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Lecture notes

Theory of Machines - II

Instructor

Dr. P. R. Budarapu, Asst. Prof.


School of Mechanical Sciences,
Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar.
Contents

Contents 3

List of Figures 5

List of Tables 7

1 Force analysis 1
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Moment of couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Conditions of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Vibrations 5
2.1 Introduction to vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Components of a vibrating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Free vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Free vibration of a mass-spring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Free vibration of a mass-spring-damper system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Forced vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
List of Figures

1.1 (a) Two equal and opposite forces acting along a line. (b) Rectangular components of a force
vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 (a) The free vector M is the moment of the couple formed by the forces F and F and the
position difference vector RBA . (b) A force coupled formed by F and F′ . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Two force members: (a) not in equilibrium and (b) in equilibrium, when FA and FA are equal,
opposite and acts on the same line of action. Three force members: (a) not in equilibrium
and (b) in equilibrium, when FA , FB and FC are coplanar, and their lines of action intersect
at a common point O and when their vector sum is zero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 (a) A viscous damper with damping force. (b) Force-displacement diagram of a viscous
damper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 (a) An elastic spring with spring force. (b) Force-displacement diagram and the linear range. 7
2.3 (a) A mass with inertia force. (b) Force-displacement diagram of a mass. . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 (a) A mass-spring-damper vibrating system with free body diagram of mass. (b) Torsional
vibrations reduced to an (c) equivalent mass-spring-damper system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 A mass-spring vibrating system with free body diagram of mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Solution representation of a mass-spring system in (a) a vector phase digram and (b) on a
time scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 (a) A mass-spring-damper vibrating system with (b) a free body diagram of the mass. . . . 11
2.8 Root locus diagram for various values of ζ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Free vibration response of a mass-spring-damper system, when ζ < 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10 Free vibration response of a mass-spring-damper system, for various values of ζ < 1. . . . . 13
2.11 Transient response of an underdamped system to estimate the logarithmic decrement. . . . 13
2.12 Free vibration response of a critically damped (ζ ≥ 1) mass-spring-damper system. . . . . . 14
2.13 Free vibration response of a critically damped (ζ = 1) mass-spring-damper system. . . . . . 14
2.14 (a) Forced vibrations of a mass-spring-damper system, where the free body diagram of the
mass is shown in (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.15 Variation of the (a) amplitude ratio and (b) the phase angle, of a mass-spring-damper system
with the frequency ratio, for various values of damping ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
List of Tables
Chapter 1

Force analysis

In this course we deal with the transmission of forces across various members of a machine. However,
estimating the sizes of the machine members based on the force transmission is not the subject of this
course. In this context, some relevant definitions are mentioned below.

1.1 Overview
• Force: Action of one body acting on the other, whose characteristics are: point of application,
direction and magnitude.

• Matter: Any material or substance, when it is completely enclosed, it is called a body.

• Mass: Quantity of matter of a body, measured by its volume or density.

• Inertia: Property of mass that causes the body to resist any effort to change its motion.

• Weight: Force of gravity action on the mass or simply gravitational force.

• Particle: A particle is a body whose dimensions are so small and hence may be neglected.

• Rigid body: When the deformation of a body is small, in other words, bodies incapable of deformation
are referred as rigid bodies.

• Deformable body: Bodies capable of deforming.

• Constraint forces: When a number of bodies are connected together to form a group or system, the
forces of action and reaction between any two of the connecting bodies are called constraint forces.

• Applied forces: Forces external to the system are called applied forces.

Figure. 1.1(a) shows two forces F1 and F2 , acting in opposite directions along a straight line. When F1
= F2 , the resultant force will be zero, weather the forces are tensile or compressive Resolution of a force
vector F, along the x, y and z directions is shown in Fig. 1.1(b), where,

F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂. (1.1)
2 Force analysis

Figure 1.1: (a) Two equal and opposite forces acting along a line. (b) Rectangular components of a force
vector.

Figure 1.2: (a) The free vector M is the moment of the couple formed by the forces F and F′ and the
position difference vector RBA . (b) A force coupled formed by F and F′ .

1.1.1 Moment of couple

Any two such forces acting on a body can constitute a couple, see Fig. 1.2(a). The arm of the couple (see
Fig. 1.2(b)) is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces and the planes of the couple
is the plane containing the two lines of action.
The moment of a couple is a vector M directed normal to the plane of the couple, whose magnitude is
the product of the arm of the couple:
M = R × F, (1.2)

where R is the relative position vector. The magnitude of the moment is the product of the arm of the
couple and the magnitude of one of the forces.

