3.

CURVATURE

3.1 Introduction
As we have seen, objects such as the shape operator and the principal curva-
tures give a great deal of information to us about the geometry of a surface. We
have also seen, however, that it may be di¢ cult or impossible to actually com-
pute these objects precisely. In this chapter we will introduce two computable
"invariants" of a surface which are associated to the shape operator via linear
algebra. In the next chapter we will then consider various results which indicate
the kind of information these objects provide.
The two most basic linear algebraic invariants associated to a linear trans-
formation are its determinant and its trace. Because the shape operator at a
point p is a linear transformation, we may de…ne two geometric quantities in
terms of the shape operator’s determinant and trace.

De…nition 3.1.1 Let S denote the shape operator of a surface M . The

Gauss (or Gaussian) curvature of M at p 2 M is de…ned to be K(p) = det(Sp ).
The mean curvature of M at p 2 M is de…ned to be H(p) = 12 trace(Sp ):

These two quantities are fundamental to the study of the geometry of sur-
faces, as we shall see.
Moreover, even though K and H are de…ned in terms of the shape operator,
we will see that they may be calculated by calculus alone. Therefore, we are
led back to our main premise that linear algebra is the bridge which allows
geometry to be studied via calculus. We have seen that the matrix of the shape
operator with respect to a basis of principal vectors is given by

k1 (p) 0
0 k2 (p)
with detenninant and trace equal to k1 k2 and k1 + k2 respectively. Hence,
k1 + k2
K = k1 k2 , H=
2
Recall that if U is chosen as a normal instead of U, then k(u) changes
sign also. Since Gauss curvature is the product of two such changes, it does not
change sign. Note, however, that H
does change sign under a change of unit normal. These observations are
important because the sign of K has meaning.
Suppose K(p) > 0. Since K = k1 k2 , k1 and k2 must have the same sign.
But k1 = max k(u) and k2 = min k(u) so k(u) has the same sign for all u. If
k(u) > 0 for all u then M bends toward U in every direction. If k(u) < 0 for
all u, then M bends away from U in every direction.

Example 3.1.3. (Bending and Gauss Curvature)

1
 1. For K(p) > 0,consider the elliptic paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 at p = (0; 0; 0).
The paraboloid is tangent to the xy-plane at p and, clearly, whichever vertical
nonnal is chosen, either all k(u) are positive or all are negative.
2. For K(p) < 0, consider the hyperbolic paraboloid z = x2 y 2 at p =
(0; 0; 0). Again, the tangent plane at p is the xy-plane. This time, however, the
surface both bends away andtowards either chosen normal.

Now we will focus on straightforward ways to compute curvature in terms

of calculus and linear algebra. Let v and w be linearly independent tangent
vectors at p 2 M . This means simply that one vector is not a multiple of the
other. Since they are linearly independent, v and w fonn a basis for Tp (M ) and
any vector is a linear combination of them. Hence, we may write the e¤ects of
the shape operator as

S(v) = av + bw
S(w) = cv + dw

a c
This says that the matrix of S whit respect to the basis fv; wg is .
b d
Now det(S) = ad bc = K and trace(S) = a + d = 2H by de…nition, so we
obtain

S(v) S(w) = (av + bw) (cv + dw)

= ac(v v) + ad(v w) + bc(w v) + bd(w w)
= 0 + (ad bc)(v w) + 0
= det(S)v w
= Kv w

S(v) w+v S(w) = (av + bw) w + v (cv + dw)

= a(v w) + d(v w)
= (a + d)(v w)
= tr(S)v w
= 2Hv w

Now combine Exercise 3.1.5 whit the formulas above to get

(S(v) S(w)) (v w) = K(v w) (v w)

(S(v) v)(S(w) w) (S(v) w)(S(w) v) = K((v v)(w w) (v w)(w v))

2
 (S(v) v)(S(w) w) (S(v) w)(S(w) v)
K=
(v v)(w w) (v w)(w v)
and

(S(v) w+v S(w)) (v w) = 2H(v w) (v w)

