Joining or Fabrication Methods

Fabrication

Joining more than one elements to make a single part

Unlike the manufacturing processes employed to produce a single component,

the joining processes are used to assemble different members to yield the
desired complex configuration.
Joining Processes: Major categories
Classification done by American Welding Society
 Adhesive bonding
 Mechanical fastening
 Welding, brazing, soldering

Choice of a particular fabrication method depends on

• Type of assembly:
Temporary, Semi-permanent, Permanent
• Types of materials being joined:
• Type of service required:
• Economy:
Adhesive bonding
Advantages:
1. Little or no heat is required to create the joint (Curing)
2. Uniform stress distribution
3. Possibility to join different materials
4. Possibility to join very thin adherents
5. Process of adhering is very simple

Disadvantages:
1. Limited stability to heat
2. Cleaning and surface preparation of the adherents is
necessary in many cases
3. Specific clamping devices are often required to fix the joint
4. Choice of adhesives require prior experience
5. Rarely competes with other joining techniques used in
industry
 Mechanical fastening
Threaded: Nuts & Bolts and Screws

Their great advantages include the

 Ease of assembly, which generally requires no special equipment,
 Possibility to de- and re-assemble without (much) damage to the joint.
 They may be used for most materials.
• As a simple machine used to translate torque into linear force.
• It can also be defined as an inclined plane wrapped around a shaft.
• Screws can normally be removed and reinserted without reducing their
effectiveness.
• They have greater holding power than nails and permit disassembly and
reuse.
When screws and bolts cannot be used,
• Nail
• Roll pins,
• Pinned shafts,
• Staple
• Rivet
Rivet
Welding
Material joining process used in making Welds

Weld
It is a localised coalescence of metals or non-metals
produced either by heating the materials to a suitable
temperature with or without application of pressure or
by the application of pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler materials
Weldment
It is an assembly of component parts joined by
welding.

An weldment can be made of many or few metal

parts.

To produce a usable structure or weldment, there

must be weld joints between the various pieces those
make the weldment.

Joint is the junction of members or the edges of

members those are to be joined or have been joined.
 Types of Welded Joints

Butt Joint Corner Joint

 Types of Welded Joints

Edge Joint Lap Joint

Types of Welded Joints

Tee Joint
Arc welding
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Edge Preparations for Butt Joints
 Single or Double U-, V-, J-, and Bevel Edges
Various Weld Procedures
Types of Welding Positions
Types of Fusion Welds

Tack welding Plug welding

Welding processes
1. Arc welding
2. Oxyfuel gas welding
3. Solid state welding
4. Brazing
5. Soldering
6. Resistance welding

Allied processes
1. Thermal spraying

Thermal cutting
1. Oxygen cutting
2. Arc cutting
 Group Welding process
Carbon arc welding
Arc welding Flux-cored arc welding
Gas-tungsten arc welding
Plasma arc welding
Shielded metal arc welding
Submerged arc welding
Oxy-Acetylene welding
Oxy-fuel gas welding Oxy-hydrogen welding
Pressure gas welding
Cold welding
Solid-state welding Diffusion welding
Explosion welding
Forge welding
Friction welding
Hot pressure welding
Roll welding
Ultrasonic welding
Resistance spot welding
Resistance welding Seam welding
Brazing Diffusion brazing
Dip brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing
Soldering
Other processes Electron beam welding
Laser welding
Thermit welding
Common welding terms

Butt weld
Fillet weld
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Most widely used because of its simplicity, versatility, its
less complex, more portable and less costly equipments

Consumable electrode
Shielding gas
Electrode coating
Slag layer
 Electrode
 Consumable (SMAW)
 Non-consumable (GTAW)

Classification of electrodes
 Tensile strength of deposited weld metal
 Welding positions to be used in
 Type of current and polarity to be used
 Type of coating
Arc welding electrodes are identified using the A.W.S.

1/8" E7011
 1/8" E7011
 The electrode is 1/8" in diameter

 The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.

 E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi

 EXX1X is for use in all positions

 EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions
 EXX3X is for flat welding

 EXXX1 The last two digits together, indicate the type of

coating on the electrode and the welding current and
polarity the electrode can be used with.
Roles of Electrode
Coating on the electrodes serve following purposes
 Electrode coating provides inert gas environment under the arc which
shields the molten metal pool and protects it from the atmospheric
gases Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen, thus reducing contamination of
the weld.

