Food

Chemistry
Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741
www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

By-products from different citrus processes as a source of

customized functional fibres
Francisco R. Marı́n a,*, Cristina Soler-Rivas a, Obdulio Benavente-Garcı́a b,
Julian Castillo b, José A. Pérez-Alvarez c
a
Unit of Food Science and Technology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Ctra de Colmenar, Km 15, 28049 Madrid, Spain
b
Research and Development Department, Furfural Español, S.A. Camino Viejo de Pliego s/n, Alcantarilla, E-80320 Murcia, Spain
c
Dep Tecnologı́a Agroalimentaria, E.P.S.O. Universidad Miguel Hernández, Ctra de Beniel, Km 3.2, 03312 Orihuela (Alicante), Spain

Received 18 April 2005; received in revised form 18 April 2005; accepted 18 April 2005

Abstract

Dietary fibre encompasses a huge variety of macromolecules, exhibiting a wide range of physicochemical properties. Citrus fibre can
be obtained from different industrial sources and different kinds of citrus. The chemical components of fibre (pectin, lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose), together with other compounds, such as flavonoids, were analysed in nine different industrial sources. Final fibre com-
position was more dependent on the industrial process than on the type of citrus. The chemical changes gone by citrus fibre showed losses
of functional values; i.e. soluble dietary fibre and ascorbic acid content decreased when waste products were transformed into fibres. The
water-holding and lipid-holding capacities of analysed citrus fibres suggested a non-linear behaviour of these properties for the analysed
citrus fibres.
 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Citrus; Fibre; Flavonoids; Ascorbic acid; TAA; Technological properties

1. Introduction mass (Cohn & Cohn, 1997). Citrus wastes constitute a

Citrus is the most abundant crop in the world. Its world-
wide production is over 88 · 106 tons and one-third of the
crop is processed. Oranges, lemons, grapefruits and man-
darins represent approximately 98% of the entire industri-
alized crop, oranges being the most relevant with
approximately 82% of the total. Citrus fruits are processed,
mainly to obtain juice, but also, in the canning industry, to
produce marmalade, segments of mandarin and by the
chemical industry to extract flavonoids and essential oils
(Izquierdo & Sendra, 2003).
Worldwide industrial citrus wastes may be estimated at
more than 15 · 106 tons, as the amount of residue obtained
from the fruits accounts for 50% of the original whole fruit
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 914973776; fax: +34 914973579.
E-mail address: francisco.marin@uam.es (F.R. Marı́n).
severe environmental problem (Laufenberg, Kunz, & Nyst-
roem, 2003; Montgomery, 2004). They consist of peels
(albedo and flavedo), which are almost one-fourth of the
whole fruit mass, seeds and fruit pulp, remaining after juice
and essential oil extraction (Braddock, 1999).
On the other hand, the consumption of dietary fibre
plays an important role in the prevention of diseases, such
as constipation, haemorrhoids, hypercholesterolemia and
colorectal cancer (Fernández-López et al., 2004; Guillon
& Champ, 2000; Harris & Ferguson, 1999; Lipkin, Reddy,
Newmark, & Lamprecht, 1999). Dietary fibres are not only
desirable for their nutritional value but also for their func-
tional and technological properties (Thebaudin, Lefebvre,
Harrington, & Bourgeois, 1997). The main advantage of
dietary fibre from citrus fruits, when compared to other
alternative sources, such as cereals, is its higher proportion
of soluble dietary fibre (Gorinstein et al., 2001; Griguelmo-
Miguel & Martı́n-Bel, 1999; Prosky, Asp, Schweizer, De

0308-8146/$ - see front matter  2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.040
 F.R. Marı́n et al. / Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741 737

Vries, & Furda, 1988). This is important, considering that
the requirement for dietary fibre intake must be balanced,
i.e. the water-soluble fraction should represent between
30% and 50% of the total dietary fibre (Eastwood, 1987;
Spiller, 1986). Moreover, citrus fruits have better quality
than other sources of dietary fibre due to the presence of
associated bioactive compounds (flavonoids and vitamin
C) with antioxidant properties, which may provide addi-
sinensis (L.) Osb.), as raw material for industrial processes,
were obtained from commercial orchards located in South-
East of Spain.
2.2. Samples
The citrus industrial by-products obtained from differ-
ent types of industrial process were the following:

