CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Learning Theories
2.1.1. Definition of Learning Theories
A Theory is a scientifically valid explanation for learning. Theories allow for
hypotheses to be generated and tested. From a philosophical perspective, learning can be
discussed under the heading of epistemology, which refers to the study of the origin, nature,
limits, and methods of knowledge. How can we know? How can we learn something new?
What is the source of knowledge?

Learning theory is combined-principal that related one each other and an explanation
for some facts and tied invention to learning environment. Beside it is an effort to describe
how people to learn thus, it helps all of us understanding complex inhern process from
learning. There are three main perspectives in learning theories, they are: Behaviorism,
Cognitivism and Constructivism. Fundamentally, the first theory has been revised by the
second theory and continuously so, there are variants, main topics which are not able to be
inserted clearly or even become single theory. People agree that learning is important, but
they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning. Shuell,
1986 in (Schunk, D. 2012) There is no one definition of learning that is universally accepted
by theorist, researchers and practitioners. Learning involves acquiring and modifying
knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. People learn cognitive,
linguistic, motor and social skills, and these can take many forms. At simple level, children
learn to solve 2+2=?, to recognize y in the word of daddy, to tie their shoes and to play with
other children. At a more complex level, students learn to solve long-division problems, write
terms papers, ride a bicycle and work cooperatively on a group project. Learning is an
enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results
from practice or other forms of experience ( Schunk, D. 2012).

In addition, the definition of learning theory is a theory in which there are procedures
for applying teaching and learning activities between teachers and students with the creativity
design of learning methods that will be implemented in the classroom or outside the
classroom.

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2.1.2. Types of Learning Theory

In the process of teaching and learning, mastering a teacher and how to deliver it is
very essential requirements. Mastery of teachers on subject matter and classroom
management is very important but not enough to produce optimal learning. If a teacher wants
to apply a theory learning in the process of teaching and learning than, the teacher must
understand the ins and outs of learning theory process, so that teacher can well design in the
form of teaching and learning process will be implemented. Psychology of learning or called
as learning theory is a theory that studies the development of students intellectual. Different
types of learning theory are:

a. Behaviorism
Bush, 2006 in (Schunk, D. 2012) Behaviorists believed that “only observable,
measureable, outward behavior is worthy of scientific inquiry. Hence their focus was on
learning as affected by changes in behavior. They concluded that given the right
environmental influence, all learners acquire identical understanding and that all students can
learn. In contrast to the beliefs of behaviorists, the constructivists viewed learning as search
for meaning. They believed that knowledge is constructed by the learner and that the learner
develops Her/ His own understanding through experience. Whereas a behaviorist would
continue to look at the content to be learned and the influence of the environment upon that
learning.
The main focus in behavioristic learning theory is feasible behavior and external
effects that has been stimulated. Behavioristic learning theory lead the student to think. The
view of behavioristic is a formation process to bring student to achieve certain purposes then,
it will transform student become uncreative and un-imagination. So, behavioristic theory
describes as stimuluses and responses (Nahar, N. 2016:10-11).
Parkay and Has in (Zhou, M., Brown D. 2015), Behaviorism is primarily concerned
with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior,
behaviorists learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-
response association made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual
selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological
drives existing at the moment of action.

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 b. Cognitivism
Jean Piaget is Swiss Psychologist best known for his pioneering work on the
development of intelligence in children. In His work Piaget identified the child four stages
of mental growth. In sensorimotor stage, in the preoperational stage, Concrete operational
stage and formal operational stage based on age separation from age 2 until age 15. Studying
cognitive development of children, Piaget identified that four major stages and believed all
children pass through those phases to advance to the next level of cognitive development.