= (S(v) v)(w w) (S(v) w)(w v) + (v v)(S(w) w) (v w)(S(w)
= 2H((v v)(w w) (v w)(w v))

Finally, by dividing through, we obtain

(S(v) v)(w w) (S(v) w)(w v) + (v v)(S(w) w) (v w)(S(w) v)

H=
2((v v)(w w) (v w)(w v))

There is another more geometric way to view Gauss curvature in terms of

the Gauss map G : M ! S 2 . We have seen in Chapter 2 that the derivative of
the Gauss map is the negative of
the shape operator, G (v) = S(v). Take the basis fxu ; xv g and consider

G (xu ) G (xv ) = ( S(xu )) ( S(xv ))

= Kxu xv

Now, jG (xu ) G (xv )j and jxu xv j may be thought of as in…nitesimal

pieces of area of the image of the Gauss map on S 2 and M respectively. The
formula above then says that the ratio of these in…nitesimal areas is precisely
jKj. Another way to say this is the following.
Let U be a small open neighborhood of p 2 M and suppose that U is
contracting down to p.
Then

AreaG(U )
jKj = lim
U !p AreaU
This expression means that the magnitude of Gauss curvature mesures the
way in which the unit normal expands or contracts area. We also may identify
the area in the image of the Gauss map as follows:

Proposition 3.1.8. RFor M :x( u; v ), the area of G(M ) is equal to the total
Gauss curvature of M , M KdA:
Proof.
We compute

3
 Z
Area(G(M )) = jG (xu ) G (xv )j dudv
M
Z
= j( S(xu )) ( S(xv ))j dudv
ZM
= K jxu xv j dudv
M
Z
KdA
M

The Gauss map will be of greater importance to us when we study the

complex-analytic approach to minimal surfaces in Chapter 4. With this in mind,
we introduce some convenient terminology. A surface M is said to be f lat if
K(p) = 0 for every p 2 M and it is said to be minimal if H(p) = 0 for every
p 2 M . We will consider minimal surfaces extensively in two later chapters and
we will see exactly where the term "minimal" comes from. The term "‡at" is
derived from the fact that the prime example of a ‡at surface is the plane. We
have already seen that the shape operator of a plane is identically zero, so it is
immediate that its determinant, the Gauss curvature, is identically zero as well.
It may not be so obvious however that other surfaces may be ‡at.

3.2 Calculating Curvature

The formula for K and H for general v and w may be particularized to xu
and xv when a patch x is given for M . With this in mind we introduce the
following traditional notation:

E = xu xu F = xu xv G = xv xv

l = S(xu ) xu m = S(xu ) xv = xu S(xv )....n = S(xv ) xv

Then, replacing the general v, w by xu , xv we have the two curvature
formulas

(S(xu ) xu )(S(xv ) xv ) (S(xu ) xv )(S(xv ) xu )

K=
(xu xu )(xv xv ) (xu xv )(xv xu )
ln m2
=
EG F 2

(S(xu ) xu )(xv xv ) (S(xu ) xv )(xv xu ) + (xu xu )(S(xv ) xv ) (xu xv )(S(xv ) xu )

H=
2((xu xu )(xv xv ) (xu xv )(xv xu ))
Gl + En 2F m
=
2(EG F 2 )

4
 Remark 3.2.1. The quantity EG F 2 has already made an apperance as
2
jxu xv j :
Now we come to the fundamental result which allows for computation of K
and H without reference to the shape operator S. The result follows immedi-
ately from Theorem 2.3.5.

Lemma 3.2.2 l = U xu u , m = U xu v , n = U xv v

Now let’s concentrate on computing Gauss and mean curvature for various
surfaces we have met previously. We begin with

Example 3.2.8 (Enneper’s Surface Curvatures)

Let M denote Enneper’s surface with the standard parametrization

u3 v3
x(u; v) = u + uv 2 ; v + vu2 ; u2 v2
3 3
From the parametrization, we can compute the metric coe¢ cients. First, we
require xu = (1 u2 + v 2 ; 2uv; 2u); xv = (2v; 1 v 2 + u2 ; 2v)

