Hari Modified Project

Direct-Drive PMSG-Based Wind Energy Conversion Systems With Discrete -Time Direct
Torque Control
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel flux-space-vector-based direct torque control (DTC) scheme
for permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) used in variable-speed direct-drive
wind energy conversion systems (WECSs). The discrete-time control law, which is derived
from the perspective of flux space vectors and load angle, predicts the desired stator flux
vector for the next time-step with the torque and stator flux information only. The space
vector modulation (SVM) is then employed to generate the reference voltage vector, leading
to a fixed switching frequency, as well as lower flux and torque ripples, when compared to
the conventional DTC. Compared with other SVM-based DTC methods in the literature, the
proposed DTC scheme eliminates the use of proportional–integral regulators and is less
dependent on machine parameters, e.g., stator inductances and permanent-magnet flux
linkage, while the main advantages of the DTC, e.g., fast dynamic response and no need of
coordinate transform, are preserved. The proposed DTC scheme is applicable for both
nonsalient-pole and salient-pole PMSGs. The overall control scheme is simple to implement
and is robust to parameter uncertainties and variations of the PMSGs. The effectiveness of
the proposed discrete-time DTC scheme is verified by simulation and experimental results on
a 180-W salient-pole PMSG and a 2.4-kW non salient-pole PMSG used in variable-speed
direct-drive WECSs.
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EEE Dept., GCET Kadapa
Torque Control
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
I. INTRODUCTION
OVER the last two decades, the increasing concerns on energy crisis and
environmental pollutions have significantly promoted the utilization of renewable energy.
Among various renewable energy sources, wind energy has become one of the most cost-
effective sources for electricity generation. The variable -speed wind energy conversion
systems (WECSs), which can be operated in the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
mode, have attracted considerable interests, owing to their high energy production efficiency
and low torque spikes. Among different types of generators, the permanent-magnet
synchronous generators (PMSGs) have been found superior, owing to their advantages such
as high power density, high efficiency, and high reliability. Furthermore, a PMSG with a high
number of poles can be connected directly to a wind turbine without the use of a gearbox,
which significantly reduces the construction, operation, and maintenance costs of the
WECSs.
Typically, the control systems of PMSGs adopt a decoupled current control executed in
a synchronized rotating reference frame. In the last few decades, an alternative electric
machine control scheme called the direct torque control (DTC) has attracted extensive
attention from both academia and industry. Different from the decoupled current control, the
DTC directly controls electromagnetic torque and stator flux linkage instead of armature
currents, hence possessing the merits of fast dynamic response, simple implementation, and
high robustness to external disturbances. The DTC has been applied successfully in high-
performance industrial servo drive systems. For WECS applications, the DTC may facilitate
the realization of MPPT with the optimal torque control , since the optimal torque command
can be applied directly in the DTC without the need of wind speed measurements. In this
way, the outer loop speed or power controller, which is necessary in the decoupled current
control, can be eliminated .
In the conventional DTC, the voltage vector commands are determined primarily by the
outputs of two hysteresis comparators. Once selected, the desired voltage vector will remain
unchanged until the hysteresis states are updated. Although this voltage modulation scheme is
simple to execute, it will lead to irregular and unpredictable torque and flux ripples,
particularly when the DTC is applied on a digital platform. To solve these problems, many
approaches haven developed from different perspectives. One natural thought is to increase
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the number of available voltage vectors, e.g., using multilevel converters , or equally dividing
the sampling period into multiple intervals. However, these methods will increase the
hardware cost, need additional prediction for rotor speed, or have a limited ripple reduction
improvement. Another effective technique is to integrate the space vector modulation (SVM)
algorithm into the DTC. The SVM is able to convert the input voltages into gate signals for
the inverter using a fixed switching frequency. A variety of SVM-based DTC schemes have
been investigated for permanent-magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) in the last few
decades. In general, they can be classified into two categories based on how the voltage
references are generated in the stationary reference frame. In the first category, the decoupled
voltage references in the synchronously rotating reference frame are acquired and then
transformed to the stationary reference me using the rotary coordinate transformation . In the
second category, the voltage references are obtained directly from the incremental stator flux
vectors in the stationary reference frame without coordinate transformation .
Both methods can reduce torque and flux ripples, but need proportional–integral (PI)
controllers to regulate the torque and stator flux errors. The PI gains are usually tuned by a
trial-and-error procedure . Poorly tuned PI gains will deteriorate the dynamic performance of
the DTC. In addition, according to , a real DTC scheme should not contain PI regulators.
More recently, a predictive current control , and a deadbeat direct torque and flux control
were investigated for surface-mounted and interior PMSMs. These control schemes provide
good dynamic performance, provided that the information of some machine parameters, e.g.,
stator inductances and permanent-magnet flux linkage, is accurate. Therefore, the
performance of the control systems would be more or less influenced by the variations of the
machine parameters. Moreover, these control schemes are based on the inverse machine
model or a graphical method, which increase the computational complexity.
This paper proposes a discrete-time SVM-based DTC without PI regulators for direct-
drive PMSG-based WECSs. The discrete-time control law is derived from the prospective of
flux space vectors and load angle. Several machine parameters, e.g., stator inductances and
permanent-magnet flux linkage, are not presented in the control law. This improves the
robustness of the control system to PMSG parameter variations. By adopting the proposed
DTC scheme, the torque and flux ripples are reduced, and the fast dynamic response is
retained when compared with the conventional DTC scheme. The proposed DTC scheme is
validated by simulation and experimental results for a 2.4-kW non salient-pole PMSG and a
180-W salient-pole PMSG used in the direct-drive WECSs.
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1.2 Literature survey:
A review on position/speed sensor less control for permanent-magnet synchronous
machine-based wind energy conversion systems Owing to the advantages of higher
efficiency, greater reliability, and better grid compatibility, the direct-drive permanent-
magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)-based variable-speed wind energy conversion
systems (WECSs) have drawn the highest attention from both academia and industry in the
last few years. Applying mechanical position/speed sensor less control to direct-drive PMSG-
based WECSs will further reduce the cost and complexity, while enhancing the reliability and
robustness of the WECSs. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art and highly applicable