Piaget’s theory remains important and has several useful implications for instruction
and learning. According to Piaget, cognitive development depends on four factors, they are:
biological maturation, experience with the physical environment, experience with social
environment and equilibration. This theory concluded that children’s cognitive development
passed through a fixed sequence. The pattern of operations that children can perform may be
thought of as a level or stage. Each level or stage is defined by how children view the world.
Piaget and other stage theories make certain assumption. Stages are discrete, qualitatively
different and separate. The development of cognitive structures is dependent on preceding
development. Although the order of structure development is invariant. Stages should not be
equated with ages (Schunk, D. 2012: 237).

c. Constructivism

Constructivism is not a theory but rather than an Epistemology, or philosophical

explanation about the nature of learning. Constructivism separated become two overviews,
they are Assumptions and Perspectives. Constructivism highlights the interaction of persons
and situation in the acquisition and refinement of skills and knowledge. It contrasts with
conditioning theories that stress the influence of the environment on the person as well as
with information processing theories that places the locus off learning within the mind with
little attention to the context it occurs. Constructivism is not a single viewpoint but rather has
different perspectives. There are three perspectives on constructivism, as follows: Exogenous
Constructivism that refers to acquisition of knowledge represents a reconstruction of
structure that exist in eternal world. Endogenous constructivism emphasizes the coordination
of cognitive action and Dialectical constructivism which holds that knowledge derives from
interactions between persons and their environment.

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2.2. Science Learning Theory
2.2.1. Science Learning Framework
Chiappetta in (Fatonah, S., Prastyo, Z., 2014:1-3) stated that the framework of science
is a way of thinking, a way of investigating and a body of knowledge.as a ways of thinking,
science is mental activity from whom as an expert in their field. Scientists tried to observe,
to explain and also describe the nature phenomena. The ideas and explanation of that nature
phenomena are arranged in our own mind. As a group of knowledge, science is systematic
arrangement from researches by the scientist. The result of researches are facts, concepts,
principal, theories and even model in field of biology, chemistry, physic and so on.

According to Hungerford, Volk & Ramsey science is (1) is process to get information
by empirical method; (2) Information that received by investigating which literature logically
and systematically; and (3) a combination of critical thinking process produce accurate and
valid information. Meanwhile, Trowbridge & Bybee told that science is a representation of
dynamic relationship that consist three main factors are “the extant body of scientific
knowledge, the values of science and the methods and processes of science”. This point of
view is larger rather than Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey about the definition of science.
Because Trowbridge & Bybee looked science as a process and methods and products (body
of scientific knowledge), beside they looked science contains values. As body of scientific
knowledge, science is interpretation/ description about nature world. This thing is the similar
to definition science that stated by Hungerford, Volk and Ramsey. The main purposes off
science is developing body of scientific knowledge (Fatonah, S and Prasetyo, Z. 2014:7-8).

Science as a process or inquiry methods scope the way of thinking, attitudes, and
scientific activities stages to achieve science products or scientific knowledge just like
observation, measurements, formulating and hypothesis testing, data collecting, experiment
and predicting. In that contexts science is not only how to work, see, and the way of thinking
but science is a way of knowing. It means that science as process is also covered by disposal
of attitude/ action, curiosity, habitually thinking, and procedure devices. In other hand, values
of science related to moral responsibility, social values, science benefits for science and
human being and attitudes and action (like: Curiosity, telling the truth, precision, tolerant and
decision making.

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Science through education Education through science
Learn fundamental science knowledge, Learn the science knowledge and concepts
concepts, theories, and laws important for understanding and handling
socio-scientific issues within society
Undertake the processes of science through Undertake investigatory scientific problem
inquiry learning as part of the development solving to better understand the science
of learning to be a scientist background related to socio-scientific issues
within society
Gain an appreciation of the nature of science Gain an appreciation of the nature of science
from a scientist’s point of view from a societal point of view
Undertake practical work and appreciate the Develop personal skills related to creativity,
work of scientists initiative, safe working, etc.
Develop positive attitudes towards science Develop positive attitudes towards science as
and scientists a major factor in the development of society
and scientific endeavours
Acquire communicative skills related to Acquire communicative skills related to oral,
oral, written and written and symbolic/tabular/graphical
symbolic/tabular/graphical formats as formats to better express scientific ideas in a
part of systematic science learning social context
Undertake decision-making in tackling Undertake socio-scientific decision-making
scientific issues related to issues arising from the society
Apply the uses of science to society and Develop social values related to becoming a
appreciate ethical issues faced by scientists responsible citizen and undertaking science-
related careers
(Hoolbrook J, 2007:)