Sample Citrus kind Ripening Process Fruit part

CIB-1 Sour orange Immature Extraction of flavonoids Whole
CIB-2 Sour orange Mature Extraction of flavonoids Whole
CIB-3 Satsuma Mature Extraction of flavonoids Peels
CIB-4 Grapefruit Mature Extraction of flavonoids Whole
CIB-5 Satsuma Mature Canning industry Peels
CIB-6 Lemon Mature Juice industry Peels
CIB-7 Lemon Mature Juice industry Pulp
CIB-8 Sweet orange Mature Juice industry Peels
CIB-9 Sweet orange Mature Juice industry Pulp
CIB: Citrus industrial by-product.

tional health-promoting effects (Benavente-Garcı́a, Cas-
tillo, Marı́n, Ortuño, & Del Rı́o, 1997; Marı́n, Frutos,
Pérez-Alvarez, Martı́nez-Sánchez, & Del Rı́o, 2002).
Chemical and physical properties of citrus fibres have
been widely studied (Gorinstein et al., 2001; Griguelmo-
Miguel & Martı́n-Bel, 1999). Many authors have described
citrus dietary fibre content (Schieber, Stintzing, & Carle,
2001), while others have mainly focussed on their flavonoid
concentrations (Coll, Coll, Laencina, & Tomas-Barberan,
1998). Other chemical properties have been extensively
reviewed by Fernández-López et al. (2004). However, no
exhaustive studies combining the above-mentioned analysis
have been reported to study both the effect of the process to
obtain fibre and the effect of previous industrial processes.
This work describes the chemical composition of citrus
by-products from three of the most important fibre
sources: wastes from chemical companies (whose interest
lies in the extraction of natural compounds, such as
flavonoids), wastes from canning companies (whose main
activity is canning citrus ‘‘segments’’) and wastes from
citrus juice production. Moreover, the chemical changes
produced due to the processing of citrus wastes into fibre
are studied, together with an evaluation of chemical prop-
erties, such as total antioxidant activity, and physical
properties, such as LHC (lipid-holding capacity) and
WHC (water-holding capacity).
2. Material and methods
2.1. Plant material
Sour orange (Citrus aurantium L.), satsuma (Citrus
unshiu (Mak) Marc., grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macf),
lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Burm f.), and sweet orange (Citrus
Samples CIB-1, 2, 3 and 4 were obtained as off-products
from an industrial process of flavonoid extraction, in which
aqueous and hydroalcoholic solvents were used. CIB-5 cor-
responds to peels obtained from the chemical peeling dur-
ing the satsuma ‘‘segments’’ canning process. CIB-6, 7, 8
and 9 were obtained from the citrus juices industry as res-
idue from the extraction process performed by using the
‘‘in line’’ extraction system from FMC (Food Machinery
Corporation, USA).
2.3. Analytical methods
2.3.1. Proximate analyses
Ash was determined according to method 923.03 of
AOAC (2000).
Total carbohydrates were determined by the Luff–Schorl
method, according to the reference of the Journal Official
des Comunantes Européenes, n L. 155/32.
Fats were determined according to method 960.39 of
AOAC (2000).
Proteins were determined according to method 955.04 of
AOAC (2000).
2.3.2. Compounds of functional value
The content of ascorbic acid, expressed in mg/l, was
obtained by means of method no. 43056 of the AOAC.
For the quantification of flavonoids, an ODS-C18
(250 · 4.6 mm i.d.) analytical column was used with an
average particle size of 5 mm, using water:acetoni-
trile:methanol:acetic acid (15:2:2:1) as the eluent with a
flow rate of 1 ml/min at 30 C. The absorbance change
was monitored at 280 and 350 nm with a Hewlett Packard
mod. HP 1100 UV/Vis diode array detector (Castillo,
Benavente-Garcı́a, & Del Rı́o, 1994).
738 F.R. Marı́n et al. / Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741