 Electrode coating provides flux to the molten metal pool which combines
with the oxides and other impurities present in the puddle to form the
SLAG. Slag being lighter, floats on the top of the puddle and protects it
against the surrounding air during the weld bead solidification. Slag
covering also helps the metal to cool slowly preventing the formation of
a brittle weld.

 Coating contains some ionizing elements for stabilization of the arc,

reduction of spatter and increase efficiency of deposition.

 Coating can introduce special alloying elements to improve the strength

and physical properties of the weld.
 Coatings also contain materials which can control the slag to be viscous or
fluid. Viscous slag would be useful for making welds in vertical position to
cover the metal puddle for a longer time.

 Coatings are normally insulators of electricity and thus, permit the electrode
to be used in narrow grooves, and other difficult locations without causing
any short circuiting problems.
 Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Formerly known as TIG

Inert gas (He and/or Ar) used for shielding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Granular flux for shielding – Lime, Silica, CaF2, MnO2 etc.
 Colour code for cylinders

Acetylene cylinders are maroon.

Oxygen cylinders have a white shoulder
Argon cylinders have a dark green shoulder.
Carbon dioxide cylinders have a grey shoulder.
Chlorine cylinders have a yellow shoulder.
Helium cylinders have a brown shoulder.
Hydrogen cylinders have a red shoulder.
Nitrous oxide cylinders have a blue shoulder.
Nitrogen cylinders have a black shoulder.
Removal of slag and spatter by chipping hammer
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-fuel gas welding
Welding process using fuel gas with Oxygen for heating

Oxy-Acetylene welding
C2H2 + O2 2CO +H2 + Heat
4CO + H2 + 3O2 4CO2 + H2O + Heat
 Types of flame
Neutral Flame
 Complete Combustion of Acetylene Present
 Most Desirable Flame
Carburizing (Reducing) Flame:
 Less Oxygen
 Part of Combustible Matter Left
 Presence of Additional Third Phase in Between the Outer Blue Flame and
Inner White Cone (Intermediate Flame Feather) Reddish in Color.
 Metal Appears to Boil (Due to Presence of Unburnt Carbon).
 Excess Carbon Causes the Steel to Become Extremely Hard and Brittle.
 Useful for Material which are Readily Oxidized (by Providing Reducing
Atmosphere)
 Welding High Carbon Steels, Cast Irons and Hard Surfacing with High
Speed Steel & Cemented Carbides.
Oxidizing Flame:
 Oxygen in Excess
 Smaller Inner White Cone (Higher Tip Temperatures ~3300 0C).
 Excess Oxygen Oxidizes the Weld Metal
 Weld Metal Foams and Sparks (because of Burning of Metal)
 Loud Noise
 Useful for Welding some Non-ferrous Alloys (Cu and Zn Based Alloys),
Cast iron, Manganese Steel
 Presence of Excess Oxygen in the Oxidizing Flame Causes an Oxide
Film to Form Quickly which Provides a Protective Cover Over the Base
Material Pool.
Neutral flame

Oxidizing flame

Carburizing flame
 Cylinder pressure: Oxygen ~ 13.8 MPa to 18.2 Mpa
Acetylene ~
 Acetylene is Normally Made Available in the Two forms:
Acetylene Storage cylinder,
Acetylene Generator [CaC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2]
 Free Acetylene is Highly Explosive, if Stored at a Pressure > 200 kPa
then it Becomes Very Unstable and Likely to Explode.

 Acetylene stored in a strong cylinder, filled with 80 to 85% porous

material such as Calcium Silicate and then filled with Acetone which
can absorb up to 420 times its volume of Acetylene at a pressure of 1.75
MPa.
 Rate of consumption of acetylene should be less than the rate of release
which is normally about one-seventh of the capacity of the cylinder per
hour.
 If Acetylene is drawn at a rapid rate, Acetone may also come out along
with the Acetylene. Presence of Acetone in the flame gives it a purple
color. It is not desirable since it reduces the flame temperature.
 Initiation of flame
 To light the flame, Acetylene valve on the torch is opened slightly and
lighted with the help of a friction spark lighter.

 Flame draws the Oxygen from the atmospheric air and thus results in a
reducing flame. Then Acetylene valve is opened to get the required flow of
acetylene.