2.2.2. Science Learning

Reber mendefinisikan belajar dalam 2 pengertian. Pertama, belajar sebagai proses
memperoleh pengetahuan dan kedua, belajar sebagai perubahan kemampuan bereaksi yang
relatif langgeng sebagai hasil latihan yang diperkuat (Sugihartono, dkk. 2008: 74). Daryanto
(2010: 51) menyatakan pembelajaran diartikan sebagai proses penciptaan lingkungan yang
memungkinkan terjadinya proses belajar. Jadi dalam pembelajaran yang utama adalah
bagaimana siswa belajar. Belajar dalam pengartian aktifitas mental siswa dalam berinteraksi
dengan lingkungan yang menghasilkan perubahan perilaku yang bersifat relatif konstan.
Pembelajaran menurut Sudjana (Sugihartono, dkk. 2007: 80) merupakan setiap
upaya yang dilakukan dengan sengaja oleh pendidik yang dapat menyebabkan peserta didik
melakukan kegiatan belajar. Nasution (Sugihartono, dkk. 2007: 80) mendefinisikan
pembelajaran sebagai suatu aktivitas mengorganisasi atau mengatur lingkungan sebaik-
baiknya. Lingkungan disini memiliki pengertian tidak hanya ruang belajar, tetapi juga
meliputi guru, alat peraga, perpustakaan, laboratorium, dan sebagainya yang relevan dengan
kegiatan belajar siswa. Pembelajaran merupakan suatu kegiatan yang melibatkan seseorang

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dalam upaya memperoleh pengetahuan, keterampilan dan nilai-nilai positif dengan
memanfaatkan berbagai sumber untuk belajar (Susilana dan Riyana, 2008: 1).
Dari berbagai pendapat ahli di atas peneliti menyimpulkan pembelajaran adalah
adalah usaha yang dilakukan oleh pendidik dengan sengaja dalam mengatur lingkungan
sehingga memungkinkan terjadinya proses belajar, memperoleh pengetahuan, keterampilan
dan nilai-nilai positif.
Usman Samatowa (2006: 1) menjelaskan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam (IPA) atau sains
dalam arti sempit adalah disiplin ilmu yang terdiri dari physical sciences (ilmu fisik) dan
life sciences (ilmu biologi). James Conant (Usman Samatowo (2006: 1) mendefinisikan
sains sebagai suatu deretan konsep serta skema konseptual yang berhubungan satu sama
lain, dan yang tumbuh sebagai hasil eksperimentasi dan observasi, serta berguna untuk
diamati dan dieksperimentasikan lebih lanjut.
Secara umum istilah sains memiliki arti sebagai Ilmu Pengetahuan. Oleh karena itu
sains didefinisikan sebagai kumpulan pengetahuan yang tersusun secara sistematis,
sehingga secara umum istilah sains mencakup Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial dan Ilmu
Pengetahuan Alam. Secara khusus istilah sains dimaknai sebagai Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
atau “natural science”.
Menurut beberapa pengertian di atas peneliti menyimpulkan pembelajaran sains
ialah segala upaya yang dilakukan oleh pendidik yang berkaitan dengan dalam kegiatan
belajar siswa guna mengusahakan peserta didik memperoleh pengetahuan Ilmu Pengetahuan
Alam (IPA).
2.2.3. Objectives Science learning
in principle of science teaching in primary schools equip student ability to be rbagai
way to "know" and "how to" to assist students in understanding the nature around. According
Muslichach Ash 'ari (2006: 23) in detail the purpose of science teaching in primary schools
as follows:
a. Planting curiosity and positive attitudes towards science, technology, and society
instilled in students. With the provision of a high curiosity, students will continue to
learn to satisfy his curiosity. So that the students' knowledge will continue to grow
along with the curiosity he had.