M = hF. (1.3)

Properties of couple:
When F1 and F′ are two equal and parallel forces acting in opposite directions, Fig. 1.2(b), consider any
point on each line of action and define the position vectors RA and RB with respect to a coordinate system.
Therefore, the relative position vector RBA is given by:

RBA = RB − RA . (1.4)
1.1 Overview 3

Hence, the moment of couple is given by:

M = RA × FA + RB × FB = (RB − RA ) × F2 = RBA × FB . (1.5)

Based on Eq. (1.5):

1. The value of the moment of the couple is independent of the choice of the centre about which the
moments are taken, since the relative position vector RBA remains same irrespective of the choice of
the origin.

2. The relative position vector RBA is not restricted perpendicularity with F and F′ . This can be proved
by resolving RBA into vertical and horizontal components.

3. The moment vector M is independent of any particular origin or line of application and is thus a free
vector.

4. The forces of a couple can be rotated together within their plane, keeping their magnitudes and the
distance between their lines of action constant, or they can also be translated to any parallel plane
without changing the magnitude or sense of the moment vector.

5. Two couples are equal if they have the same moment vectors, regardless of the forces or moment arms.

1.1.2 Conditions of equilibrium


A body or group of bodies is said to be in equilibrium if all the forces exerted on the system are in balance.
Static equilibrium: Upon the application of external forces on a system, if there no motion or all velocities
are zero, then the system is said to be in static equilibrium.
Dynamic equilibrium: If the application of external forces on a system results in a constant velocity motion,
then the system is then said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
Therefore, a system of bodies will be in equilibrium if and only if:

1. The vector sum of all the forces acting upon it is zero.

2. The vector sum of the moments of all forces acting about any arbitrary axis is zero.

Mathematically, the above statements can be expressed as:

F=0 and M = 0. (1.6)

Two and Three force members:


An arbitrary body acted upon by two forces FA and FB at points A and B, see Fig. 1.3(a), will be in
equilibrium, when:
X
F = FA + FB = 0. (1.7)

which means, FA and FA have equal magnitudes and opposite directions. Furthermore, to satisfy the
moment balance for static equilibrium, they must have the same line of action, see Fig. 1.3(b). In the
similar lines, an arbitrary system of bodies acted upon by three coplanar forces FA , FB and FC , at points
A B and C, see Fig. 1.3(c), will be in equilibrium when:
X
F = FA + FB + FC = 0. (1.8)
4 Force analysis

Figure 1.3: Two force members: (a) not in equilibrium and (b) in equilibrium, when FA and FA are equal,
opposite and acts on the same line of action. Three force members: (a) not in equilibrium and (b) in
equilibrium, when FA , FB and FC are coplanar, and their lines of action intersect at a common point O
and when their vector sum is zero.

Let the lines of action of two forces FA and FB intersect at some point O, see Fig. 1.3(d). Since neither FA
nor FB exerts any moment about point O, applying M = 0 to all the forces indicates that the moment
P

of FC about point O must also be zero. Therefore, the lines of action of all the forces must intersect at a
common point O. Hence, the three forces acting on the body must be concurrent.
Chapter 2

Vibrations

Any motion that exactly repeats itself after a certain interval of time is called as a periodic motion.
Vibration is an oscillatory motion about an equilibrium position. In this course, we consider only periodic
motions about an equilibrium position.

2.1 Introduction to vibrations

Vibrations may be either free or forced. A mechanical element is said to have a free vibration, if the periodic
motion continues after the cause of the original disturbance is removed. However, if a vibratory motion
persists because of the continuing existence of a disturbing force, then it is called a forced vibration. Any
free vibration of a mechanical system will eventually cease because of loss of energy, because of the presence
of internal damping in the system. The damping in a system is measured by a damping factor. Therefore,
the vibration in a heavily damped system decays rapidly, whereas, the decay is slow in case of a lightly
damped system. The period of a vibration is the time for a single event or cycle; the frequency is the
number of cycles or periods occurring in unit time. The degrees of freedom of a vibrating system are the
total number of independent coordinates required to completely define the system.
Furthermore, a steady-state vibration indicates a motion is repeating itself exactly in each successive
cycles. A transient vibration is a vibratory motion which changes in character with time. In order to
allow vibration, a mechanical system must have elasticity. When a rotating shaft has a torsional vibration,
this means that a mark on the circumference at one end of the shaft is successively ahead of and then
behind a corresponding mark on the other end of the shaft. In order words, torsional vibration of a shaft
is the alternate twisting and untwisting of the rotating material and requires elasticity for its existence.
The elasticity of the structures is represented using an elastic spring and system damping by a dashpot.
Therefore, spring, mass and damper are the basic components of a vibrating system. the The following
assumptions are made in the vibration analysis:

