Introduction to model organisms

Aurnab Ghose, 180109

 Model organisms

A model organism is a species that is widely studied,

usually because it has particular experimental
advantages, and it is expected that discoveries made in
the model organism will provide insight into workings of
other organisms (including humans).

Why?

Common ancestry of all organisms resulting conservation

of major aspects of biology
 Typical considerations while selecting Model Organisms

Rapid development with short life cycles

Small adult size

Ready availability and inexpensive maintenance and breeding

Tractability to experimental methodology

Become even more useful when many other scientists work on them

Biology being studied have relevance to humans

 Model organisms
Example 1:
 Model organisms
Example 2:

Text

Washington et al., 2009, PLoS Biol W. Gehring

 Common model organisms
Bacteria: Escherichia coli
Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Arabidopsis: Arabidopsis thaliana
Hydra: Hydra magnipapillata
Worm: Caenorhabditis elegans
Fly: Drosophila melanogaster
Frog: Xenopus laevis
Chick: Gallus gallus
Rat: Rattus norvegicus
Mouse: Mus musculus
“The best material model of a cat is another cat, or preferably the same, cat.”
- Norbert Weiner (1945).
 Bacteria: Escherichia coli

Simple prokaryotic organism but many essential cellular processes

are conserved between bacteria and humans

Basic metabolic processes conserved

DNA replication, DNA damage response, etc discovered in E. coli

Most nobel prizes: 1958, 1959, 1965, 1968, 1978, 1980, 2015, ….
 Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Simple eukaryotic organism but many essential cellular processes are
conserved between yeast and humans

The complete genome sequence obtained in the spring of 1996,

making yeast the first eukaryotic organism to be completely
sequenced

Approx. 20% human disease genes have yeast homologues

Ease of genetic manipulation of yeast allows its use for conveniently

analyzing and functionally dissecting gene products from other
eukaryotes.
 Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae
GENETICS

Nobel Prize 2001: Hartwell, Nurse and Hunt

2016: Ohsumi
 Arabidopsis: Arabidopsis thaliana

Small flowering plant

Has a small genome relative to other plants and is easily grown under laboratory conditions

Amenable to some genetics particularly generation of transgenics

Allows insight into numerous features of plant biology, including those of significant value to agriculture, energy,
environment, and human health
 True tissues,
Germ layers

Multicellularity
 Hydra: Hydra magnipapillata

Regeneration

First phyla with a nervous system

 Worm - Caenorhabditis elegans
Multicellular animal studied at the level of development, genetics,
genomics & neuroscience

Genome sequenced

Grown and genetically manipulated with the speed and ease of a

micro-organism while offering the features of a real animal

Full set of organ systems, has complex sensory systems, shows

coordinated behavior, and it is possible to trace the lineage of every
one of its approximately 1000 constituent cells

MIT
 Worm - Caenorhabditis elegans
Development & apoptosis Nobel Prize 2002: Brenner, Sulston and Horvitz
Hyman lab

www.wormbook.org
 Worm - Caenorhabditis elegans
RNA interference Connectome

Nobel Prize 2006: Mello and Fire courtesy: Chklovskii

 Fly - Drosophila melanogaster

The best characterised model system

Easy-to-manipulate genetic system

High biological complexity

Has provided new insights into forms of cancer, neurodegenerative

diseases, behavior, innate immunity, aging and development.
 Fly - Drosophila melanogaster
Heredity and genetics Development

Tomer et al, 2013

Nobel Prize 1933: Morgan Nobel Prize 1995: Lewis, Nusslein-Volhard &
1946: Muller Weischaus
 Fly - Drosophila melanogaster
Innate immunity Cancer

Markstein et al.,
2014; PNAS

Buchon et al., 2014; Nat Rev Immunol

Willoughby et al., 2012; DMM
Nobel Prize 2011: Hoffmann, (Buetler) &
(Steinman)
Genetic and chemotherapeutic screening
Genetically defined tumours and backgrounds
 Fly - Drosophila melanogaster
Neurodegeneration Behaviour

Feany and Bender labs

Nobel Prize 2017: Hall, Rosbash, Young Nilsen et al, 2004

 Fish - Danio rerio
The embryonic development can be seen through its transparent egg
and closely resembles that of higher vertebrates

Other shared features with humans include blood, kidney, and optical
systems

Genome is half the size of the mammalian genomes and amenable to

forward and reverse genetics
 Fish - Danio rerio

Development Heart function

Arrenberg et al., 2010

 Fmn2 in locomotory behaviour

Ctl-MO zFmn2-MO

(Dhriti Nagar)
 Chick: Gallus gallus

Detailed analysis of development

 Mouse: Mus musculus

Closest mammalian (non-primate) model organism to humans

Genes that code for proteins responsible for carrying out vital
biological processes in both the human and the mouse share a
high degree of similarity.

Therefore, the mouse has already proven extremely useful in

development, genetic, and immunology studies

Transgenics and KO s possible Nobel Prize 2007: Capechhi, Evans, Smithies

A great system for studying and understanding human disease,
as well as a mechanism for investigating new treatment
strategies in ways that cannot be done in humans