 Oxygen valve is then slowly opened till the intermediate flame feather of
the reducing flame recedes into the inner white cone. The actual
adjustment of the flame depends on the type of material to be joined.

 Choice of the torch size depends on the thickness of the material to be

joined.
 Larger torch tip sizes cause higher amount of Oxygen and fuel to flow
out causing the release of more heat. Thus for thicker materials, larger
tip radii are used.
Welding Parameters for Welding Carbon Steel

Flame Adjustments for Oxy-Acetylene Welding

 Forehand welding Backhand welding

 In Forehand Welding, the Torch is Moved in the Direction of the Tip. This Tends to
Preheat the Parent Material Before the White Cone of the Tip Melts it.
 In Backhand Welding, the Torch Points Backwards. The Outer Blue Flames are
Directed on the Already Welded Joint. This Allows the Joint to be Continuously
Annealed Relieving the Welding Stresses.
 Backhand Welding also Allows a Better Penetration as well as Form a Bigger Weld
Bead. Backhand Welding is Generally Used for Thicker Materials.
 Preheating of the welding rod should be maintained by keeping it at a
proper distance from the flame.
 Too far distance makes the rod cooler and would chill the puddle
when dipped.
 Too little distance makes the tip melt with the result that the molten
material would be blown away by the flame causing uneven bead
and poor penetration.

Forehand welding is the most commonly used technique for MIG welding. What the
forehand method does is produce a shallow but wide penetrating weld that is flat in
appearance. This is the type of weld and penetration is used for most weld joints
where overheating is not an issue.

Backhand welding is the least used welding technique when it comes to MIG. This
technique produces the deep and narrow type of penetration that is best suited for
thinner metals. The advantage of backhand welding is that the arc is focused onto
the filler metal and that means extra material to prevent burn through. When welding
thinner metals you always run the risk of burning a hole through the weld joint. With
the backhand method the extra filler metal at the arc helps prevent this and at the
same time can keep warp age to a minimum.
Resistance spot welding
SPOT WELDING is one of a group of resistance welding
processes that involve the joining of two or more metal parts
together in a localised area by the application of heat and
pressure. The heat is generated within the material being joined
by the resistance to the passage of a high current through the
metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.

 Two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes are pressed

against the lap joint and two metallic sheets to be welded.
 Current ranges 3,000 to 40,000 Ampere depending on the
requirement causes a weld nugget of size varying from 6 to
10 mm diameter to be formed at the metallic interface.
 The current is switched on for a duration lasting 0.1 to 0.5
sec.
 At low pressures, the resistance and heat are high and
melted metal tend to squeeze out of the weld.
 At high pressure, the resistance decreases and heat is less
and smaller weld formed provides lower weld strength. Thus,
for a given set of conditions, optimum electrode current and
electrode pressure are indicated.
 The time duration of current flow should not be beyond
certain critical, because the heat then has a chance to
spread out and harm work piece and electrode.
 Optimum values of current, pressure and their application
Seam welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Semi automatic

 Shielding is provided by the flow of gas

 Fluxing and slag-forming agents are no longer required,
 Can be applied to all metals.
 Argon and/or helium - used as primary shielding gases
 O2 or CO2 is usually added to improve the arc stability and reduce weld spatter.
 CO2 can also be used alone when welding steel, provided that a deoxidizing
electrode wire is employed. Nitrogen and hydrogen may also be added to
modify arc characteristics.
 Since these shielding gases only provide protection and do not remove existing
contamination, starting cleanliness is critical to the production of a good weld.
Brazing
Brazing is a group of welding processes that produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler metal, having a melting
temperature above 4500C and below the melting
temperature of the base materials.

The filler metal is distributed between the closely filled surfaces

of the joint by capillary action. Upon cooling and solidification of
the filler material, a strong joint is developed.

The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)

temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a
flux. It then flows over the base metal (known as wetting) and is
then cooled to join the base materials together.