mechanical position/speed sensor less control schemes for PMSG-based variable-speed
WECSs. These include wind speed sensor less control schemes, generator rotor position and
speed sensor less vector control schemes, and direct torque and direct power control schemes
for a variety of direct-drive PMSG-based WECSs.
Control of IPM synchronous generator for maximum wind power generation considering
magnetic saturation Permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) are commonly used
for small variable-speed wind turbines to produce high-efficiency, high-reliability, and low-
cost wind power generation. This paper proposes a novel control scheme for an interior
PMSG (IPMSG) driven by a wind turbine, in which the d-axis and q-axis stator-current
components are optimally controlled to achieve the maximum wind power generation and
loss minimization of the IPMSG. The effect of magnetic saturation, which causes the highly
nonlinear characteristics of the IPMSG, is considered in the control-scheme design. The
optimal d-axis stator-current command is obtained as a function of the IPMSG rotor speed by
solving a constrained nonlinear-optimization problem that minimizes the copper and core
losses of the IPMSG. At any wind speed within the operating range, the IPMSG rotor speed
is optimally controlled to extract maximum wind power. The optimal q-axis stator-current
command is then obtained from the optimal IPMSG rotor speed and d-axis current. To
eliminate the effects of nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation, an input-output feedback
linearization technique is applied to design the high-performance nonlinear current
controllers. The proposed control scheme provides the wind generation system with the
maximum efficiency and high dynamic performance..
Wind speed and rotor position sensor less control for direct-drive PMG wind turbines This
paper proposes a wind speed and rotor position sensor less control for wind turbines directly
driving permanent magnetic generators (PMGs). A sliding-mode observer is designed to
estimate the rotor position of the PMG by using the measured stator currents and the
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commanded stator voltages obtained from the control scheme of the machine-side converter
of the PMG wind turbine. The rotor speed of the PMG (i.e., the turbine shaft speed) is
estimated from its back electromotive force using a model adaptive reference system
observer. Based on the measured output electrical power and estimated rotor speed of the
PMG, the mechanical power of the turbine is estimated by taking into account the power
losses of the wind turbine generator system. A back-propagation artificial neural network is
then designed to estimate the wind speed in real time by using the estimated turbine shaft
speed and mechanical power. The estimated wind speed is used to determine the optimal
shaft speed reference for the PMG control system. Finally, a sensor less control is developed
for the PMG wind turbines to continuously generate the maximum electrical power without
using any wind speed or rotor position sensors. The validity of the proposed estimation and
control algorithms are shown by simulation studies on a 3-kW PMG wind turbine and are
further demonstrated by experimental results on a 300-W practical PMG wind turbine.
Analysis of direct torque control in permanent magnet synchronous motor drives
This paper describes an investigation of direct torque control (DTC) for permanent
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drives. It is mathematically proven that the increase of
electromagnetic torque in a permanent magnet motor is proportional to the increase of the
angle between the stator and rotor flux linkages, and, therefore, the fast torque response can
be obtained by adjusting the rotating speed of the stator flux linkage as fast as possible. It is
also shown that the zero voltage vectors should not be used, and stator flux linkage should be
kept moving with respect to the rotor flux linkage all the time. The implementation of DTC in
the permanent magnet motor is discussed, and it is found that for DTC using available digital
signal processors (DSPs), it is advantageous to have a motor with a high ratio of the rated
stator flux linkage to stator voltage. The simulation results verify the proposed control and
also show that the torque response under DTC is much faster than the one under current
control.
FOC and DTC: Two viable schemes for induction motors torque control
Field-oriented control and direct torque control are becoming the industrial standards for
induction motors torque control. This paper is aimed at giving a contribution for a detailed
comparison between the two control techniques, emphasizing advantages and disadvantages.
The performance of the two control schemes is evaluated in terms of torque and current
ripple, and transient response to step variations of the torque command. The analysis has been
carried out on the basis of the results obtained by numerical simulations, where secondary
effects introduced by hardware implementation are not present.
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Torque Control
1.3 EXISTING SYSTEM:
The first category, the decoupled voltage references in the synchronously In the
conventional DTC, the voltage vector commands are determined primarily by the outputs of
two hysteresis comparators. Once selected, the desired voltage vector will remain unchanged
until the hysteresis states are updated. Although this voltage modulation scheme is simple to
execute, it will lead to irregular and unpredictable torque and flux ripples, particularly when
the DTC is applied on a digital platform. To solve these problems, many approaches have
been developed from different perspectives. One natural thought is to increase the number of
available voltage vectors, e.g., using multilevel converters , or equally dividing the sampling
period into multiple intervals . However, these methods will increase the hardware cost, need
additional prediction for rotor speed, or have a limited ripple reduction improvement.
Another effective technique is to integrate the space vector modulation (SVM) algorithm into
the DTC. The SVM is able to convert the input voltages into gate signals for the inverter
using a fixed switching frequency. A variety of SVM-based DTC schemes have been
investigated for permanent-magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) in the last few decades.
In general, they can be classified into two categories based on how the voltage references are
generated in the stationary reference frame. In rotating reference frame are acquired and then
transformed to the stationary reference frame using the rotary coordinate transformation. In
the second category, the voltage references are obtained directly from the incremental stator
flux vectors in the stationary reference frame without coordinate transformation. Both
methods can reduce torque and flux ripples, but need proportional–integral (PI) controllers to
regulate the torque and stator flux errors. The PI gains are usually tuned by a trial-and-error
procedure . Poorly tuned PI gains will deteriorate the dynamic performance of the DTC. In
addition, according to , a real DTC scheme should not contain PI regulators. More recently, a
predictive current control , and a deadbeat direct torque and flux control ,were investigated
for surface-mounted and interior PMSMs. These control schemes provide good dynamic
performance, provided that the information of some machine parameters, e.g., stator
inductances and permanent-magnet flux linkage, is accurate. Therefore, the performance of
the control systems would be more or less influenced by the variations of the machine
parameters. Moreover, these control schemes are based on the inverse machine model or a
graphical method, which increase the computational complexity.
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Torque Control
1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM