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 b. Develop skills to investigate the process of natural surroundings, solve problems
and make decisions. Science equip students to be more sensitive to the surrounding
environment. With this ability of students to pay attention to its surroundings more
closely, to see problems, solve problems and learn how to make decisions.
c. Develop knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts that will be useful
and can be applied in everyday life. Once students learn science, the expected new
knowledge gained can be useful in the lives of students. Not just a theory, but applied
in everyday life.
d. Participate in maintaining, protecting and preserving the natural environment. By
studying science, students can learn how to maintain and preserve the environment.
e. Appreciate the natural surroundings and all regularity as one of God's creation.
Science and religion should not be separated but complementary

2.2.4. Science Literacy

The science education literature demonstrates that scientific literacy is generally
valued and acknowledged among educators as a desirable student learning outcome.
However, what scientific literacy really means in terms of classroom practice and
student learning is debatable due to the inherent complexity of the term and varying
expectations of what it means for learning outcomes. To date the teacher voice has been
noticeably absent from this debate even though the very nature of teacher expertise lies
at the heart of the processes which shape students’ scientific literacy. The research
reported in this paper taps into the expertise of (participating) primary teachers by
analyzing the insights and thinking that emerged as they attempted to unravel some of
the pedagogical complexities associated with constructing an understanding of
scientific literacy in their own classrooms. The research examines the processes and
structures within one primary school that were created to provide conditions to allow
teachers to explore and build on the range of ideas that presently inform the scientific
literacy debate. The research reports these teachers’ views and practices that shaped
their actions in teaching for scientific literacy (Smith K. V et all., 2013:2)
Science literacy has become an internationally well-recognized educational slogan,
buzzword, catchphrase, and contemporary educational goal. Scientific literacy “stands for
what the general public ought to know about science” and “commonly implies an

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appreciation of the nature, aims, and general limitations of science, coupled with some
understanding of the more important scientific ideas” The term is usually regarded as being
synonymous with “public understanding of science,” and while “scientific literacy” is used
in the United States, the former phrase is more commonly used in Britain, with “la culture
scientifique” being used in France (Laukgsch, 1999:1)
The term scientific literature has been used in the literature for more than 4 decades.
Although not always with the same definition. There are many definitions of science
literature to prevent the use of confusing things like convincing ideas with intuitive
appearances.The term literacy has been used to combine component variations of:
1. Knowledge of the substantive content of science and the ability to distinguish from
non-science;
2. Understanding science and its applications;
3. Knowledge of what counts as science;
4. Independence in learning science;
5. Ability to think scientifically;
6. Ability to use scientific knowledge in problem solving;
7. Knowledge needed for intelligent participation in science-based issues;
8. Understanding the nature of science, including its relationship with culture;
9. Appreciation of and comfort with science, including its wonder and curiosity;
10. Knowledge of the risks and benefits of science; and
11. Ability to think critically about science and to deal with scientific expertise.
(Hoolbrook J and Rannikmae M, 2009:2)
A student with more developed scientific literacy will demonstrate the ability to
create and use conceptual models to make predictions and give explanations, analyze
scientific investigations, relate data as evidence, evaluate alternative explanations of the same
phenomena, and communicate conclusions with precision. For assessment purposes, the
PISA definition of scientific literacy may be characterized as consisting of four interrelated
Aspects:
• Context: recognizing life situations involving science and technology.
• Knowledge: understanding the natural world on the basis of scientific knowledge that
includes both knowledge of the natural world, and knowledge about science itself.