Base materials are not melted

Soldering
Soldering is a group of joining processes that produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to a suitable
temperature and by using a filler material having melting
temperature not exceeding 4500C and below the melting
temperature of the base materials.
The filler metal is distributed between the closely filled
surfaces of the joint by capillary action.
 Strength of the brazed joint depends on design of the joint
and adhesion at the interfaces of the work piece and filler
material.
 Therefore the surfaces to be brazed should be chemically
or mechanically cleaned to ensure full capillary action
and flux should be used.
 Clearance between mating surfaces is an important
parameter, as it directly affects the strength of the brazed
joint. smaller the gap, higher is the shear strength of the
joint (there is an optimum gap to achieve maximum tensile
strength).
 Typical joint clearance ranges from 0.025 mm to 0.2 mm
Filler Materials Used in Brazing
 Brazing filler materials generally melt above 450 C (840 F), but
below the melting point (or solidus temperature) of the materials to
be joined.
 Difficulties associated with Heat Affected Zones (HAZ), Warping,
and Residual stresses are reduced in brazing as compared to
fusion welding
 Strength of the brazed joint depends on design of the joint and
adhesion at the interfaces of the work piece and filler material.

Commonly used Filler metals

 Brazing Flux
 Use of a Flux is essential in brazing
 To prevent oxidation
 To remove oxide films from workpiece surfaces
 Lowering surface tension between molten brazing metal and surface
Joints need to be extremely clean to facilitate capillary action of filler material

 Brazing fluxes are generally made of Borax (Na2B4O7,10H2O), Boric Acid

(H3BO3), borates, fluorides, and chlorides and are available as paste,
slurry, or powder.
The fluxes used for Ferrous materials => Borax (75%) + Boric Acid (25%)

 Surfaces to be brazed must be clean and free from rust, oil, lubricants, and
other contaminants
 Clean surfaces are essential to obtain the proper wetting and
spreading characteristics of the molten filler material in the joint, as
well as maximum bond strength.

 Sand blasting may also used to improve surface finish of the surfaces.

 Since fluxes are corrosive, they should be removed after brazing usually
by washing vigorously with hot water.
Brazed joints

(a) Conventional butt

(b) Scarf joint
(c) Stepped joint
(d) Increased cross-section

(a) Conventional Lap

(b) Cylindrical part
(c) Sandwiched part
(d) Use of sleeve
Brazing - Basic Steps
1. GOOD FIT AND PROPER CLEARANCE
2. CLEANING THE METALS
3. FLUXING THE PARTS
4. ASSEMBLE FOR BRAZING WITH PROPER ALIGNMENT AND SUPPORT
5. BRAZING THE ASSEMBLY: A reducing flame is recommended for brazing.
6. CLEANING THE BRAZED JOINT: Hot water wash with brushing or swabbing to
remove flux residues

Cleaning
Fluxing Aligning
Heating Filler metal application
Cooling
Flux residue removal
According to the heating methods used in brazing:

A. Torch Brazing (TB):

 Heat source is Oxy-Fuel Gas with a Carburizing Flame.
 Brazing is Performed by First Heating the Joint with the Torch, and then
Depositing the Brazing Rod or Wire in the Joint.

B. Furnace Brazing (FB):

 Carried out in a Furnace.
 Parts are Pre-cleaned and Preloaded with Brazing Metal in Appropriate
Configurations before being Placed in the Furnace and the whole
Assembly is Heated Uniformly in the Furnace.
 Vacuum Furnaces or Neutral Atmospheres are Used for Materials that
React with the Environment.

C. Induction Brazing (IB):

 Source of Heat is Induction Heating by High-Frequency Arc Current.
 Unless a Protective Atmosphere is Used, Fluxes are Generally Needed.
 Part Thicknesses are Usually Less than 3 mm
 Induction Brazing is Particularly Suitable for Brazing Parts Continuously.
D. Resistance Brazing (RB):
 Source of Heat is through Electrical Resistance of the Components to be
Brazed. Electrodes are Used for this Purpose.
 Either Parts are Preloaded with Filler Material or the Filler Material is
Supplied Externally during Brazing.
 Parts that are Commonly Brazed by this Process have a Thickness of 0.1-
12 mm
 Process is Rapid, can be Automated, Heating Zones can be Confined to
Very Small Areas.