For the identification of flavonoids, the procedure 2.5. Technological properties

described by Castillo et al. (1994) was used. All compounds
isolated were identified by their melting points (Gallenk-
amp, England), mass spectrum (EIMS) (Hewlett-Packard
Co., USA) and the 1H NMR (200 MHz) and 13C NMR
(50 MHz) spectra (Brucker, Germany) in hexadeutero-
DMSO.
2.3.3. Chemical fibres
Pectin content was determined by alkaline hydrolysis
and colorimetric determination of galactouronic acid deriv-
atized with carbazole (Rangana, 1986).
Cellulose was determined according to the Kurschner
method, by acetic–nitric acid digestion of citrus by-prod-
ucts, washed with alcohol, benzole and ether (Lees, 1982).
Hemicellulose content was determined by the Arsenal
Royal Woolwich procedure (Powell and Whittaker modifi-
cation) by titration with thiosulphate (Lees, 1982).
Lignin content was analysed by the Springer method
(Lees, 1982), using sequential extractions in a Soxhlet
extractor with ether, alcohol and water, and subsequent
acid hydrolysis.
Dietary fibre composition (soluble, insoluble and total
fibre) was determined as previously described by Prosky
et al. (1988).
Water-holding capacity (WHC) of citrus by-products
was determined as previously described by Robertson
and Eastwood (1981) by using a simple filtration vacuum
suction system. Experimental conditions were as follows:
particle diameter <0.2 mm; filter of 40 lm; vacuum
pressure of 70 mm Hg; filtration time of 15 min, and 30 C.
Lipid-holding capacity (LHC) of citrus by-products was
measured by a method similar to that previously described
for WHC, using maize oil. Experimental conditions were as
follows: particle diameter <0.2 mm; filter of 40 lm, vacuum
pressure of 70 mm Hg, filtration time of 15 min, and 30 C.
Commercial maize oil was used.
2.6. Antioxidant activity
The TAA (total antioxidant activity) in the fibres and
by-products was measured spectrophotometrically, using
the Miller, Rice-Evans, Davies, Gopinathan, and Milner
(1993) method, based on the relative capacity of different
substances to stabilize the ABTS (2,2 0 -azinobis (3-ethyl-
benzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) radical cation, compared
to a standard antioxidant (trolox) by means of a
response–dosage curve.

2.4. Wastes processing 3. Results and discussion

The citrus industrial by-products (CIB-1 to CIB-9) were
processed for fibre extraction using the following proce-
dure: samples were vacuum-packed as fresh raw material
in 2 kg pouches and promptly frozen to 30 C until fur-
ther use. After thawing (24 h/2–5 C) the material was
scalded in a water bath to remove potential pathogenic
microorganisms (vegetative cells). Afterwards, the fibre
was pressed using a helical press to remove excess liquid
prior to drying. Drying was carried out in an oven at
50 ± 5 C during 24 h to improve the fibre shelf life without
addition of any chemical preservative. A grinder mill and
sieves were used to obtain a powder particle size of less
than 0.2 mm. The final product was a powder with 7%
moisture, as described by Fernández-López et al. (2004).
The chemical composition of the citrus industrial by-
products (Table 1), according to the analysed parame-
ters, seems to be more dependent on the industrial
source than on the citrus species used. By-products
obtained from the chemical industries (CIB-1, 2, 3 and
4) showed lower contents of pectin and flavonoids, and
higher contents of lignin and ash, than by-products from
food industries (CIB-5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). This may easily be
explained by the fact that, in the chemical industry,
hydroalcoholic solvents are used during the process,
which are able to extract both, flavonoids and pectins.
On the other hand, by-products from the food industry
showed 3- to 10-fold higher amounts of total flavonoids
than by-products from the chemical industry. By-