This paper proposes a discrete-time SVM-based DTC without PI regulators for direct-
drive PMSG-based WECSs. The discrete-time control law is derived from the prospective of
flux space vectors and load angle. Several machine parameters, e.g., stator inductances and
permanent-magnet flux linkage, are not presented in the control law. This improves the
robustness of the control system to PMSG parameter variations. By adopting the proposed
DTC scheme, the torque and flux ripples are reduced, and the fast dynamic response is
retained when compared with the conventional DTC scheme. The proposed DTC scheme is
validated by simulation and experimental results for a 2.4-kW non salient-pole PMSG and a
180-W salient-pole PMSG used in the direct-drive WECSs.
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Torque Control
CHAPTER-2
Permanent magnet synchronous generator
A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation field is

provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The term synchronous refers here to the
fact that the rotor and magnetic field rotate with the same speed, because the magnetic field is
generated through a shaft mounted permanent magnet mechanism and current is induced into
the stationary armature Synchronous generators are the majority source of commercial
electrical energy. They are commonly used to convert the mechanical power output of steam
turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating engines and hydro turbines into electrical power for the
grid. Wind turbines of any significant scale use asynchronous generators exclusively.
Fig;2 Permanent magnet synchronous generators

In the majority of designs the rotating assembly in the center of the generator—the
"rotor"—contains the magnet, and the "stator" is the stationary armature that is electrically
connected to a load. As shown in the diagram above, the perpendicular component of the
stator field affects the torque while the parallel component affects the voltage. The load
supplied by the generator determines the voltage. If the load is inductive, then the angle
between the rotar and stator fields will be greater than 90 degrees which corresponds to an
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increased generator voltage. This is known as an overexcited generator. The opposite is true
for a generator supplying a capacitive load which is known as an under excited generator. A
set of three conductors make up the armature winding in standard utility equipment,
constituting three phases of a power circuit—that correspond to the three wires we are
accustomed to see on transmission lines. The phases are wound such that they are 120
degrees apart spatially on the stator, providing for a uniform force or torque on the generator
rotor. The uniformity of the torque arises because the magnetic fields resulting from the
induced currents in the three conductors of the armature winding combine spatially in such a
way as to resemble the magnetic field of a single, rotating magnet. This stator magnetic field
or "stator field" appears as a steady rotating field and spins at the same frequency as the rotor
when the rotor contains a single dipole magnetic field. The two fields move in
"synchronicity" and maintain a fixed position relative to each other as they spin.[1]
They are known as synchronous generators because f, the frequency of the induced
voltage in the stator (armature conductors) conventionally measured in hertz, is directly
proportional to RPM, the rotation rate of the rotor usually given in revolutions per minute (or
angular speed). If the rotor windings are arranged in such a way as to produce the effect of
more than two magnetic poles, then each physical revolution of the rotor results in more
magnetic poles moving past the armature windings. Each passing of a north and south pole
corresponds to a complete "cycle" of a magnet field oscillation. Therefore, the constant of
proportionality is , where P is the number of magnetic rotor poles (almost always an even
number), and the factor of 120 comes from 60 seconds per minute and two poles in a single
magnet; The power in the prime mover is a function of RPM and torque. where is
mechanical power in Watts, is the torque with units of , and RPM is the rotations per minute
which is multiplied by a factor of to give units of By increasing the torque on the prime
mover, a larger electrical power output can be generated.
Fig : 2.1 phaser diagram frequency and voltage
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In practice, the typical load is inductive in nature. The diagram above depicts such an
arrangement is the voltage of the generator, and and are the voltage and the current in the
load respectively and is the angle between them. Here, we can see that the resistance, R, and
the reactance, , play a role in determining the angle . This information can be used to
determine the real and reactive power output from the generator.
Fig : 2.2 phaser diagram frequency and voltage

In a permanent magnet generator, the magnetic field of the rotor is produced by permanent
magnets. Other types of generator use electromagnets to produce a magnetic field in a rotor
winding. The direct current in the rotor field winding is fed through a slip-ring assembly or
provided by a brushless exciter on the same shaft.
Permanent magnet generators (PMG's) or alternators (PMA's) do not require a DC supply for
the excitation circuit, nor do they have slip rings and contact brushes. The future economics
of PMA's or PMG's as they are sometimes called is now largely controlled by China as they
have the global monopoly on neodymium material used to make the most powerful and also
the most desirable types of magnets used today.
The flux density of high performance permanent magnets is limited giving China an unfair
advantage in setting the global price. A key disadvantage in PMA's or PMG's is that the air
gap flux is not controllable, so the voltage of the machine cannot be easily regulated. A
persistent magnetic field imposes safety issues during assembly, field service or repair. High
performance permanent magnets, themselves, have structural and thermal issues.
Torque current MMF vectorially combines with the persistent flux of permanent magnets,
which leads to higher air-gap flux density and eventually, core saturation. In this permanent
magnet alternators the speed is directly proportional to the output voltage of the alternator.
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CHAPTER-3
Wind Turbines with Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as
using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for
pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships. At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate
capacity of wind-powered generators was 159.2 gig watts (GW). Energy production was 340
TWh, which is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage; and has doubled in the past three
years. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration (with
large governmental subsidies), such as 20% of stationary electricity production in Denmark,
14% in Ireland ndPortugal, 11% in Spain, and 8% in Germany in 2009.[4] As of May 2009,
80 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.[2] Large-scale
wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller facilities are
used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy back
surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines.
Fig: 3.1.1 A modern wind turbine in rural scenery