E. Dip Brazing (DB):

 Carried Out by Dipping the Assemblies to be Brazed either in a Molten
Filler Material Bath or a Molten Salt Bath at a Temperature just Above
the Melting Point of the Filler Material, which Serves as the Heat Source
 The majority of brazed joints in HVAC units are copper-to-copper joints. That means
you don’t have to worry about the “coefficients of expansion” of the base metals, as
the two copper parts will expand at the same rate. However, if you’re brazing joints of
dissimilar metals (copper to steel) you have to take into consideration the different
expansion rates. You know that non-ferrous metals (copper, brass) expand more
during heating than ferrous ones (steel, stainless steel). So, be sure to adjust the
initial joint clearance accordingly. Where heating will reduce the clearance, for
example brazing a copper tube to a steel header, start with a relatively loose fit
(approximately .010 inch). Where heating will increase the clearance, start with a
close or even force fit.

When brazing copper-to-copper you can eliminate the flux by using a phosphorus
bearing filler metal (such as Sil-Fos® or Fos Flo®) because the phosphorus acts as a
fluxing agent.
However, when brazing copper to steel (in compressor or valve assemblies) you can’t
use phosphorus bearing filler metals as they form brittle phosphides and the joint could
fail. Instead use a phosphorus-free filler metal (such as the Braze™ family of alloys), but
then you will have to use a flux. When brazing brass, you could use a phosphorus
bearing alloy, but you will have to apply flux here as well.
Flux can be applied on the parts being brazed with a brush, or it can be incorporated
directly into the filler material in the form of flux-cored or flux-coated wire or rod.
However the flux is applied, it is important that it does not get inside the parts where it
could contaminate the system.
 Brazing and Soldering Involve Lower Temperatures than those Required
for Welding.
 Brazing Temperatures (> 450 0C) are Higher than Soldering Temperature
(< 450 0C)
 Brazed Joint has Higher Strength than the Soldered Joint.
 In Brazing, a Filler Material is Placed at or Between the Surfaces to be
Joined, and the Temperature is Raised to Melt the Filler Material but Not
the Workpieces (Fig. a).
 Molten Material Fills Closely the Fitting Space by Capillary Action. Upon
Cooling and Solidification of the Filler, a Strong Joint is Developed.
 There are Two Types of Brazing Processes:
 Brazing (Fig. a)
 Braze Welding: Filler Metal is Deposited at the Joint (Fig. b) wider
than the gap in brazing…no capillary action..
Soldering
 Soldering is very similar to brazing except that filler material
(i.e. Solder) is usually a lead-tin based alloy which has much
lower strength and melting temperature around 250°C.
 In this process less alloying action between base metal and
filler material as compared to brazing takes place hence the
strength of joint is lesser.
 It is carried out using electrical resistance heating (Soldering
Iron, Torches or Ovens).

 Solders are usually Tin-Lead (Sn-Pb) alloys in various proportions.

 For better joint strength and special applications, Tin-Zinc (Sn-Zn), Lead-
Silver (Pb-Ag), Cadmium-Silver (Cd-Ag), Zinc-Aluminum (Zn-Al) alloys are
also used.
 Because of the toxicity of Lead, Lead-Free Solders have been developed
such as Tin-based solders, typical compositions being 96.5% Sn + 3.5%
Ag, and 42% Sn + 58% Bi.
Soldering Fluxes are generally of two types:
 Inorganic Acids or Salts, such as Zinc Ammonium Chloride
Solutions, which Clean the Surface Rapidly.
(After soldering, flux residues should be removed by washing
thoroughly with water to avoid corrosion)
 Non-corrosive resin-based fluxes, used in electrical applications
Joints in Soldering

a) Crimped lead wire printed circuit (PC) board

b) Plated through hole on PC board to maximize solder contact area
c) Hooked wire on flat terminals
d) Twisted wires
Joints in Soldering

(a) Flat lock seam

(b) Bolted or riveted joint
(c) Copper pipe fitting
(d) Crimping of cylindrical lap joint.
Types of Soldering Methods
 Torch Soldering (TS)
 Furnace Soldering (FS)
 Iron soldering (INS) Using Solder Iron
 Induction Soldering (IS)
 Resistance Soldering (RS)
 Dip Soldering (DS)
 Infrared Soldering (IRS)
 Ultrasonic Soldering
 Reflow or Paste Soldering (RS)
 Wave Soldering (WS)
Wave and Reflow/Paste Soldering are Mostly Used for
Electronics Applications
Main advantages of welding
 Welding has replaced riveting in many applications including: steel
structures, boilers tanks, and motor car chassis
 Cost effectiveness
 Strong and tight joining
 Simplicity of welded structure design
 Most of the welding process can be mechanised and automated