Table 1
Chemical composition of different citrus by-products
Ash Sugar Fat Protein Flavonoid Pectin Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose
(% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW)
CIB-1 13.22 ± 0.26 3.52 ± 0.14 1.58 ± 0.08 8.82 ± 0.42 2.70 ± 0.08 3.52 ± 0.27 12.52 ± 1.11 39.00 ± 3.12 8.32 ± 0.79
CIB-2 11.03 ± 0.29 8.01 ± 0.23 0.55 ± 0.03 12.87 ± 0.90 1.51 ± 0.02 6.54 ± 0.56 14.73 ± 1.32 20.74 ± 1.92 6.57 ± 0.56
CIB-3 10.03 ± 0.15 8.50 ± 0.20 1.57 ± 0.06 7.33 ± 0.33 3.06 ± 0.06 2.58 ± 0.22 13.54 ± 1.26 30.53 ± 2.35 11.04 ± 0.98
CIB-4 8.09 ± 0.41 8.02 ± 0.36 0.52 ± 0.02 12.51 ± 0.87 3.04 ± 0.03 8.53 ± 0.68 11.56 ± 0.98 26.57 ± 2.01 5.59 ± 0.42
CIB-5 5.05 ± 0.22 10.07 ± 0.54 1.59 ± 0.09 7.50 ± 0.21 5.09 ± 0.05 16.01 ± 1.21 8.59 ± 0.76 22.55 ± 2.22 6.01 ± 0.56
CIB-6 2.52 ± 0.15 6.52 ± 0.48 1.51 ± 0.11 7.00 ± 0.44 12.54 ± 0.62 13.00 ± 1.06 7.56 ± 0.54 23.06 ± 2.11 8.09 ± 0.81
CIB-7 2.54 ± 0.05 9.01 ± 0.87 3.09 ± 0.12 8.72 ± 0.36 4.52 ± 0.10 22.53 ± 1.95 7.55 ± 0.66 36.22 ± 3.24 11.05 ± 1.09
CIB-8 2.56 ± 0.10 9.57 ± 0.22 4.00 ± 0.15 9.06 ± 0.38 4.50 ± 0.15 23.02 ± 2.12 7.52 ± 0.59 37.08 ± 3.10 11.04 ± 1.05
CIB-9 2.55 ± 0.09 6.04 ± 0.41 1.52 ± 0.05 6.55 ± 0.32 11.00 ± 0.54 12.07 ± 1.12 7.51 ± 0.62 24.52 ± 2.00 7.57 ± 0.66
The results are expressed as an average ±ES (n = 7).
 F.R. Marı́n et al. / Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741 739

products from the canning industry (CIB-5) showed
lower contents of flavonoids than samples CIB-6, 7, 8
and 9 and higher than CIB-1, 2, 3 and 4. This might
be because the canning industry uses hot chemical peel-
ing with NaOH. Under these conditions, the flavonoid
skeleton open to the chalcone form, becoming more sol-
uble and leaving a solid matrix.
The pectin content of food industry by-products (CIB-5,
6, 7, 8 and 9) was 2- to 10-fold higher than those obtained
from the chemical industry. In CIB-1, 2, 3 and 4, pectin
contributed to the total amount of chemical fibres in a per-
centages ranging from 4% to 16% while, in the food indus-
try by-products (CIB-5, 6, 7, 8 and 9), the percentage
ranged from 25–30%.
Lignin in by-products originating from the chemical
industry, contributed up to 20–30% of the total cell wall
components of fibre. Lignin and ash showed higher con-
tents in these by-products compared to those originating
from the food industry. These fractions are less soluble
and, therefore, hydroalcoholic solvents should not extract
them; this produces a concentration effect on the studied
by-products.
The highest content in the chemical components of fibre
corresponded to CIB-7 and 8, which are the pulp fraction
obtained from lemon and orange juice production, respec-
tively. CIB-7 and 8 showed a total amount of chemical
fibre constituents of approximately 77% DW (dry weight).
On the other hand, the peel fraction (CIB-6 and 9),
together with CIB-2, showed the lowest values of the four
analysed polymers. In this case, two different waste-streams
from the same fruit and same industrial process resulted in
different compositions. This could be due to the fact that
the ‘‘in line’’ extraction system (FMC, USA) performs an
extraction by squeezing after incisions have been made in
the polar areas of the fruit. Afterwards, the pulp and juice
are separated by means of a prefinisher tube, determining
different tissue compositions of wastes.
During the processing of citrus by-products into fibre,
the raw material undergoes two critical steps: scalding
(which includes washing) and drying. CIB-1 and CIB-7
were selected to evaluate the effect of the described process.
CIB-1 is the most abundant by-product from the chemical
industry, and CIB-7 has a pale yellow colour that may be
more convenient for food formulations. In general terms,
contents of ash, sugar, protein, flavonoid and pectin
decreased, while the contents of fat, lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose increased after this treatment (Table 2).
The most relevant effect due to processing is observed on
pectin and lignin contents. Pectin levels decreased by 58%
and 35% compared to the original amount in CIB-1 and
CIB-7, respectively. On the other hand, lignin levels
increased up to 89% and 46% with respect the initial values
found for CB-1 and 7, respectively.
The processing of by-products into fibre also affects
those parameters known to determine the nutritional func-
tional value of a product. In the studied samples, losses in
soluble dietary fibre, flavonoids, ascorbic acid and total
antioxidant activity (TAA) were observed while insoluble
dietary fibre levels increased (Table 3). Losses in soluble
dietary fibre may be explained by pectin lost as a conse-
quence of the washing effect of scalding. On the other hand,
the increase in insoluble dietary fibre may be explained by a
concentration effect, due to the former scalding step. Other
valuable compounds, such as flavonoids, drop slightly
while ascorbic acid practically disappears from the pro-
cessed material. Values of ascorbic acid in CIB-1 and
CIB-7 were extremely low when compared with that
reported by other authors (Gorinstein et al., 2001).
However, these studies were done on pulp and peel frac-
tions obtained by peeling fresh fruits. In the present study,