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• Competencies: demonstrating scientific competencies that include identifying
scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically, and using scientific evidence.
• Attitudes: indicating an interest in science, support for scientific enquiry, and
motivation to act responsibly towards, for example, natural resources and
environments. The following sections restate and elaborate these in

2.3. Learning Media

2.3.1. Definition of Learning media
Media in education perspective is a strategic instrument that participate in
determining the success of the learning process. For its existence directly provide its own
dynamics to learners. Media is derived from the Latin is 'medius' which literally means a
mediator or intermediary. According to Gerlach and Elly understood that when the media
quoted outline is human, material or events that establish the conditions which enable the
pupils to acquire knowledge skills and attitudes (Azhar Arsyad, 2011: 3). Meanwhile,
according Falahudin (2014: 116) the media is one of the components of learning in each
learning activity to achieve learning objectives.
Based on some of the above opinions can be concluded that the media is a tool of
learning, methods and techniques used in order to make communications are effective from
teachers to students to achieve better learning achievements.
2.3.2. Kinds of Learning Media
In line with developments in technology and information, then learning media also
experienced development and modification through the use of its technology. Based on these
technologies, media are classified as follows:
a. Media is print technology results
b. Media is audio-visual technology results
c. Media are based on computer technology results
d. Media is combined results of printed and computerized technology. (Azhar Arsyad,
2011:
Classification of instructional media by Seels and Glasgow divide the media into two
major groups, namely: traditional media and the latest technology.
a. Media traditional option

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 1. Projected silent visual that are apaque, overhead projection slides and filmstrips.
2. Visual that is not projected namely, pictures, posters, photographs charts, graphs,
diagrams, fairs, info boards and feather boards.
3. Audio namely recording discs, cassette tapes, reel, cartridge.
4. Presentation of multimedia, like slides plus noise (tape).
5. Projected dynamic visual that are: the film, television, video,
6. print media, namely: textbooks, modules, text programmatically, workbooks,
journals, hand-out.
7. The games like a puzzle, simulation, game cards / board
b. media selections of cutting-edge technology
1. Media telecommunication based just like teleconference, distance lectures away.
2. Micro-processor media based namely computer-assisted instruction, computer
games, intelligent tutoring systems, interactive and hypermedia.
2.3.3. Media Selection Ways
In natural learning activities, we have to specify the media to be used, choose the best
for the purpose of learning is not easy. The selections are complex and difficult, because they
have to be considered for several factors:
1. Media Selection Model
Anderson (1976), quoted from Faludin Iwan (2014) suggested that there are two
approaches / models of learning media in the electoral process, namely: closed
selecting model and open selecting model. Closed model is used when alternative
media have been determined "from above" for example by the education department,
then kinds of media inevitably that must be used. Open selection model is the opposite
of the model secret ballot. That is, we still free to determine any kind of media that
suit our needs. Alternative media selection is still widely open. However, the sorting
process openly demanding on skill and ability of learners to make the electoral
process.
2. The reasons for media selecting
Media in essence is one component of the learning system. As a component, the
media should be an integration and must comply with the overall learning process.

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 Media selection must be done with correct procedures, because too much types of
media with advantages and weakness respectively.
2.3.4. The benefits of learning media
Generally, advantages of media in the learning process is accelerating the interaction
between learners so that learners with learning activities will be more effective and efficient.
Kemp and Dayton (1985) identified some of the benefits of learning media, namely:
1. Submission of materials can be made uniform,
2. Learning procedures more clear and compelling,
3. The learning process becomes more clear and interactive,
4. efficiency in time and efforts,
5. Increasing the learner achievements quality,
6. Media allows the learning process can be done anywhere and anytime.
2.4 Research Hypothesis
Ho : there is an increase in the ability of science literacy after using the learning material
Ha : There is no an increase in the ability of science literacy after using the learning
material

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