Some disadvantages of welding

 Internal stresses, distortions and changes of structures in the weld region
 HAZ is formed
 Harmful effects: light, ultra violate radiation, fumes, high temperature
 Permanent joint
Advantages of SMAW
 Equipment relatively easy to use, inexpensive, portable
 Filler metal and means for protecting the weld puddle are provided by
the covered electrode
 Less sensitive to drafts, dirty parts, poor fit-up
 Can be used on carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, copper, nickel, aluminium

Disadvantages of SMAW
 Discontinuities associated with manual welding process that utilize flux
for pool shielding
 Slag inclusions
 Lack of fusion
 Other possible effects on quality are porosity, and hydrogen cracking.
Limitations of SMAW
Low weld metal deposition rate compared to other processes.
This is because each welding rod contains a finite amount of metal. As
each electrode is used, welding must be stopped and a new rod inserted
into the holder. A 12-inch electrode may be able to deposit a bead 6-8
inches long.

The overall productivity of the process is affected by:

 Frequent changing of electrodes,
 Inter pass cleaning (grinding, brushing, etc.),
 Grinding of arc initiation points and stopping points,

Slag inclusions which require removal of the defect and re-welding of the
defective area. The heat of the welding arc is too high for some lower melting
metals. And the shielding of metals that react aggressively with the
atmosphere is inadequate.
Advantages if GMAW

No slag produced
Advantages of submerged welding (SAW)
 This process can be automated and use to weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel
and stainless steel sheets or plates as high as 5m/min.
 The quality of weld is very high, provides high productivity in ship building and for
pressure vessels.
 High deposition rates
 No arc flash or glare
 Minimal smoke and fumes
 Flux and wire added separately - extra dimension of control
 Easily automated
 Joints can be prepared with narrow grooves
 Can be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, chromium-
molybdenum steels, nickel base alloys
 SAW has the highest deposition rate of the entire deep penetrating arc welding
processes making it ideal for thick section and multi-pass welding. Variations of the
process can utilize dual arc welding, twin arc welding, multiple torches, and narrow
groove welding to increase productivity.
 Since the arc is completely submerged in the flux, there is no arc radiation. Screens
or light filtering lenses are not needed. Additionally, the smoke and fumes are
trapped within the flux and thus minimizing smoke and fumes.
 Since the process is simple to mechanize and easily automated, it is extremely
consistent once a procedure is qualified. And it can be used on a wide variety of
materials.
Limitations of submerged welding (SAW)
 Because of the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited largely to
welds in flat or horizontal position
 The flux which shields the arc and weld pool in SAW also obstruct the
operator’s view of the joint and molten weld pool. This makes observation of
the pool and joint impossible during welding; thus, correction of problems
during welding can be very difficult.
 Because of the high current levels common to this process, it is normally not
suited for thinner materials.
 Due to the presence of a granulated flux, submerged arc welding is limited
to the flat and horizontal positions. As with SMAW and FCAW, SAW
produces a slag which must be completely removed after each pass.
 Finally, additional flux handling equipment is required.
Advantages of RESISTANCE WELDING
 High welding rates;
 Low fumes;
 Cost effectiveness;
 Easy automation;
 No filler materials are required;
 Low distortions.

Disadvantages of RESISTANCE WELDING

 High equipment cost;
 Low strength discontinuous welds;
 Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 6 mm.
Weldability
Capacity of a material to be welded into a specific structure
that has certain properties and characteristics and will
satisfactorily meet the service requirements
 Backing: It is the Material Support Provided at the Root Side of
a Weld to Aid in the Control Of Penetration.
 Base Material: The Material to be Joined or Cut is Termed as
the Base Material.
 Bead or Weld Bead: Bead is the Material Added during a
Single Pass of Welding. The Bead Appears as a Separate Material
From the Base Material.
 Crater: In Arc Welding, a Crater is the Depression in the Weld
Material Pool at the Point Where the Arc Strikes the Base
Material.
 Deposition Rate: The Rate at which the Weld Material is
Deposited Per Unit Time, is the Deposition Rate and is Normally
Expressed as Kg Per Hour.
 Fillet Weld: The Metal Fused into the Corner of a Joint Made of
Two Pieces Placed at Approximately 90° to Each Other is Termed
Fillet Weld.
 Penetration: It is the Depth Up to Which the Weld Combines
with the Base Material as Measured from the Top Surface of the
Joint.
 Puddle: The Portion of the Weld Joint that Melted by the Heat of Welding
is Called Puddle.
 Root: It is the Point at which the Two Pieces to be Joined by Welding are
Nearest.
 Tack Weld: A Small Weld, Generally Used to Temporarily Hold the Two
Pieces Together during Actual Welding, is the Tack Weld.