E = xu xu = 1 + 2u2 + 2v 2 + u4 + 2u2 v 2 + v 4 = (1 + u2 + v 2 )2
F = xu xv = 2uv 2u3 v + 2uv 3 + 2uv 2uv 3 + 2u3 v 4uv = 0
2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2
G = xv xv = 4u v + 1 v +u v +v v u +u u2 v 2 + u4 + 4v 2 = (1 + u2 + v 2 )2

The unit normal U is foun by taking

xu xv = ( 4uv 2 2u + 2uv 2 2u3 ; 2v 2u2 v + 2v 3 + 4u2 v; 1 (u2 v 2 )2 4u2 v 2 )

= ( 2u(1 + u2 + v 2 ); 2v(1 + u2 + v 2 ); 1 (u2 + v 2 )2 )

whit length squared

2
jxu xv j = (1 + u2 + v 2 )4
which also may be
p computed by noting the consequence of the Lagrange
identity jxu xv j = EG F 2 ; then,
!
2u 2v 1 (u2 + v 2 )2
U= ; ;
1 + u2 + v 2 1 + u2 + v 2 (1 + u2 + v 2 )2

The second patials xu u = ( 2u; 2v; 2); xu v = (2v; 2u; 0) and xv v = (2u; 2v; 2)
the give

5
 l = xu u U
4u2 4v 2 2 2(u2 + v 2 )2
= 2 2
+ 2 2
+
1+u +v 1+u +v (1 + u2 + v 2 )2
2(1 + u2 + v 2 )2
=
(1 + u2 + v 2 )2
=2

Similary n = xv v U = 2 and, clearly, m = xu v U = 0: Then the Gauss

curvature of Enneper’s surface is

ln m2 4
K= 2
=
EG F (1 + u + v 2 )4
2

and the mean curvature is

Gl + En 2F m
H=
2(EG F 2 )
(1 + u2 + v 2 )2 (2) + (1 + u2 + v 2 )2 ( 2) 0
=
2(1 + u2 + v 2 )4
=0

Hence, Enneper’s surface is a minimal surface. We will see exactly how is

parametrization arises in Chapter 4.

3.3 Surfaces of Revolution

We have already seen that many interesting examples of surfaces arise from
revolving curves about an axis. These surfaces of revolution (see Figure 3.2)
have patches of the form x(u; v) = (g(u); h(u) cos v; h(u) sin v): The curves on
the surface which are circles formed by revolving a single point about the axis
are called parallels (denoted ). The curves which look exactly like the original
curve (but rotated out) are called meridians (denoted ) . Also, recall that
g(u) is the distance along the axis of revolution and h(u) is the radius of a
parallel. We have, xu = (g 0 ; h0 cos v; h0 sin v), xv = (0; h sin v; h cos v) and
xu xv = (hh0 ; g 0 h cos v; g 0 h sin v). Hence,

(h0 ; g 0 cos v; g 0 sin v)

U= p
g 02 + h02
Also, the second partial derivates are xu u = (g 00 ; h00 cos v; h00 sin v); xu v =
(0; h0 sin v; h0 cos v) and xvv = (0; h cos v; h sin v): Hence

6
 E = g 02 + h02
F =0
G = h2
(g 00 h0 h00 g 0 )
l= p
g 02 + h02
m=0
hg 0
n= p
g 02 + h02

Finally, the Gauss curvature is camputed to be

g 0 (g 00 h0 h00 g 0 )
K=
h(g 02 + h02 )2
If the original curve (t) = (g(t); h(t); 0) has g 0 (t) 6= 0 for all t , then g is
strictly increasing.
Thus, it is one-to-one and has an inverse function g 1 which is di¤erentiable
as well. Such an inverse allows us to reparametrize the curve De…ne f = h g 1
and get

(u) = g 1 (u) = (gg 1

(u); hg 1
(u); 0)
= (u; f (u); 0)

Thus, our calculations become somewhat easier. For instance, the formula
f 00
for Gauss curvature becomes K = f (1+f 02 )2 . To avoid confusion, we will still

h00
write (u) = (u; h(u); 0) and K = h(1+h02 )2 :