Wind energy, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. However, the
construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed because of their visual impact and
other effects on the environment. Wind power is non-dispatch able, meaning that for
economic operation, all of the available output must be taken when it is available. Other
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resources, such as hydropower, and load management techniques must be used to match
supply with demand. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind
power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but as the proportion rises, problems are
created such as increased costs, the need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant
conventional production. Power management techniques such as exporting excess power to
neigh boring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate these
problems
3.1.2 History
Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and sailing
ships. Windmills have been used for irrigation pumping and for milling grain since the 7th
century AD in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. In the United States, the
development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in allowing the farming
and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. Windpumps
contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping
water from water wells for the steam locomotives.[8] The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a
lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape
throughout rural America. When fitted with generators and battery banks, small wind
machines provided electricity
to isolated farms.
GRID-connected wind electricity generation is showing the highest rate of growth of any
form of electricity generation, achieving global annual growth rates in the order of 20 - 25%.
It is doubtful whether any other energy technology is growing, or has grown, at such a rate.
Global installed capacity was 47.6 GW in the year 2004 and 58.9 GW in 2005 [1], [2]. Wind
power is increasingly being viewed as a mainstream electricity supply technology. Its
attraction as an electricity supply source has fostered ambitious targets for wind power in
many countries around the world.
Wind power penetration levels have increased in electricity supply systems in a few countries
in recent years; so have concerns about how to incorporate this significant amount of
intermittent, uncontrolled and non-dispatch able generation without disrupting the finely-
tuned balance that network systems demand. Grid integration issues are a challenge to the
expansion of wind power in some countries. Measures such as aggregation of wind turbines,
load and wind forecasting and simulation studies are expected to facilitate larger grid
penetration of wind power.
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In this paper simulation studies on grid connected wind electric generators (WEG) employing
(i) Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) and (ii) Doubly Fed Induction Generator
(DFIG) have been carried separately. Their dynamic responses to disturbances such as
variations in wind speed, occurrence of fault etc. have been studied, separately for each type
of WEG.
A. Power from Wind
The power that can be captured from the wind with a windenergy converter with effective
area Aris given by [2]
(1)
Where ρ airis the air mass density [kg/m3], vwis the wind speed and Cp is the so-called
power coefficient which dependson the specific design of the wind converter and its
orientationto the wind direction. Its theoretical maximum value is 16/27 =0.593 (Betz limit).
For a wind turbine with given blades it can beshown that the power coefficient Cp basically
depends only onthe tip speed ratio l, which equals the ratio of tip speed vt[m/s]over wind
speed vw[m/s] and the so-called blade pitch angle q[deg]. This pitch angle is defined as the
angle between thecord of the blade and the plane of the wind rotor. So, for a windrotor with
radius r, (1) can be rewritten as:
(2)
As an example, Fig. 2 shows the dependency of the power coefficient Cp on the tip speed
ratio l and the blade pitch angleq for a specific blade. For this blade maximum energy
capturefrom the wind is obtained for q =0 and l just above 6. To keep C pat its optimal value
for varying wind speed, the rotor speedshould be proportional to the wind speed.In practice
both constant l (variable speed) and constantspeed operation is applied.
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Fig: 3.1.2 Power coefficient Cp as a function of tip speed ratio l and pitch angle q for a
specific blade
For on shore turbines, the blades are designed such that the optimal tip speed is limited to
roughly 70 m/s. This is done because the blade tips cause excessive acoustical noise at higher
tip speeds. For offshore turbines, the noise does not play an important role, and higher speeds
are used leading to slightly higher optimal values of Cp.
The relation between wind speed and generated power is given by the power curve, as
depicted in Fig. 3.1.2. The power curve can be calculated from (2) where the appropriate
value ofl and q should be applied. In the power curve, four operating regions can be
distinguished, that apply both to constant speed and variable speed turbines:
1 No power generation due to the low energy content of the wind.
2 Less than rated power generation. In this region, optimal aerodynamic efficiency and
energy capture is aimed at The wind speed at the boundary of region 2 and 3 is called the
rated wind speed and all variables with the subscript rated refer to design values at this wind
speed.
3 Generation of rated power, because the energy content of the wind is enough. In this region,
the aero dynamic efficiency must be reduced, because otherwise the electrical system would
become overloaded.
4 No power generation. Because of high wind speeds the turbine is closed down to prevent
damage.
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Fig: 3.1.3 Typical power curve of a constant speed stall (dotted) and a variable Speed
pitch (solid) controlled wind turbine
B. Aerodynamic Power control
In region 3 (and 4) the shaft power should be less then the available power from wind to
prevent overloading of components. There are two main methods for limiting the
aerodynamic efficiency in high wind speeds. With the first method one takes advantage of the
aerodynamic stall effect When the angle, at which the wind hits the blade (‘angle of attack’),
is gradually increased, then at a certain angle the airflow will no longer flow along the blade,
but will become loose from the blade at the back side. Large eddy’s will be formed that result
in a drastic reduction of Cp (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 3.1.4 Stalled flow around an aerofoil .

If a turbine is operated at constant speed and the wind speed increases, then automatically the
angle of attacking creases. At a certain wind speed the angle of attack will reach the value
where stall occurs. Here it is assumed that the pitch angle q is not changed. With so-called
stall controlled turbines the blade are designed such that the stall effect just starts at the rated
wind speed. Due to the stall effect, the power is more or less constant above rated wind
speed, as indicated by the dotted curve in . No active control systems are used to achieve this,
which also implies that the blade does not need to be pitch able.
With variable speed (constant l) wind turbines the angle of attack is independent of the wind
speed so that the stall effect does not occur. To reduce the power above the rated wind speed
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the blades are pitched towards the vane position by hydraulic or electric actuators resulting in
a reduction of Cp. Above the rated wind speed the variable speed turbines are normally
operated at constant speed, where power (so torque)is controlled by the pitch angle. This
results in a flat power curve above the rated wind speed (solid line in Fig. 3). From above it
will be obvious that stall control is mainly used with constant speed turbines and pitch control
with variable speed wind turbines.
C. Energy yield
The annual energy yield E of a wind turbine depends on itspower curve P(vw) and the
probability density distribution function u(vw) of the wind speed at the turbine site:
(3)
Fig:3.1.5 Energy yield Wave Forms

Power P (red, dashed), probability density U (blue, dotted) and power density (green, solid)
as a function of wind speed (arbitrary units).
D. Scaling laws
As stated before the rated tip speed should be limited to about 70 m/s. If the same rated tip
speed vtratedis assumedin dependent of the size of the wind rotor, then the rotational speed of
the rotor is inversely proportional to radius of the wind rotor. With (2) this results in:
(4)
(5)
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The size of the generator is related to the torque to bedeveloped. The force density (the
force per square metre ofactive air gap surface area) in electrical machines is a quantitythat is
rather constant over a wide range of machine powers. For the conventional generators used in
wind turbines, the airgap force density is in the order of
(6)
This force density is rather constant because it is the product of air gap flux density, which is
limited because of magnetic saturation, and current loading, which is limited because of
dissipation. By using forced liquid cooling, thisforce density can be increased, but at the cost
of reduced efficiency.
Based on this force density, a very fast and rather goodestimate of the generator dimensions
can be made. The torqueproduced by a machine is given b
(7)
Where w is the mechanical angular frequency, rsis the statorbore radius, and ls is the stator
stack length. From this, therotor volume of a generator can be estimated as
(8)
If we further assume that the rated tip speed is independentfrom rated power, then for direct
-drive wind turbines according to (5) - this reduces to:
(9)
3.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Currently used Generator Systems
As stated before two types of wind turbines can bedistinguished namely variable speed
and constant speedturbines. For constant speed turbines one applies inductiongenerators that
are directly connected to the grid. For variablespeed turbines a variety of conversions systems
is available. The three most commonly used generator systems applied inwind turbines are
depicted in figure 6 and discussed below
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Fig:3.2. The three commonly used generator systems.
1) Constant speed wind turbine with squirrel cage induction generator (CT)
Between the rotor and the generator, there is a gearbox so that a standard (mostly 1500 rpm)
squirrel cage induction generator can be used. The generator is directly connected to the 50
Hz or 60 Hz utility grid.
Mostly, the power is limited using the classic stall principle: if the wind speed in creases
above the rated wind speed, the power coefficient in herentlyreduces, so that the power
produced by the turbine stays near the rated power. Sometimes active stall is used: negative
pitch angles are used to limit the power. There are a few variants:
1 pole changing generators with two stator windings with different numbers of pole pairs so
that the turbine can operateat two constant speeds in order to increase energy yield and
reduce audible noise, and
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2 generators with electronically variable rotor resistance in order to reduce mechanical loads
by making larger speed variations possible: the semi variable speed wind turbine.
CT/AS fixed speed, classic stall (fixed blade angle)