Table 2
Effect of the transforming process on citrus fibre composition
Ash Sugar Fat Protein Flavonoid Pectin Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose
(% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW) (% of DW)
CIB-1 13.22 ± 0.26 3.52 ± 0.14 1.58 ± 0.08 8.82 ± 0.42 2.70 ± 0.08 3.52 ± 0.27 12.52 ± 1.11 39.00 ± 3.12 8.32 ± 0.79
CIB-1 Fibre 6.57 ± 0.10 2.54 ± 0.10 1.86 ± 0.07 7.55 ± 0.33 2.47 ± 0.06 1.59 ± 1.02 23.79 ± 1.85 40.51 ± 3.64 10.07 ± 0.99
CIB-7 2.54 ± 0.05 9.01 ± 0.87 3.09 ± 0.12 8.72 ± 0.36 4.52 ± 0.10 22.53 ± 1.95 7.55 ± 0.66 36.22 ± 3.24 11.05 ± 1.09
CIB-7 Fibre 2.54 ± 0.09 2.50 ± 0.08 6.01 ± 0.23 5.50 ± 0.12 4.22 ± 0.02 15.04 ± 1.12 11.04 ± 0.88 39.02 ± 3.55 12.01 ± 1.11
The results are expressed as an average ±ES (n = 7).

Table 3
Effect of transforming process on citrus fibre functional compounds and properties
Soluble Dietary Insoluble Flavonoid Ascorbic TAA
Fibre (% of DW) Dietary Fibre (% of DW) mg/g Ac mg/g mg/g
CIB-1 6.75 ± 0.50 56.00 ± 5.24 27.01 ± 0.84 0.21 ± 0.01 20.32 ± 0.40
CIB-1 Fibre 3.10 ± 0.22 74.62 ± 6.99 24.20 ± 0.63 ND 18.15 ± 0.12
CIB-7 23.31 ± 1.76 54.03 ± 4.15 45.19 ± 1.03 5.64 ± 0.11 60.07 ± 1.03
CIB-7 Fibre 17.15 ± 1.43 64.56 ± 6.32 40.22 ± 0.2 0.42 ± 0.01 47.34 ± 0.66
The values are expressed as an average value ±ES (n = 3).
ND: Not detected.
740 F.R. Marı́n et al. / Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741

by-products that underwent usual milling and extraction

with hydroalcoholic solvents were used. For CIB-7, the
pulp is squeezed through a sieve, the prefinisher tube of 8

WHC (g of water/g of product)

the ‘‘in line’’ system. Later it is collected in batches from
a tank or washed again. Whatever the case, pulp is easily
6
broken up and ascorbic acid is either washed or degraded
by air oxidation. Dietary fibre values obtained in this work
are in accordance with those obtained by Lario et al. 4
(2004), and more than 25–30% of those obtained by Brad-
dock and Graumlich (1981); differences may be due to the
different analytical method and or raw material used in the 2
work.
As expected, total antioxidant activity also fell with the
processing, being higher for CIB-7 and its transformed 0
0 5 10 15 20
product, than for CIB-1 and its counterpart. In light of Soluble Fibre (%)
the ascorbic acid values, most of the contribution to
Fig. 1. Relationship between WHC and soluble dietary fibre content of
TAA might be due to the flavonoid antioxidant activity. different citrus by-products and fibres. The figures express an average
The lower flavonoid contents of CIB-1 and CIB-1 fibres, content in water in g of water/g of product, the standard errors (±SE)
resulting from the industrial process of flavonoid extrac- being shown by vertical bars (n = 3), when these are greater than the
tion, were not the only reason for this lower TAA. The symbols.
flavonoids present in CIB-1, CIB-7, and their counterparts,
correspond to those previously described for sour orange
and lemon (Vandercook, Tisserat, & Berhow, 1990). In 0,35
consequence, neoeriocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin and
neodiosmin were found at concentrations of approximately
LHC (g of oil/g of product)