 Toe of Weld: It is the Junction Between the Weld Face and Base Material.
 Torch: In Gas Welding, the Torch Mixes the Fuel and Oxygen and Controls
its Delivery to Get the Desired Flame.
 Weld Face: It is the Exposed Surface of the Weld
 Weld Material: The Material that is Solidified in the Joint is Called Weld
Material. It may be only Base Material or a Mixture of Base Material and
Filler Material.
 Weld Pass: A Single Movement of the Welding Torch or Electrode Along
the Length of the Joint which Results in a Bead, is a Weld Pass.
Welding Defects
The defects in the weld are
A. Irregularities in the weld metal produced due to
1. Incorrect welding parameters
2. Wrong welding procedures
3. Wrong combination of filler metal and parent metal.

B. Variations from the intended weld bead shape, size and

desired quality.
C. On the surface or inside the weld metal.
Solid Inclusion
Slag or any other nonmetallic material
entrapped in the weld metal

Remedies:
 Proper selection of groove
 Removal of slag from the previously deposited bead
 Avoiding too high or too low welding currents
 Avoiding long arcs
Lack of Fusion
Failure to raise the temperature of base metal or previously
deposited weld layer to melting point

Remedies:
 Proper cleaning of surfaces to be welded
 Selection of proper current,
 Selection of correct size of electrode
 Proper welding technique
Incomplete penetration

Causes:
 Low currents
 Larger arc lengths
 Large root face
 Small root gap
 Too narrow groove angles
 Cracks Types of cracks
 Longitudinal cracks,
Cracks may appear in  Transverse cracks
 Weld metal  Radiating/star cracks
 Base metal  Cracks in the weld crater
 Base metal and weld metal boundary

 Hot Cracks (Develop when joint is still at elevated

temperatures)
 Cold Cracks (Develop after the weld metal has solidified)
CAUSES:
 Thermal Stresses due to unfavorable temperature gradients
 Variations in the Composition of the Weld Zone that Cause Different
Contractions
 Embrittlement due to presence of Sulfur, Phosphorus, Carbon etc.
 Hydrogen Embrittlement
 Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling, a situation similar to
the development of hot tears in castings, due to excessive restraint of the
workpiece

REMEDIES: Some Crack Prevention Measures are:

 Modify the Design of the Weld Joint to Minimize Thermal Stresses from
Shrinkage during Cooling
 Preheat Components Before Welded
 Change Welding Process Parameters, Procedures, and Sequence
 Avoid Rapid Cooling of the Components after Welding

Cracks occur when localized stresses (developed due to

shrinkage during solidification of weld metal) exceed the
ultimate tensile strength of material
Porosity
Results when gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal
Excessively high welding currents, faster welding speeds, long
arc lengths and unbaked flux and electrodes are avoided

REMEDIES: Porosity in Welds can be Reduced by

 Proper cleaning of the weld zone
 Prevention of Contaminants from Entering the Weld Zone
 Slowing the Welding Speed to Allow Time for Gas to Escape.
 Proper Selection of Electrodes and Filler Material
 Improvement of Welding Techniques, such as by Preheating the Weld
Area or Increasing the Rate of Heat Input
Imperfect Shape
Variation from the desired shape and size of the weld bead
Arc Blow
Deflection of the arc by the magnetic fields setup due to the
flow of the welding current
Result
 Excessive Spatter
 Incomplete Fusion
 Reduced Welding Speed

Methods to reduce the severity of arc

blow problem:
1. Change to AC Welding,
2. Reduce the Current
3. Use a Short Arc Length
4. Put Steel Blocks Near the
End of the Plate
Methods to reduce the severity of arc blow problem:
1. Change to AC Welding, because of the continuous change in the
polarity, the effect of magnetic field is nullified,
2. Reduce the Current used so that the strength of the magnetic field is
reduced,
3. Use a Short Arc Length so that the filler material would not be
deflected but carried easily to the arc crater,
4. Put Steel Blocks Near the End of the Plate in contact with the base
material so that the magnetic flux lines would flow through them and
reduce the arc blow
ARC BLOW

DESCRIPTION

A condition called arc blow may occur when using Direct Current (DC) to weld
some joint designs with the stick welding process. The direct current passing
through the electrode and the base metal sets up a magnetic field around the
electrode. The force of this magnetic field can be strong enough to pull the arc
from its intended path causing an unstable weld puddle resulting in a poor weld
with excessive spatter. Arc blow may become very severe at the ends of a joint
for example; the top part of Vee groove or when welding the inside corners of a T
joint.

