0 + 75t

At t = 1.333s
x D − ( x D )0 = 75 × 1.333 = 100(mm )

Motion of Block B
The total length of the cable is constant. Considering
the times t = 0 and t = 1.333s,

x A + 2 x D + x B = ( x A )0 + (2 x D )0 + ( x B )0
[x A − (x A )0 ] + 2[x D − (x D )0 ] + [x B − (x B )0 ] = 0
x A + 2 x D + x B = ( x A )0 + (2 x D )0 + ( x B )0
[x A − (x A )0 ] + 2[x D − (x D )0 ] + [x B − (x B )0 ] = 0
200 + 2 × 100 + [x B − (x B )0 ] = 0
x B − (x B )0 = −400mm

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 v A + 2v D + v B = 0
300 + 2 × 75 + v B = 0
v B = −450 mm s
a A + 2a D + a B = 0
225 + 2 × 0 + a B = 0
a B = −225 mm s 2

Homework 1
Problems 11.34, 11.41, 11.45, 11.47, 11.57

1.9 Position Vector, Velocity, and Acceleration

— Curviliear motion: motion along a curve other than a straight

line
— Position vector: position of the particle w.r.t. the reference
frame, r
— Average velocity: Δr (t )
Δt
Δr (t ) dr (t )
— Instantaneous velocity: v (t ) = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt
Δv(t ) dv(t )
— Instantaneous acceleration: a(t ) = lim =
Δt →0 Δt dt

1.10 Derivatives of Vector Functions

Let P(u) and Q(u) be vector functions of the scalar variable u.
Then

— Sum of two vector functions of the same scalar variable u:

d (P + Q ) dP dQ
= +
du du du
— Product of a scalar function f(u) and a vector function P(u):

d ( fP ) df dP
= P+ f
du du du

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— Scalar product and vector product:

d (P • Q ) dP dQ
= •Q + P•
du du du
d (P × Q ) dP dQ
= ×Q + P×
du du du
— Rectangular components of the derivative of a vector function P(u):

P = Px i + PY j + PZ k

where i, j, k are unit vectors corresponding to the x, y, z axes.

dP dPx dPy dP
= i+ j+ z k
du du du du
— Rate of Change of a Vector:

dP dPx dPy dP
= i+ j+ z k
dt dt dt dt
— The rate of change of a vector is the same with respect to a fixed frame and with respect to a frame
in translation.

1.11 Rectangular Components of Velocity and Acceleration

The position vector r of a particle in rectangular axes can be written
r = xi + yj + zk
where the coordinates x, y, z are functions of t. Differentiating twice, we obtain

dr dx dy dz
v= = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
dv d x
2 2
d y d 2z
a= = i + 2 j+ 2 k
dt dt 2 dt dt

1.12 Motion Relative to a Frame in Translation

— Fixed frame of Reference: the reference frame
attached to the earth
— Moving Frames of Reference: the reference frame in
either translation or rotation
— Any frame can be designated as “fixed; all other
frames not rigidly attached to this frame will be
described as “moving”.

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—

rB = r A + rB A
vB = vA + vB A
aB = a A + aB A

: The absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining the motion of A and the relative motion of B
with respect to the moving frame attached to A.

Example 1.8)
A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 240m/s at a target B located 600m above the gun A and at a
horizontal distance of 3600m. Neglecting air resistance, determine the value of the firing angle α.

Ans)
Horizontal Motion
At x = 3600m (v x )0 = 240 cos α
x = (v x )0 t = 240t cos α
3600 = 240t cos α
15
t=
cos α
Vertical Motion
(v )
y 0 = 240 sin α
a = −9.81 m s 2

y = (v y )0 t + at 2 = 240t sin α − 4.90t 2

1
2
Projectile Hits Target
2
15 ⎛ 15 ⎞
y = 240 sin α − 4.90⎜ ⎟ = 600
cos α ⎝ cos α ⎠
tan α = 0.574 and 2.69
α = 29.9 o and 69.6 o

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Example1.9)
Automobile A is traveling east at the constant speed of
36km/h. As automobile A crosses the intersection shown,
automobile B starts from rest 35m north of the intersection
and moves south with a constant acceleration of 1.2m/s2.
Determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of B
relative to A 4s after A crosses the intersection.