1. The spring and the dashpot are massless.

2. The mass is absolutely rigid.

3. All the damping is concentrated in the dashpot.


6 Vibrations

2.1.1 Components of a vibrating system

In a vibrating system, the spring element relates the forces to the displacement. The spring force on one
end is balanced by the equal and opposite force on the other end, see Fig. 2.1(a). Due to the spring
force Fs , the spring undergoes an elongation equal to x2 − x1 . The variation of the spring force with
the displacement (x2 − x1 ) is shown in Fig. 2.1(b). Based on, Fig. 2.1(b) although the force-elongation
relationship is non-linear, the force can be regarded as being proportional to the elongation for small values
of x2 − x1 . A spring operating in that range is said to be linear and the proportionality constant is the
slope k, referred to the spring constant or the spring stiffness with units N/m in SI system. Therefore, the
force-displacement relation can be written as:

Fs = k(x2 − x1 ). (2.1)

Figure 2.1: (a) A viscous damper with damping force. (b) Force-displacement diagram of a viscous damper.

The element relating the forces to the velocities is generally known as a damper. A damper consists of
a piston fitting loosely in a cylinder filled with oil or water so that the viscous fluid can flow around the
piston inside the cylinder, see Fig. 2.2(a). Such a damper is known as viscous damper or dashpot. The
damper force Fd cause smooth shear in viscous fluid and the curve ẋ2 − ẋ1 is likely to be linear, see Fig.
2.2(b). Hence, the force-displacement relation of a viscous damper can be written as:

Fd = c(ẋ2 − ẋ1 ), (2.2)

where the constant of proportionality c, which is merely the slope of the curve in Fig. 2.2(b), is called the
coefficient of viscous damping. The units of c are N-s/m, in the SI system.

The element relating the forces to the accelerations is clearly the discrete mass, see Fig. 2.3. The
force-displacement relation of a mass is:
Fm = mẍ. (2.3)
2.2 Free vibration 7

Figure 2.2: (a) An elastic spring with spring force. (b) Force-displacement diagram and the linear range.

Figure 2.3: (a) A mass with inertia force. (b) Force-displacement diagram of a mass.

2.2 Free vibration

In free vibration, a vibrating is given an initial displacement/impact load and the response of the system
is estimated with time.

2.2.1 Free vibration of a mass-spring system

Consider a mass-spring-damper system shown in Fig. 2.4. The degrees of freedom of the above system is
1, because the position of mass can be completely defined by a single coordinate. Therefore, the system
is identified as the single degree of freedom system with damping. Before developing the solution of a
mass-spring-damper system, consider a mass-spring system as shown in Fig. 2.5. Assuming no friction and
external forces, the static equilibrium is achieved by balancing the gravitational force with the spring force.
Let δst be the displacement of the spring due to weight W = mg. However, when the system is given a
displacement x, such that the mass vibrates about a equilibrium position, the force balance (see Fig. 2.5)
8 Vibrations

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.4: (a) A mass-spring-damper vibrating system with free body diagram of mass. (b) Torsional
vibrations reduced to an (c) equivalent mass-spring-damper system.

Figure 2.5: A mass-spring vibrating system with free body diagram of mass.

yields:
X
F = −k(x + δst ) + W + (−mẍ) = 0. (2.4)

Considering W = mg = kδst in Eq. (2.4), the governing equation can be reduced to:

mẍ + kx = 0. (2.5)

Rearranging Eq. (2.5):


k
ẍ(t) = − x = −ωn2 x(t), (2.6)
m
where ωn = k/m, known as the natural frequency of the oscillation of the undamped system. The
p

solution of Eq. (2.16) can be obtained in two methods.