CT/AS fixed speed, active stall (negative variable blade angle, 3-5degrees)
VTDI variable speed (+ pitch), doubly-fed induction generator
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VTDD variable speed, direct drive synchronous generator combined with pitch (Enercon +
Lager wey + 1.5 MW Jeumont) or combined with classic stall (Jeumont J48 (750 kW)).
VTSGP variable speed/pitch combined with (brushless) synchronousgenerator
VT/AGP variable speed/pitch combined with asynchronous generator (100% current via
converter).
CT/AGP nowadays unusual combination of fixed speed/pitch withdirectly connected
asynchronous generator.
SVT/OSP semi-variable speed/pitch combined with OptiSlip (maximum+10% variation in
nominal speed).
2) Variable speed wind turbine with doubly-fed (wound rotor)induction generator
(VTDI)
Between the rotor and the generator, there is a gearbox sothat a standard (mostly 1500 rpm)
doubly-fed inductiongenerator can be used. The stator is directly connected to theutility grid.
The rotor is connected to a converter. A speedrange from roughly 60% to 110 % of the rated
speed issufficient for a good energy yield, that is achieved by usingthe variable speed
capability to keep the tip speed ratio l at thevalue resulting in optimal energy capture. If the
gearbox ratio ischosen such that the synchronous speed of the generator justfalls in the
middle of the speed range (in this case at 85% ofrated speed), then the lowest converter
power rating is
obtained. A converter rating of roughly 35 % of the ratedturbine power is sufficient,
particularly when star-deltaswitching at the rotor winding is applied. At wind speedsabove
the rated wind speed, the power is reduced by pitching
the blades.
3) Variable speed wind turbines with direct-drive synchronous generator (VTDD)
In this system, no gearbox is necessary, because the generator rotates at very low speed,
typically 10 to 25 rpm forturbines in the MW range. Standard generators can thereforenot be
used and generators have to be developed specificallyfor this application. As can be
concluded from equations (6)and (8), these generators are very large because they have
toproduce a huge torque. The total turbine power goes through aconverter that converts the
varying generator frequency to theconstant grid frequency. At wind speeds above the rated
windspeed, the power is again reduced by pitching the blades.
B. Comparison of the three systems
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Table II gives an overview of the characteristics of the threedifferent systems. The criteria for
comparison are discussed below .
1) Cost, size and weight

Squirrel cage induction generators are roughly 25% cheaper than doubly-fed (wound-
rotor) induction generators. The converter for a doubly-fed induction machine is smaller and
cheaper than for a direct-drive generator. Direct-drive generators are much more expensive
because they are large and heavy and have to be specially developed. However, direct drive
turbines do not need a heavy gearbox.
2) Suitability for 50 and 60 Hz grid frequency
Turbines wit h generators that are directly coupled to thegrid (CT and VTDI) need different
gearboxes for different gridfrequencies. This is not the case when a converter decouplesthe
two frequencies.
3) Audible noise from blades
In a well-designed wind turbine, the blades are the mainsources of audible noise. In variable
speed wind turbines, therotor speed is low at low wind speeds, and so is the audiblenoise.
This is not the case in constant speed wind turbines. Athigher wind speed the noise from the
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blade tips drowns in thewind noise caused by obstacles more close to the observer.However,
in a wind turbine that is not properly designed,mechanical resonance can also cause other
audible noise.
4) Energy yield
In order to capture the maximum energy from the wind, therotor speed has to be proportional
to the wind speed in region2 of figure 3. Therefore, the energy yield of variable speed
windturbines is larger than of constant speed wind turbines.
Especially in part load, gearboxes and power electronicconverters have limited
efficiencies.Direct-drive generators have lower efficiencies thanstandard induction machines.
5) Reliability and maintenance
Brushed synchronous generators and doubly-fed inductiongenerators have brushes, which
need regular inspection andreplacement. Permanent magnet (PM) and squirrel cageinduction
generators don’t have this problem.Gearboxes are widely used, well-known components
withmany of applications. However, in wind turbines, gearboxesshow a reliability record that
is rather negative [6].
In constant speed wind turbines, wind gusts immediatelylead to torque variations, while in
variable speed wind turbines,wind gusts lead to variations in the speed without large
torquevariations. Therefore, constant speed wind turbines suffer fromheavier mechanical
loads, which may result a decrease inreliability and an increase in maintenance.
Generally, more complex systems suffer from more failuresthan simple systems.
6) Power quality
depicts measurements of wind speed sequences andthe resulting rotor speeds, pitch angles
and output powers forthe three most used generator systems at wind speeds aroundthe rated
wind speed. It appears that the power output ofvariable speed wind turbines is much
smoother (less ‘flicker’)than constant speed wind turbines because rapid changes inthe power
drawn from the wind are buffered in rotor inertia.
The fast power fluctuations in constant speed wind turbinesare caused by variations in wind
speed, but also by the towershadow.If the converter rating is large enough, variable speed
windturbines also can be used for voltage and frequency (V&f)control in the grid (within the
limits posed by the actual windspeed) [7], which is not possible with constant speed wind
turbines. Power electronic converters produce harmonics that mayneed to be filtered away.
7) Grid faults
The three concepts behave differently in case of a grid fault causing a voltage dip.In case of a
fault, constant speed wind turbines can deliverthe large fault currents, necessary for activating
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the protectionsystem. However, when the voltage comes back, they consumea lot of reactive
power and thus impede the voltage restoration after the dip. In addition both the fault and
the reconnection results in large torque excursions that may damage the gearbox.
Research about dynamic models for grid-connected wind energy conversion systems
is one of the challenges to achieve knowledge for the ongoing change due to the
intensification of using wind energy in nowadays. This book chapter is an involvement on
those models, but dealing with wind energy conversion systems consisting of wind turbines
with permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) and full-power converters.
Particularly, the focus is on models integrating the dynamic of the system as much as
potentially necessary in order to assert consequences on the operation of system. In modelling
the energy captured from the wind by the blades, disturbance imposed by the asymmetry in
the turbine, the vortex tower interaction, and the mechanical eigen swings in the blades are
introduced in order to assert a more accurate behaviour of wind energy conversion systems.
The conversion system dynamic comes up from modelling the dynamic behaviour due to
the main subsystems of this system: the variable speed wind turbine, the mechanical drive
train, and the PMSG and power electronic converters. The mechanical drive train dynamic is
considered by three different model approaches, respectively, one mass, two-mass or three-
mass model approaches in order to discuss which of the approaches are more appropriated in
detaining the behaviour of the system. The power electronic converters are modelled for three
different topologies, respectively, two-level, multilevel or matrix converters. The
consideration of these topologies is in order to expose its particular behaviour and advantages
in what regards the total harmonic distortion of the current injected in the electric network.
The electric network is modelled by a circuit consisting in a series of a resistance