0,30
25%, 40%, 25% and 0.7% DW, respectively in CIB-1 (sour
orange), and eriocitrin, hesperidin, diosmin and luteolin-7- 0,25
O-rutinoside, at concentrations of approximately 37%,
48%, 4% and 10%, respectively in CIB-7 (lemon). Sour
0,20
orange flavonoids have lower relative antioxidant poten-
tials than have lemon flavonoids (Marı́n et al., 2002;
0,15
Marı́n, Martinez, Uribesalgo, Castillo, & Frutos, 2002;
Rice-Evans, Miller, & Paganda, 1997). For instance, narin-
gin has a TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) of 0,10

about 0.05 while neoeriocitrin and neohesperidin have a 8 10 12 14 16

TEAC of approximately 1, while all the lemon flavonoids
have individual antioxidant potentials, expressed as TEAC,
over 1. Furthermore, higher pharmacological value has
been reported for lemon flavonoids than for sour orange,
specially regarding the presence of diosmin, that constitutes
a quarter of all of them (Marı́n et al., 2002; Marı́n & Mar-
tinez et al., 2002). This fact, together with the higher con-
tent of soluble dietary fibre, suggests that lemon citrus
fibre may be of better nutritional value than sour orange
fibre. Besides, conditioning of citrus industrial by-products
leads to a decrease in the functional value of the fibre,
which could be avoided using milder conditions.
Finally, water-holding capacity (WHC) and lipid-hold-
ing capacity (LHC) were measured for each one of the
by-products. Attempts have been made to correlate WHC
and LHC with each one of the measured chemical constit-
uents of fibres and soluble and insoluble dietary fibre, to
propose a main contributor, in citrus fibres, to these tech-
nological properties. The best fit for WHC was found for
soluble dietary fibre content (Fig. 1) with correlation of
r2 = 0.998 for a cubic polynomial expression (y = 0+ax
+bx2+cx3). On the other hand, the best fit for LHC was
Lignin (%)
Fig. 2. Relationship between LHC and lignin content of different citrus
by-products and fibres. The figures express an average content in water in
g of oil/g of product, the standard errors (±SE) being shown by vertical
bars (n = 3), when these are greater than the symbols.
found for lignin content (Fig. 2) with a poorer correlation
of r2 = 0.878 for an exponential expression (y = a [1ebx]).
These results show that WHC and LBC, in citrus fibres, do
not behave linearly. On the contrary, maximum WHC for
citrus fibres seems to be above the soluble dietary fibre val-
ues found in the analysed samples. However, LBC seems
not to increase further with contents of lignin over 14%.
These results may help to design better foods in the future
by adjusting the contents of these constituents.
4. Conclusions
Industrial citrus by-products have been traditionally
used as raw material for pectin production (Laufenberg
et al., 2003). On the other hand, many works have reported
 F.R. Marı́n et al. / Food Chemistry 100 (2007) 736–741
citrus by-products as putative sources of dietary fibre.
However, there are few publications regarding direct appli-
cation on food. Recently, some researchers have published
the use of citrus fibres for meat products (Fernández-López
et al., 2004; Lario et al., 2004). Their organoleptic charac-
teristics may mask the typical flavour of citrus. Further-
more, the disparate collection of citrus fibres may help
for the design of new meat and other types of products.
The composition of citrus industrial wastes shows large
variations in their composition. Lignin, cellulose, hemicel-
lulose and protein contents can vary 2-fold their contents
while, in others, such as fat and flavonoids, variations of
8-fold can be found. Processing of industrial wastes also
carries some variation in citrus fibre composition and its
technological properties. For instance, scalding gives a
maximum performance of LHC, but produces a sensitive
decrease in soluble dietary fibre, reducing the WHC of
the final product. Similarly, ascorbic acid and antioxidant
activity of citrus fibre are also reduced. Although more
research is needed on processing of citrus waste into fibres
to optimise their properties, the broad composition of the
different citrus industrial wastes, together with the changes
produced during processing and an appropriate blending,
might allow the design of specific fibres for different
purposes.
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