Method 1:
Let the solution of Eq. (2.6) be a trigonometric function of the form:

x(t) = A1 sinbt, (2.7)

Substituting the solution from Eq. (2.16) in Eq. (2.6) results in:
r
k
b= . (2.8)
m
2.2 Free vibration 9

In the similar lines, the solution of Eq. (2.6) can also be a trigonometric function of the form:

x(t) = A2 cosbt, (2.9)

Therefore, the total solution of Eq. (2.6) can be written as:


r r
k k
x(t) = A1 sin t + A2 cos t. (2.10)
m m
q
Let, ωn = m,
k
then the total solution can be written as:

x(t) = A1 sinωn t + A2 cosωn t. (2.11)

The constants of integration A1 and A2 can be obtained based on the initial conditions, such as:

x(0) = x0 , (2.12a)
ẋ(0) = v0 . (2.12b)

Therefore the total solution, considering the integration constants in Eq. (2.12) can be estimated as:
s  2  
v0 v0
x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ), where, A= x20 + and ϕ = tan −1
. (2.13)
ωn x0 ωn

The time necessary to complete one cycle of motion is the period T, given by:


T = , (2.14)
ωn

and the natural frequency can be estimated as:

1 ωn
fn = = . (2.15)
T 2π

Equation (2.13) indicates a simple harmonic solution oscillation with natural frequency ωn . Therefore, the
system is called a harmonic oscillator. A graphical representation of the solution in Eq. (2.13) is shown in
Fig. 2.6.
Method 2:
The solution of Eq. (2.6) can be obtained by considering an exponential function of the form:

x(t) = Aest , (2.16)

Substituting the solution from Eq. (2.16) in Eq. (2.6) results in:

s2 + ωn2 = 0, (2.17)

which has solutions


s1 , s2 = ±iωn , (2.18)

where i = −1. Therefore, the total solution can be written as

x(t) = A1 eiωn t + A2 e−iωn t , (2.19)


10 Vibrations

Furthermore, considering the series definition of eiωn t as:

1 1 1 1
eiωn t = 1 + iωn t + (iωn t)2 + (iωn t)3 + (iωn t)4 + (iωn t)5 + ... (2.20a)
2! 3! 4! 5!
1 1 1 1
   
= 1 − (ωn t) + (ωn t) − ... + i ωn t − (ωn t)3 + (ωn t)5 − ...
2 4
(2.20b)
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cosωn t + isinωn t (2.20c)

In the similar lines,


e−iωn t = cosωn t − isinωn t. (2.21)

Therefore, using Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21), Eq. (2.19) can be written as:

x(t) = A1 (cosωn t + isinωn t) + A2 (cosωn t − isinωn t), (2.22a)


= (A1 + A2 )cosωn t + i(A1 − A2 )sinωn t, (2.22b)
= Acos(ωn t − ϕ). (2.22c)

where, Acosϕ = A1 + A2 and Asinϕ = A1 − A2 . The constants A and ϕ are referred to as the amplitude
and phase angle, respectively. Based on Fig. 2.6, if A represents a vector of amplitude A and makes an

Figure 2.6: Solution representation of a mass-spring system in (a) a vector phase digram and (b) on a time
scale.

angle of (ωn t − ϕ) with the vertical axis, then the solution x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ) will be the projection of
vector A on to the vertical axis.

2.2.2 Free vibration of a mass-spring-damper system

Consider the vibrations of a mass-spring-damper system shown in Fig. 2.4(a) or 2.7(a). Based on the free
body diagram of the mass shown in Fig. 2.7(b), the force balance along x direction yields:

−kx − cẋ − mẍ = 0, (2.23)

which can be rearranged as:


mẍ + cẋ + kx = 0. (2.24)
2.2 Free vibration 11

Figure 2.7: (a) A mass-spring-damper vibrating system with (b) a free body diagram of the mass.

q
Furthermore, after dividing Eq. (2.24) by m and noting that ωn = k
m and c
m = 2ζωn , where ζ = c
cc and

cc = 2mωn = 2 km, Eq. (2.24) can be rewritten as:

ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 x = 0. (2.25)

Substituting a solution of the form,


x(t) = Aest , (2.26)

in Eq. (2.25), yields:


s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0. (2.27)

Solving for the roots of Eq. (2.27) results in:


p
s1 , s2 = −ζ ± iωn 1 − ζ 2. (2.28)

Therefore, the total solution can be written as:


 √ 2 √ 2 
x(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t = e−ζωn t A1 eiωn 1−ζ t + A2 e−iωn 1−ζ t , (2.29a)

= e−ζωn t [(A1 + A2 ) cosωd t + i (A1 − A2 ) sinωd t] , (2.29b)

where,
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2. (2.30)

is known as the frequency of the damped free vibration. Therefore, Eq. (2.29)(b) can be simplified to:

x(t) = Ae−ζωn t cos(ωd t − ϕ0 ). (2.31)

The behaviour of the response in Eq. (2.31) for various values of ζ is discussed below.