Severe Arc Blow may appear to the welder as if someone is blowing the arc with
an air hose.
REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF ARC BLOW

USE ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

Alternating current flow changes direction constantly and as a result the magnetic
field does not build up enough to cause severe arc blow.

When welding certain joint configurations, and arc blow prevents producing quality
welds, if possible switch from Direct Current to Alternating Current.

Although using AC current virtually eliminates the problems associated with Arc Blow
it may not be possible to switch current on the machine or use another machine. Try
one or more of the following tips to reduce the effects of Arc Blow.
 Main Requirement in an Arc Welding Setup is the Source of Electric
Power. They are Essentially of Two Types:
(A) Alternating Current (AC) Machines
(i) Transformer, OR
(ii) Motor OR Engine Driven Alternator
(B) Direct Current (DC) Machines
(i) Transformer with DC Rectifier, OR
(ii) Motor OR Engine Driven Generator.
 Transformer has NO Moving Part and as a Result Operates with Less
Maintenance Cost and also has Higher Efficiency. In AC Welding,
Normally only Transformers are Used. In DC Arc Welding a Rectifier or a
Generator can be Used to Supply the Required DC Power.
 In DC Welding Machines, the Power Supply is First Stepped Down by
Means of a Transformer to the Required Voltage then Silicon Controlled
Rectifiers (SCR) Convert AC to DC.
 DC Generator is Driven by an Induction Motor Running on AC or an Oil
Engine. This Combination is Less Efficient, More Expensive and Noisy in
Operation.
Introduction & Principle of Arc
 Electric Arc Welding Process Makes Use of the Heat Produced by the
Electric Arc to Fuse the Pieces to be Welded. This is one of the Most
Widely Used Welding Process, Mainly Because of the Ease of Use and
High Production Rates that can be Achieved Economically.
 An Arc is a Sustained Electric Discharge through the Ionized Gas
Column (Called Plasma) Between the Two Electrodes.
 An Arc is Generated Between Two Conductors of Electricity, Cathode
and Anode (Considering Direct Current, Dc), when they are Touched to
Establish the Flow of Current and then Separated by a Small Distance.
 Electrons Liberated from the Cathode Move Towards the Anode and are
Accelerated in their Movement. When Electrons Strike the Anode at High
Velocity, Large Amount of Heat is Generated. About 65 to 75% of the
Total Heat is Liberated at the Anode by the Striking Electrons. A
Temperature of the Order of 6000 C is Generated at the Anode.
 The Positively Charged Ions, Moving from the Anode Impinge the
Cathode, thus Liberating Heat.
 To Produce the Arc, the Potential Difference Between the two Electrodes
(Voltage) should be Sufficient to Allow Electrons and Ions to Move
Across the Air Gap.
 Larger Air Gap Requires Higher Potential Differences. If the Air Gap
Becomes too Large for the Voltage, the Arc may Extinguish.
 In Case of an Alternating Current (AC) Arc, the Main Difference is that
the Cathode and Anode would Change Continuously. Due to this, the
Temperature Across the Arc would be More Uniform as Compared to a
DC Arc.
 Straight Polarity Or DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative):
Workpiece is Made Anode (Positive)
 When More Heat is Required (For Thicker Sheets or for Higher
Thermal Conductivity Work Materials)
 It Gives Rise to a Higher Penetration
 Reverse Polarity or DCEP: Making the Workpiece as Cathode
(Negative).
 For Thinner Materials
 This Gives Smaller Penetration.
 In Case of AC Welding, the Bead Obtained is Somewhere in Between the
Above Two Types.
 DC Arc Welding is Generally Preferred for Difficult Tasks such as
Overhead Welding, Since it Maintains a Stable Arc.