and inductance with a voltage source, respectively, considering two hypotheses: without
harmonic distortion or with distortion due to the third harmonic, in order to show the
influence of this third harmonic in the converter output electric current. Two types of control
strategies are considered in the dynamic models of this book chapter, respectively, through
the use of classical control or fractional-order control. Case studies were written down in
order to emphasize the ability of the models to simulate new contributions for studies on grid-
connected wind energy conversion systems.
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CHAPTER-4
PROJECT DISCRIPTION AND CONTROL DESIGN
4.1 DIRECT-DRIVE PMSG-BASEDWECSS
The configuration of a direct-drive PMSG-based WECS is shown in Fig. 1, where the wind
turbine is connected to the PMSG directly without a gearbox. The electrical power generated
by the PMSG is transmitted to a power grid or supplied to a load via a variable-frequency
power converter. Typically, the power electronic conversion system consists of a machine-
side converter (MSC) and a grid-side converter (GSC) connected back-to-back via a dc link.
This paper considers the standard power converter topology in a PMSG-based WECS, where
both the MSC and the GSC are two-level fully controlled voltagesource converters.
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Wind Turbine Aerodynamic and Shaft Dynamic Models The mechanical power than can be
extracted from wind by a wind turbine is given by
where ρ is the air density; Ar is the area swept by the blades; vω is the wind speed; CP is the
turbine power coefficient; ωt is the turbine shaft speed; and λ is the tip-speed ratio, which is
defined by
where r is the radius of the wind turbine rotor plane. As the wind turbine is connected to the
PMSG directly, the shaft system of the WECS can be represented by a one-mass model. The
motion equation is then given by
where 2H is the total inertia constant of the WECS, Pe is the electric power generated by the
PMSG, and D is the damping coefficient.
B. Modeling of the PMSG
The dynamic equations of a three-phase PMSG can be written in a synchronously rotating dq
reference frame (see Fig4. 2) as
where p is the derivative operator; vsd and vsq are the d- and q-axis stator terminal voltages,
respectively; isd and isq are the d- and q-axis stator currents, respectively; Rs is the resistance
of the stator windings; Ld and Lq are the d- and q-axis inductances, respectively; ωe is the
rotor electrical angular speed; and ψm is the flux linkage generated by the permanent
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magnets. The d- and q-axis stator flux linkages of the PMSG, i.e., ψsd and ψsq, have the form
of
The electromagnetic torque Te generated by the PMSG can be calculated by
where n is the number of pole pairs of the PMSG. The torque can also be expressed, in terms
of stator flux linkage and load angle, as follows:
where |ψs| is the magnitude of the stator flux vector, and δ is the load angle. Both of the
torque expressions (6) and (7) consist of two terms: The magnetic torque and the reluctance
torque. Compared to a nonsalient-pole PMSG (Ld = Lq), a salient-pole PMSG can generate a
higher torque with the same levels of isd and isq, owing to the rotor saliency (Ld = Lq).
However, the nonlinear reluctance torque in (7) complicates the mathematical relationship
among Te, |ψs|, and δ. In [12] and [21], an “active flux” concept was proposed to turn the
salient-pole ac machines into nonsalient-pole ones, such that the reluctance torque and the
magnetic torque were combined as one single term. The active flux magnitude |ψa d | in [12]
was defined as
The idea can be extended to (7). Substituting isq from (5) into (6) gives
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Since ψsq = |ψs| · sin δ, the torque in terms of the stator flux magnitude, active flux
magnitude, and load angle can be expressed as
Dividing (7) by (10), the active flux magnitude in terms of |ψs| and δ has the form of
The active flux vector ψad , which is aligned on the d-axis, can be obtained by
where ψsαβ and isαβ are the stator flux and current vectors in the stationary reference frame,
respectively. The diagram in Fig. 2 illustrates the relationship between the fluxes and currents
of the PMSG in the vector space, where ψmαβ is the rotor flux vector in the stationary
reference frame.
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CHAPTER -5
PROPOSED DISCRETE-TIME DTC
In the proposed DTC, all the calculations are executed in the stationary αβ reference
frame. The schematic diagram of the proposed DTC is shown in Fig. 3. A reference flux
vector estimator (RFVE) is designed to calculate the desired stator flux vector ψ∗ sαβ using
the estimated and reference values of the stator flux and electromagnetic torque without PI
regulators. In this paper, the stator flux linkages are estimated by the programmable low-pass
filter (LPF) introduced in [19]. To effectively eliminate the dc drift over a wide speed range,
the cutoff frequency of the LPF, i.e., ωc, is adjusted according to the rotor electrical speed ωe
by ωc = k · ωe, where k is a constant. The schematic of the discrete-time programmable LPF-
based stator flux estimator is shown in Fig. 4. The time derivative term is approximated by
the Euler backward differentiation, which is given as
where Ts is the sampling period, which is the same as the switching period and control cycle
in the proposed DTC. The compensating gain gc and phase angle θc for the output of the LPF
are defined as follows:
The electromagnetic torque can be calculated as
Compared to (7), the torque expression in (10) is greatly simplified mathematically and can
be written as a function of three time-variant variables |ψs|, |ψa d |, and δ. Taking the
derivative of (10) on both sides with respect to time yields
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The discrete-time form of (17) for a short time interval is given as
where |ψs0|, |ψa d0|, and δ0 are the stator flux magnitude, active flux amplitude, and load
angle at the reference point, respectively. Equation (18) demonstrates that the flux linkages
|ψs0| and |ψa d0| and the loading condition (related to δ0 and |ψa d0|) will affect the weights
of the flux and load angle increments in the torque increment calculation. In the kth control
step, |ψs0| = |ψs[k]|, |ψa d0| = |ψa d [k]|, and δ0 = δ[k]. Then, (18) in the discrete-time domain
can be written as
With the information of the torque reference T∗ e [k] and the reference of the stator flux
magnitude |ψs[k]| ∗ as well as the estimated torque Te[k] and stator flux magnitude |ψs[k]| in
the kth step, the errors of torque and stator flux magnitude can be calculated as
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Substituting (23) and (24) into (22), the increment of load angle in the discrete form can be
written as
where Δ|ψa d [k]| is expected to be |ψa d [k]| ∗ − |ψa d [k]|, and |ψa d[k]| ∗ is the reference of
the active flux magnitude in the kth step. The value of |ψa d| ∗ can be determined from (8),
provided that i∗sd is known. Based on (4) and (5), the current commands i∗sd and i∗sq can be
generated from torque and stator flux commands T∗ e and |ψs| ∗.
In practice, to reduce the computational burden of the control system, the relation between
|ψa d| ∗ and (T∗ e , |ψs| ∗) can be found offline for different operating conditions based on (4),
(5), and (8) and stored in a lookup table for online use. For a nonsalient-pole PMSG, the
active flux |ψa d | is equal to ψm, so that Δ|ψa d [k]| is always zero. To simplify the overall
control scheme for a salient-pole PMSG, it is assumed that the variation of the active flux
between two switching cycles is insignificant. In this way, (25) can be simplified for both
salientpole and nonsalient-pole PMSGs as follows:
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As |ψa d| is a function of |ψs| and δ, the steady-state error of Δ|ψa d | will become zero once
|ψs| and δ are settled down to their reference values.
Fig. 4.5 illustrates the block diagram of the algorithm for calculating the load angle
increment, where θre is the electrical rotor position of the PMSG. A small dead band should
be set up for Te[k] and |ψs[k]| to avoid a zero denominator. The reference stator flux angle θ∗
s[k] can then be obtained from the following equation:
The effect of the rotor speed is taken into consideration, by adding the term ωe[k]Ts to
compensate the rotor position increment when the PMSG operates at a high speed. According
to (27) and the magnitude of the desired stator flux linkage |ψs[k]| ∗, the reference stator flux
vector in the stationary reference frame, i.e., ψ∗ sαβ[k], can be expressed as ψ∗ sαβ[k] =
|ψs[k]|∗ejθ∗s[k]Then,thevoltagespacevector usαβ[k] neglecting the voltage drop on the stator
resistance can be acquired, as shown in Fig. 6. Considering the effect of stator
resistance, the expression of the desired stator voltage vector in a discrete-time form can be
written as
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When implementing the proposed discrete-time DTC, the criterion dTe/dδ> 0 should be
always met to ensure the stability of the direct-torque-controlled PMSG systems. According
to this stability criterion, the maximum load angle for a salient-pole PMSG is
The derivation of (29) is provided in the Appendix. With the knowledge of usαβ[k], proper
switching signals can be generated by the SVM module to achieve fast and accurate torque
and flux linkage control.
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CHAPTER-6
A. System Setup Description