Ans) We choose x and y axes with origin at the intersection

of the two streets and with positive senses directed
respectively east and north.
Motion of Automobile A

v A = 10 m s
For any time t
aA = 0
v A = 10 m s
x A = ( x A )0 + v A t = 0 + 10t
For t = 5s
aA = 0
v A = 10 m s
x A = 10 × 5 = 50(m )
Motion of Automobile B
For any time t
a B = −1.2 m s 2
v B = (v B )0 + a B t = 0 − 1.2t

y B = ( y B )0 + (v B )0 t +
1 1
a B t 2 = 35 + 0 − × 1.2 × t 2
2 2
For t = 5s
a B = −1.2 m s 2
v B = −1.2 × 5 = −6.0(m s )

y B = 35 − × 1.2 × 5 2 = 20(m )
1
2

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Motion of B Relative to A
We draw the triangle corresponding to the vector equation rB = rA+ rB/A and obtain the magnitude and
direction of the position vector of B relative to A.

rB/A= 53.9m α = 21.8°

vB/A = 11.66m/s β = 31.0°

Homework
Problems 11.97, 11.103, 11.120, 11.131

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1.13 Tangential and Normal Components

Plane Motion of a Particle

— See Fig. 11.21 and Fig. 11.22

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Let us consider a particle which moves along a curve contained in the plane of the figure. Let P be the
position of the particle at a given instant. We attach at P a unit vector et tangent to the path of the
particle and pointing in the direction of motion. Let et / be the unit vector corresponding to the position
P/ of the particle at a later instant. Drawing both vectors from the same origin O/, we define the vector
Δet = et / - et . Since et / and et are of unit length, their tips lie on a circle of radius 1. Denoting by Δθ
the angle formed by et / and et , we find that the magnitude of Δet is 2sin(Δθ/2). Considering now the
vector Δet / Δθ, we note that as Δθ approaches zero, this vector becomes tangent to the unit circle,
perpendicular to et , and that its magnitude approaches
2 sin (Δθ 2) sin (Δθ 2)
lim = lim =1
θ
Δ →0 Δθ Δθ →0 Δθ 2
Denoting this vector by en , we wirte
Δe t
e n = lim
Δθ → 0 Δθ
de t
en =
dθ
Since the velocity v of the particle is tangent to the path, it can be expressed as the product of the scalar v
and the unit vector et :
v = ve t
dv dv de
a= = et + v t
dt dt dt
But de t de t dθ ds
=
dt dθ ds dt
⎛1⎞ v
= e n ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟v = e n
⎝ρ⎠ ρ
where ρ is the radius of curvature of the path at P. Thus,

dv dv v2
a= = et + en
dt dt ρ

The scalar components of the acceleration are dv

at =
dt
v2
an =
ρ

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1.14. Radial and transverse Components

— See Fig. 11.25

de r
= eθ
dθ
deθ
= −e r
dθ

In certain problems of motion, the position of the particle P is defined by its polar coordinates r and θ. It
is then convenient to resolve the velocity and acceleration of the particle into components parallel and
perpendicular, respectively, to the line OP. These components are called radial and transverse
components. A derivation similar to the one we used to determine the derivative of the unit vector et
leads to the relations

We express the time derivatives of the unit vectors as follows:

de r de r dθ dθ
= = eθ
dt dθ dt dt
deθ deθ dθ dθ
= = −e r
dt dθ dt dt
Using dots to indicate differentiation with respect to t,

e& r = θ&eθ
e& = −θ&e
θ r

The position vector r of P is expressed as rer. Thus,

v=
d
(re r ) = r&e r + re& r
dt
v = r&e r + rθ&eθ
Differentiating again wrt t,

a=
d
dt
v=
d
dt
(
r&e r + rθ&eθ )
= &r&er + r&e&r + r&θ&eθ + rθ&&eθ + rθ&e& θ

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 ( ) ( )
a = &r& − rθ& 2 e r + rθ&& + 2r&θ& eθ

In the case of a particle moving along a circle of center O, we have r = constant:

v = rθ&eθ

a = −rθ& 2 e r + rθ&&eθ

Extension to the Motion of a Particle in Space: Cylindrical Coordinates

— See fig. 11.26
The position of a particle P in space is sometimes defined by
its cylindrical coordinates R, θ, and z; unit vectors er, eθ, and k.
Then the position vector r of the particle P can be written as

r = Re R + zk
Thus
d
v= r = R& e R + Rθ&eθ + z&k
dt
d
a= v= R
dt
( ) ( )
&& − Rθ& 2 e + Rθ&& + 2 R& θ& e + &z&k
R θ

Example 1.10)
A motorist is traveling on a curved section of highway of
radius 2500ft at the speed of 60 mi/h. The motorist suddenly
applies the brakes, causing the automobile to slow down at a
constant rate. Knowing that after 8s the speed has been
reduced to 45mi/h, determine the acceleration of the
automobile immediately after the brakes have been applied.

Ans)
Tangential Component of Acceleration

⎛ 5280 ft ⎞
60mi / h = 60 × ⎜ ⎟ = 88 ft / s
⎝ 3600s ⎠
45mi / h = 66 ft / s

Δv 66 ft / s − 88 ft / s
at = = = −2.75 ft / s 2
Δt 8s

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Normal Component of Acceleration

an =
v2
=
(88 ft / s )
2
= 3.10 ft / s 2
ρ 2500 ft

Magnitude and Direction of Acceleration

a n 3.10 ft / s 2
tan α = =
at 2.75 ft / s 2
α = 48.4 o
an
a= = 4.14 ft / s 2
sin α
Homework
Problems 11.141, 11.142, 11.169, 11.177, 11.C3

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