Information • Textbooks • Media • Resources
Developing and Using Conceptual Computer Animations
for Chemistry Instruction
K. A. Burke, Thomas J. Greenbowe, and Mark A. Windschitl
Department of Curriculum & Instruction and Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University of Science and Technology,
Ames, IA 50011
Students who can solve quantitative problems by the use
of an algorithm are unsuccessful when answering a similar
question posed at the particulate-nature-of-matter level or
conceptual level (1, 2). The common errors and misconcep-
tions exhibited by students when solving conceptual prob-
lems in kinetics (3), electrochemistry (4–6 ), equilibrium (7),
and solution chemistry (8) have been reported. The abstract
and dynamic nature of these topics makes them particularly
difficult for students to comprehend. In response to the em-
phasis instructors currently place on the molecular represen-
tation of chemistry and on conceptual understanding, sev-
eral chemistry textbooks (9–11) now include diagrams and
illustrations focusing on the molecular view and provide end-
of-chapter problems involving the particulate nature of mat-
ter (PNM). However, dynamic chemistry processes such as
gas phase equilibrium, collisions of molecules, and electro-
chemistry are visually represented in these textbooks by static
diagrams. Only a handful of studies report instructional strat-
egies, techniques, or uses of technology that might prove suc-
cessful in the remediation of chemistry misconceptions (12–
14 ). Because students often have difficulty visualizing, un-
derstanding, and remembering how dynamic chemical pro-
cesses occur, the use of computers to display dynamic mo-
tion offers a means to help students understand complex
chemistry concepts (15–17).
A computer animation is a series of visual images dis-
played in rapid succession on a computer screen, providing
the illusion of motion. Instructional computer animations
can be constructed so that dynamic visual images communi-
cate abstract ideas, concepts, and processes to students. A
conceptual computer animation should be designed to provide
a visualization of one specific chemical process. The animation
can be at the atomic or molecular level of representation,
thereby helping students gain a better understanding of the
concept at the PNM level (15, 18). Representing a chemistry
event correctly is the first step toward successful problem
solving, and representation is an important aspect of con-
ceptual understanding (19, 20).
Although commercial computer animations illustrating
chemistry phenomena are available (21–24), most chemistry
instructors find flaws in the images, animation sequence, and
the chemistry content and prefer not to use them (25). The
availability of low-cost, powerful microcomputers with multi-
media capability, the decreased cost of professional animation
software, and new, cost-effective multisync projectors have
opened the door for faculty members to develop and use their
own instructional computer animations (26 ) independent of
textbook publishers.
W
An extended version of this article is available on JCE Online
at http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/issues/1998/Dec/
abs1658.html.
1658 Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 75 No. 12 December 1998 • JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
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Developing Computer Animations
Although it is possible for individual faculty members
to develop computer animation sequences on their own, it is
more efficient to have an animation design team work to-
gether to develop and produce the animations. The team
should consist of the instructor, another chemist with expertise
in the topic to be animated, a computer graphics illustrator,
a computer animator, a computer programmer, and an in-
structional designer (27).
Identifying a single concept or principle is the first step
in the development of an animation (28). An analysis of
mistakes made by students on quiz and exam problems and
science education journal articles identifying chemistry mis-
conceptions provide insights into student difficulties and
are excellent sources of ideas for animation sequences.
The next step is to construct a series of storyboards (28),
or at least an outline of the major points, including rough
diagrams. Each storyboard should contain as much detail and
information as possible in order to convey exactly how the
chemist wants the animation sequence to be portrayed. For
example, the size, color, and shape of any atoms, molecules,
surfaces, solutions, etc., should be specified. Animation sequences
that play for 20–60 seconds seem to work best, so the sequence
should be short and focused. Some characteristics of effective
instructional animation sequences are:
Short: 20–60 seconds per concept
Accurate chemistry content
Option for accompanying text or audio narration ex-
planation
Panel with pause, forward, reverse, and exit control buttons
Nonlinear navigation
Addresses a misconception reported in the literature
Interactivity, decision making, and prediction incorpo-
rated for active learning
Appropriate assessment and feedback
Provides an opportunity to construct knowledge
WWW and local file server compatible
Cross-platform compatible
Permission to use copyrighted material, or a release
form on file
Faculty-tested, student-tested, classroom-tested
Developing a Conceptual Computer Animation:
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Analysis of student responses to quiz and exam problems
in a college general chemistry course revealed that many
students had difficulty understanding the functions of and
chemical processes occurring in an electrochemical cell involv-
ing a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). A conceptual
 Information • Textbooks • Media • Resources
computer animation that portrayed the chemical processes
occurring in the SHE at the molecular level was developed.