Simulation studies are carried out in MATLAB/Simulink to validate the proposed discrete-
time DTC scheme for two PMSGs. The parameters of the two PMSGs are listed in Table I.
The power rating of the salient-pole PMSG #1 is 180 W, and its dc-bus voltage is 41.75 V.
The nonsalient-pole PMSG #2 is used in a practical direct-drive WECS (Skystream 3.7) with
a 2.4-kW rated power and a dc-bus voltage of 300 V. In the simulation, the value of k in (14)
and (15) is set as 1/ √2. The sampling period is 100 μs for both PMSG control systems, which
is typically equal to one pulsewidth modulation (PWM) control cycle in practical
applications. The deadtime of the insulatedgate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) in the MSC is set
as 1 μs and is compensated by the algorithm introduced in [22].
B. Validation of the Proposed DTC on PMSG #1
The performance comparison of the proposed DTC, the conventional DTC, and a
stator flux-oriented SVM-DTC (named PI-DTC) in [12] is first investigated on PMSG #1.
The conventional
DTC in this paper is implemented by adopting the switching table in [10], where the torque
error is regulated by a three-level torque hysteresis controller. The stator flux is estimated by
using the PMSG current model in the stationary reference frame, which is given by
where L = (Ld + Lq)/2 and ΔL = (Ld − Lq)/2. The current-model-based stator flux estimator
could achieve good performance in both steady and transient states, but needs more machine
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parameters compared to the voltage-model-based stator flux estimator used in the proposed
DTC.In this test, the speed of PMSG #1 is kept at 1500 r/min; the torque reference is −0.1 N ·
m, from the beginning, and then is decreased to −0.5 N · m at 0.025 s; the command of the
stator flux magnitude is 0.0135 V · s, at the beginning, and then is decreased to 0.013 V · s at
0.025 s; and both reference variations are step changes. In the conventional DTC, the torque
and stator flux hysteresis bandwidths are set as 0.2 N · m and 0.0003 V · s, respectively. The
PI gains of the PI-DTC are tuned carefully to achieve good control performance for PMSG
#1. Fig. 7 compares the torque, stator flux magnitude, and instantaneous phase-A stator
current of PMSG #1 controlled by the conventional DTC, the PI-DTC, and the proposed DTC
with a 10-kHz sampling frequency, as well as by the conventional DTC with a 67-kHz
sampling frequency (named DTC-1). The switching behavior of the conventional DTC
determines that its switching frequency is lower than the SVM-DTCs when using the same
sampling frequency [14]. Thus, in the DTC-1 case, the sampling frequency of the
conventional DTC is increased to 67 kHz, to obtain an equivalent switching frequency of 10
kHz, which is obtained by calculating the average turningon/off frequency of an inverter leg
within 0.05 s [23]. As shown in Fig. 7, the maximum peak-to-peak torque ripples of the
conventional DTC, the PI-DTC, the proposed DTC, and the DTC-1 are 1.2, 0.1, 0.1, and 0.33
N · m, respectively; and the maximum peak-to-peak ripples of the stator flux magnitudes in
the four cases are 0.008, 0.0004, 0.0004, and 0.0012 V · s, respectively. The stator currents
controlled by the PI-DTC and the proposed DTC are much smoother with less harmonic
contents than those controlled by the conventional DTC and DTC-1. Thus, compared with the
conventional DTC, the SVMDTCs (including the proposed DTC and the PI-DTC) showed
a distinct superiority in reducing the steady-state torque and stator flux magnitude ripples
and stator current harmonics for different loading conditions. This is true even when the
conventional DTC is implemented with a much higher sampling frequency (leading to a
higher computational cost) so as to have an equivalent switching frequency same as the
switching frequency of the proposed DTC and the PI-DTC.
The tracking performance of the proposed DTC is shown in Fig. 8. In this test, PMSG #1 is
operated at 2000 r/min, and the torque command is step changed from −0.2 to −0.5 N · m at 3
× 10−4 s. The references of the stator flux and active flux magnitudes are calculated based on
the maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) curve. The dynamics of the torque angle increment
(top) and the torque (bottom) with/without active flux compensation are compared in Fig. 8.
The active flux term does not affect the dynamic performance of the proposed DTC, which
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proves the feasibility of the assumption (26). The torque is capable of tracking its command
within two switching cycles.
The proposed DTC is also tested with various parameter variations, where the operating
condition of the PMSG is the same as that in Fig. 8. Fig. 9 shows the percentage torque errors
with respect to the values in Fig. 8, when the rotor magnet flux linkage or the d- and q-axis
inductances change while all other parameters of the machine are kept at the nominal values.
(left) shows the cases when the rotor magnet flux linkage has the following: 1) 10%
decrease without considering the active flux, i.e., using (26); 2) 10% decrease while
considering the active flux, i.e., using (25); 3) 10% increase without considering the active
flux; and 4) 10% increase while considering the active flux. Fig. 9 (right) shows the cases
when both the d- and q-axis inductances have: 1) 20% decrease without considering the
active flux; 2) 20% decrease while considering the active flux; 3) 20% increase without
considering the active flux; and 4) 20% increase while considering the active flux.
From the results in Fig. 9, the percentages of the torque error are no more than 2% of the
torque values in Fig. 8, in all of the cases; and the torque errors are always damped to almost
zero within eight cycles. Therefore, the proposed DTC can achieve a fast dynamic response,
and its robustness to machine parameter variations is proven.
C. Validation of the Proposed DTC on PMSG #2
The startupbehavior and low-speed performance of the proposed DTC are evaluated on
PMSG #2. Since the inputs of the LPF-based stator flux estimator at zero speed are null, the
estimator is ineffective during the wind turbine startup. To solve the problem, a
supplementary V /f control is used to assist the operation of the proposed DTC during the
startup process and very low-speed condition. The ratio of voltage to frequency is chosen to
make the output power of the PMSG equal to zero. The control algorithm will be switched
from the V /f control to the proposed DTC with MPPT, if the rotor speed exceeds 33 r/min
(11% of the rated speed). In this test, the rotating speed of the PMSG is zero at the beginning,
then is increased to 100 r/min from 0.05 to 0.4 s, and finally decreases to zero from 0.45 to
0.55 s. As shown in Fig. 10, the proposed DTC-based MPPT is activated quickly when the
rotor speed increases to 33 r/min and switches to the V /f control quickly when the rotor
speed decreases to 33 r/min; the torque response during the transitions is smooth. The results
show that, with the aid of the V /f control, the proposed control scheme can cover the entire
operating range of the WECS. The proposed DTC is also applied on PMSG #2 to simulate
the operation of a real WECS. The parameters of the wind turbine are given as follows. The
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radius of the blades is r = 1.86 m; the swept area is Ar = 10.87 m2; the air density is ρ = 1.15
kg/m3; the equivalent damping coefficient of the shaft system is D = 0.001; the turbine power
coefficient Cp(λ) is evaluated as follows:
where CP reaches the maximum value of 0.4169 when λ equals to 5.84. The total momentum
of inertia of the WECS is 0.08 kg · m2. The GSC is connected to a three-phase ideal source.
Its phase-to-phase RMS voltage is 190.5 V. The line impedance is 1 mH, and the dc-link
capacitance is 11.2 mF. The GSC is controlled by the vector control scheme in [24]. A
randomly generated 10-s wind speed profile is used for the simulation study, as shown in Fig.
11(a). The wind speed varies in the range of ±2 m/s around the mean value of 7.5 m/s. The
torque command for the MPPT is given as [20]
where Kopt is a constant determined by the wind turbine characteristics, which is equal to
0.0843 for the wind turbine used in this study. The stator flux magnitude command is
obtained from the torque command based on the principle of MTPA to enhance the efficiency
of the PMSG. The dynamic responses of the shaft speed, the actual and optimal power
coefficients, the estimated and reference torques, and the dc-bus voltage during wind speed
variations are shown in Fig. 11(b)–(e), respectively. The shaft speed of the WECS follows the
wind speed profile closely so as to capture the maximum energy from the wind. As Fig. 11(c)
shows, the actual power coefficient approaches its optimal value with the deviations less than
0.003. With the proposed DTC, the electromagnetic torque of the PMSG is controlled directly
and quickly. The estimated torque and its command are on top of each other. The maximum
peakto-peak torque ripple is 4 N·m, which is 5% of the rated torque of the PMSG. The dc-bus
voltage is fluctuated between 299.9 and 301 V, but has slight effect on the torque tracking
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performance. Therefore, by using the proposed DTC and the optimal torque command
calculated from (32), the MPPT of the wind turbine can be achieved quickly and reliably by
using one torque control loop without the need of wind speed information.
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CHAPTER - 7
SIMULATION RESULTS
A Discrete-Time Direct Torque Control for Direct-Drive PMSG-Based

