STRUT AND TIE METHOD

ACRONYM
STM is the acronym for “Strut and Tie Models” or “Strut and Tie Methods“.
It is a design method of reinforced concrete structures by idealizing
structural components as truss models which are composed of axially
loaded members, including compression bearing members (strut) and
tension bearing members (tie).

B REGION
The word “B region” is short for “Bernoulli region” or “Beam region“.
According to Bernoulli hypothesis (Plane sections remain plane after
bending…), the strains in concrete structures follow a linear distribution.
This is the theoretical basis for flexural design of concrete components.
Those regions which follow Bernoulli hypotheses belong to B regions.
They could be designed by simple calculations.

CORBEL
Corbel is an example which does not follow the Bernoulli hypotheses. It is
discontinued in geometry. Or we can say the stress and strain in corbel is
disturbed.

D REGION

Examples of D regions

D region means “discontinued region” or “disturbed region“, such as

corbel. These D regions do not follow Bernoulli hypothesis. Thus, they
could not be designed or analyzed by simple calculations. The solution is
either empirical approximation or very complicated computations such as
FEA methods.
EXAMPLES
Besides corbels, there are many other types of D regions, such as deep
beams, pile caps, beams with opening holes, and beam-column joints.

FLEXURE
Take the design of pile caps as an example. In many cases, pile caps are
designed by beam theory. They are assumed to fail in flexure, which is a
ductile break and has warning cracks. However, according to several
research works, the failure modes of most of them are brittle shear
failures.

GRAPHICAL PROCEDURE

2D and 3D graphic of STM

Like Maxwell method for analyzing trusses, STM is also a graphical

procedure. It is based on graphics of structures, either two-dimensional or
three-dimensional. The angles, dimensions, and areas of struts and ties
could be obtained by graphical methods.

HISTORY
STM was presented by Schlaich et al. in the year 1987. Other research
works include Collins and Mitchell (1991) and MacGregor (1992). It has
been adopted by many codes or standards, such as AASHTO LRFD
Specifications, ACI 318, CSA Standard, FIP Recommendations, and
European Code.

INCLINED ANGLE
One of the definitions in these codes for STM is the geometric rules in
creating a proper STM model. Feasible inclined angle between strut and
tie members is an important factor. There are different provisions in
different codes. Approximately, the inclined angle is limited between 25°
and 60°. For example, in the ACI 318M-05, the provision is “The angle
between the axes of any strut and any tie entering a single node shall not
be taken as less than 25 degrees.”

JOINT

STM of beam-column joints

The common beam-column joints in moment frame structures are

examples of D regions. They could be analyzed by STM models.

KIT
Nothing is elixir. STM is only a tool kit for structural engineers. It is not a
cookbook procedure. It could perform well only when used correctly. In
order to use STM properly, engineers should have a good understanding
of structural behavior and an accurate judgment of design issues.

LOAD PATH

Good and poor load paths of the same deep beam

One characteristic of a proper STM model is that the load path is simple
and direct. There are several possible load paths in reinforced concrete
structures since there are several possible reinforcement arrangements.
Nevertheless, we should be meticulous when choosing the load path. Load
path should be as elegant as possible. Models which have unnecessarily
complicated load paths are not good choices.
METHOD
The basic method for STM is showed in this flow chart (C. C. Fu, 2001).

Flow chart of the method of STM

NODE

Different types of Nodes

In STM truss models, nodes are the connections of members. Usually,

there are three members converging into one node. Based on the internal
force of members (Compression or Tension), common nodes could be
classified as CCC, CCT, and CTT. They have different calculation factors
when checking node strengths.

OPTIMAL MODEL
Since there are several possible models, we should use the most ideal
model in our analysis. Generally, the common criterion is the amount of
reinforcement. A model with the minimum amount of reinforcement is
usually the optimal model.

POTENTIAL
STM could provide relatively easy and accurate analysis for D regions in
reinforced concrete. It is also useful in the shear design of structural
members. Thus, it has a great potential in the field of concrete structures.

QUANTITATIVE
Although STM is a graphical procedure, quantitative method is still
required. The calculation of the amount of ties and the checking of nodes
and struts all need quantitative procedures. We can see the detailed
procedure in the following example.

REINFORCEMENT

STM of joint and the corresponding reinforcement

Detailed reinforcement could be arranged by following the location and

distribution of idealized ties in the STM models. Pay attention to the
anchorage. Otherwise, brittle anchorage failures might happen.

STRUT
Basically, there are three types of struts: prism, fan, and bottle. They
have different factors in the calculation of compression strengths.

TIE
Ties are tension members in the STM models. They should have adequate
anchorage in the nodes.
UNIFIED APPROACH
The tile of the paper of Schlaich et al. in the year 1987 is Toward a
Consistent Design of Structural Concrete. Since STM considers all load
effects simultaneously, it is a unified approach for concrete structures.

VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT

STM for shear design of beams

One of the usages of STM is the shear design of concrete components.

The vertical reinforcement (stirrups) in beams could be decided by STM
analysis.

WALL
Like deep beams, load bearing walls could also be analyzed by STM.

X-RAY

“X-ray” of pier cap

Sometimes, STM models of concrete structures could be regarded as the

x-ray pictures of the structure members, such as this STM model of a pier
cap.
YIELD
In order to guarantee the safety of structural members, reinforcement
should yield before the brittle crush of concrete.

ZUM BEISPIEL (FOR EXAMPLE)

STM and FEA analysis of a deep beam

DESIGN EXAMPLE
1. STM model based on ACI (metric unit)
2. Another version of STM model
Compared with former STM model, the longitudinal reinforcement is a bit
larger, but the vertical reinforcement in this model is much small.
However, there are some issues. The inclined angle is very small and is
very near to the lower limit. Considering the decrease in the amount of
reinforcement and the smaller inclined angle, maybe a better solution is
to make the height of the beam a little higher. Thus, the angle could be a
bit bigger and the amount of reinforcement will not increase significantly.