Software programming can be done in an animation program
such as MacroMedia Director (29). Director is a powerful
and sophisticated object-oriented animation software program
that promotes user interactivity and decision making. A
scripting language in Director, called Lingo, allows animators
to build interactions. Scripting is the writing of commands
that allows users of the animation to interact with the pre-
sentation. Users can explore specific aspects of the SHE in
more detail after viewing a molecular level representation of
the dynamics of the Zn-SHE cell. Figure 1 shows three frames
of a conceptual computer animation sequence.
When the animation is played, the viewer sees a repre-
sentation of several dynamic chemical and physical processes:
ion migration in the salt bridge, oxidation at the zinc electrode,
reduction at the standard hydrogen electrode, and electron
movement in the wire. The user has the option of selecting a
box around the zinc electrode, the salt-bridge, and the SHE.
Using a mouse and clicking on the hot spot navigates to an-
other animation representing an atom-level (PNM-level) view
of that area.
If the area around the SHE is selected, the animation
sequence displays just the processes occurring at the SHE.
The animation shows a representation of pairs of hydrogen
ions (shortened form for hydronium ions) reduced to hydrogen
molecules on the surface of platinum atoms. The hydrogen ions
are smaller than the hydrogen atoms. The chemical equation
for this process is displayed at appropriate times in the
animation sequence to remind the viewer of the specific
chemical reaction being animated. This SHE conceptual
computer animation is currently available on the World Wide
Web at http://www.public.iastate.edu/~iachemed/FIPSE/
homepage.html and will be available for at least one year from
the publication date of this article. Once this animation se-
quence was produced, reviewed by an electrochemist, and
pilot tested with students, it was easy to develop a companion
copper-SHE electrochemical cell animation.
Using Conceptual Computer Animations
When conceptual computer animations are used in con-
junction with chemistry lecture demonstrations, students are
better able to make connections among the microscopic,
macroscopic, and symbolic levels of representation (30). For
Figures 1. Three frames of a conceptual computer animation sequence.
JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu • Vol. 75 No. 12 December 1998 • Journal of Chemical Education
example, using electrochemical cells animations (31) along
with lecture demonstrations of the Zn-Cu, Zn-SHE, and
SHE-Cu electrochemical cells (32) enhances student perfor-
mance on both quantitative and conceptual electrochemical
problems (16, 17).
Computer animations designed to be used as part of an
instructional presentation in the classroom work best when
instructors do their own live narration. Either text narration
or voice narration enhances the animation and provides students
a simultaneous presentation of visual and verbal information
(33, 34 ). This practice is consistent with the contiguity
principle (35, 36 ) and the dual coding hypothesis (37 ). If
animations are incorporated as part of a lecture presentation,
then the animations should be available for students to view
after class, perhaps in a computer lab or on the World Wide
Web. The animation can be modified for student use by
adding text or voice narration, using software such as
SoundEdit 16 (38) or RealAudio (39). The text or narration
should be kept to a minimum, assisting the viewer in under-
standing the main point of the animation, rather than dis-
tracting the viewer (40, 41). Using cooperative learning or a
conceptual change approach to teaching along with animations
can increase students’ understanding of chemistry (17, 42).