Wind Energy Conversion Systems
DTC (matlab9)
Case(1)conventional
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(a)Stator current (b)Stator flux(C) Electromagnetic torque
Case (2)Pi controller
(a)Stator current (b)Stator flux(C) Electromagnetic torque
Case(3) SVPWM
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Case (4) With Variable frequency
(a)Stator Current (b)Stator flux (c) Electromagnetic torque
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CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION
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This project has proposed a novel discrete-time DTC based on flux space vectors for
PMSGs used in direct-drive WECSs. The algorithm is easy to implement and is suitable for
digital control systems using relatively low sampling frequencies. The torque and flux ripples
have been significantly reduced with the integration of the SVM. In addition, the overall DTC
scheme eliminated the use of PI controllers, showed strong robustness to machine parameter
variations, and achieved fast dynamic responses. The proposed DTC scheme can be applied
to both non salient-pole and salient-pole PMSGs. Simulation and experimental results have
been carried out to validate the effectiveness of the proposed DTC scheme on a 180-W salien
tpole PMSG and a non salient-pole PMSG used in a 2.4-kW Skystream 3.7 direct-drive
WECS.
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Direct-Drive PMSG-Based Wind Energy Conversion Systems With Discrete -Time Direct

1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM

A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation field is

Fig;2 Permanent magnet synchronous generators

Fig : 2.1 phaser diagram frequency and voltage

Fig : 2.2 phaser diagram frequency and voltage

Fig: 3.1.1 A modern wind turbine in rural scenery

Fig. 3.1.4 Stalled flow around an aerofoil .

Fig:3.1.5 Energy yield Wave Forms

Fig:3.2. The three commonly used generator systems.

CT/AS fixed speed, classic stall (fixed blade angle)

1) Cost, size and weight

The electric network is modelled by a circuit consisting in a series of a resistance

The electromagnetic torque Te generated by the PMSG can be calculated by

The electromagnetic torque can be calculated as

A Discrete-Time Direct Torque Control for Direct-Drive PMSG-Based

(a)Stator current (b)Stator flux(C) Electromagnetic torque

Case (2)Pi controller

(a)Stator current (b)Stator flux(C) Electromagnetic torque

Case (4) With Variable frequency

(a)Stator Current (b)Stator flux (c) Electromagnetic torque

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