Hardware and Software Recommendations
Microcomputers with a fast processor (>240 MHz), a
minimum of 32 MB of RAM, a minimum of 2 MB of
VRAM, a large internal hard disk drive (>600 MB), Ethernet
network access, and expansion slots for multimedia enhance-
ment tools are preferred for developing high-quality computer
animations. Pentium PCs or PowerMacs are preferable. It is
desirable to have an external drive, such as a 230-MB
magneto-optical drive or a 100-MB Zip drive, for backing
up files. Once an animation has been developed, cross-plat-
form conversion (e.g., from Mac to PC) should be done. The
animation should be played on several different types of com-
puters, powerbooks, etc., to check for compatibility with vari-
ous screen sizes and for accuracy of the color palettes.
Macromedia, Inc., offers a several high-quality, integrated,
cost-efficient animation development tools. Freehand (43) is
a professional-quality computer drawing program used to
create excellent two-dimensional and acceptable pseudo-three-
dimensional images (shaded to appear three-dimensional).
Extreme 3D (44), Ray Dream Designer (45), and Specular
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Information • Textbooks • Media • Resources
Infini-D (46 ) are software applications used for creating high-
quality three-dimensional objects and virtual reality three-
dimensional scenes. Photoshop (47 ) is the software of choice
to “clean up”, enhance, modify, or combine digital images.
Images created using Freehand and Extreme 3D are easily
imported into Director. Director animations can be created
on either Macintosh or Windows-based computers. By in-
cluding a hot spot on the screen, users can use a mouse to
click on it to execute an associated script or command. In-
cluding interactivity allows users to control and interact with
the animation program, rather than merely watching it. Simple
scripting allows users to answer questions and receive feed-
back. Users can also pause the animation, repeat it, and ad-
vance it forward or backward one frame at a time. Nonlin-
ear navigation to another part of the animation or another
instructional program can easily be programmed.
Technology innovations have dramatically influenced how
chemistry instructors can present information to students.
Animations created with Director are able to be viewed on
the WWW by using Shockwave (48) technology and a Web
browser such as Netscape (49). When placed on the WWW,
Shockwave files are transported across the Internet, then de-
compressed and played back on the user’s computer by a
Shockwave plug-in. One of the strengths of Shockwave is that
students can play the animations on PCs running Windows or
on Power Macs. For classroom presentations, there are many
portable “one gun” multisync projectors that provide excel-
lent images in terms of color and sharpness, excellent light
projection levels, and excellent transitions for viewing computer
animations. The new multisync projectors are lighter, more
stable, and easier to focus than their predecessors.
Copyright Issues
Chemistry instructors who develop software must be
aware of the U.S. Copyright Act, especially Section 106 (P.L.
94-553), the audiovisual copyright law pertaining to computer
software programs, visual images, sound, and copyright owner
(for digital access see http://www.law.cornell.edu:80/usc/17/).
Abrams has a good review and layperson’s interpretation of
the copyright and fair use law pertaining to multimedia (50).
To incorporate someone else’s color digital images, photo-
graphs, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, movies, music, etc.,
it is necessary to obtain permission from the copyright holder.
It is best to create in-house images, diagrams, graphs, illustra-
tions, and sounds for incorporation into instructional software
programs, even for “local, on-campus” use only.
Summary
Multimedia technology has advanced rapidly within the
past two years. In particular, it is now possible to distribute
multimedia presentations via the World Wide Web. Faculty
members should work with a design team who have knowledge
or expertise in instructional design, computer animation, and
graphic and sound production. Developers of computer ani-
mations must be aware of copyright issues concerning the
use of images, graphs, illustrations, or sounds. The use of
computer animations along with demonstrations presents all
three level of representation: microscopic, macroscopic, and
symbolic. When instructors take the time to emphasize the
PNM and conceptual issues through the use of computer
1660 Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 75 No. 12 December 1998 • JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
animations, students’ understanding and performance on
conceptual exam questions increases. Using computer ani-
mations does take some additional time. Instructors should
decide whether it is more important to “cover” or “uncover”
material, and whether to adhere to a “less is more” chemistry
curriculum (51).
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