1. Case 1: Underdamped systems (ζ < 1): For this condition, the roots are complex conjugates, where
p
s1 = −ζ + iωn 1 − ζ 2, (2.32a)
p
s2 = −ζ − iωn 1 − ζ 2. (2.32b)
12 Vibrations

The dependance of roots for various values of ζ is plotted in the root locus diagram in Fig. 2.8.
Figure 2.8 helps to instantaneously view the effect of the parameter ζ on the natural behaviour of
the system, particularly, on the system response. When ζ = 0, the roots ±iωn are purely imaginary,
leading to the harmonic solution discussed in Section 2.2.1. For 0 < ζ < 1 , the roots s1 and s2 are
complex conjugates, located symmetrically with respect to the real axis on a circle of radius ωn . As
ζ → 0, the roots approach the point -ωn on the real axis and as ζ → ∞, s1 → 0 and s2 → −∞.
The vibration response of the mass-spring-damper system can be expressed as shown in Eq. (2.31).

Figure 2.8: Root locus diagram for various values of ζ.

The constants of integration (A and ϕ0 ) can be estimated using the initial conditions. Furthermore,
Eq. (2.31) is the product of trigonometric function and a decreasing exponential function. Therefore,
the resulting motion is oscillatory with the constant frequency ωd and phase angle ϕ0 m but with
the exponentially decreasing amplitude Ae−ζωn t , as shown in Fig. 2.9. The natural frequency of a
damped system (ωd ) is less than that of an undamped system (ωn ), reduced by a factor 1 − ζ 2 .
p

Variation of damped response for various values of ζ is plotted in Fig. 2.10. Based on Fig. 2.10,

Figure 2.9: Free vibration response of a mass-spring-damper system, when ζ < 1.

the response decays fast with the increasing values of ζ. The curves ±Ae−ζωn t provide the envelop
bounding the oscillatory response. Clearly, as t → ∞, x(t) → 0, so that the response eventually dies
out. The damping in a given system is generally not known and must be determined experimentally.
Viscous damping causes the vibration to decay exponentially, where the exponent is a linear function
of ζ. Therefore, a convenient measure of the amount of damping in a single-degree-of-freedom system
is provided by the extent to which the amplitude has fallen during one complete cycle of vibration.
If t1 and t2 are the times corresponding to two consecutive displacements x1 and x2 , respectively,
2.2 Free vibration 13

Figure 2.10: Free vibration response of a mass-spring-damper system, for various values of ζ < 1.

Figure 2.11: Transient response of an underdamped system to estimate the logarithmic decrement.

measure one cycle apart as shown in Fig. 2.11, the ratio of the displacements can be formed as:

x1 Ae−ζωn t1 cos(ωd t1 − ϕ0 )
= (2.33)
x2 Ae−ζωn t2 cos(ωd t2 − ϕ0 )

Since t2 = t1 + T , where T = 2π
ωd is the period of damped oscillations. Therefore, cos(ωd t2 − ϕ) =
cos(ωd (t1 + 2π/ωd ) − ϕ) = cos(ωd t1 + 2π − ϕ). Hence,

x1 e−ζωn t1
= −ζω (t +T ) = eζωn T (2.34)
x2 e n 1

In view of the exponential form of Eq. (2.34), introducing the notation

x1 2πζ
δ = ln = ζωn T = p , (2.35)
x2 1 − ζ2

where δ is known as the logarithmic decrement. Therefore, knowing two consecutive displacements
x1 and x2 , logarithmic decrement δ can be estimate using Eq. (2.36) and hence the damping ratio ζ
can be estimated as:
δ
ζ=√ . (2.36)
2π + δ 2
2
14 Vibrations

2. Case 2: Over damped system, ζ > 1: In this case, the roots s1 and s2 are real, where
p
s1 = −ζ − ωn ζ 2 − 1, (2.37a)
p
s2 = −ζ + ωn ζ 2 − 1. (2.37b)

and the response takes the form:

x(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t (2.38a)


h √ 2 √ 2 i
= e−ζωn t A1 eωn ζ −1t + A2 e−ωn ζ −1t . (2.38b)

Therefore, the motion is aperiodic and decays exponentially with time. Typical response curves for
various values of damping ζ ≥ 1 are shown in Fig. 2.12.

Figure 2.12: Free vibration response of a critically damped (ζ ≥ 1) mass-spring-damper system.

3. Case 3: Critically damped system, ζ = 1: In this case, the roots s1 and s2 are real and equal, where

s1 = s2 = −ωn . (2.39)

and the response takes the form:

x(t) = e−ωn t (A1 + tA2 ). (2.40)



This case is known as critical damping system, where ζ = c
2mωn = 1 or cc = 2mωn = 2 km. The
response curves for various values of initial conditions are plotted in Fig. 2.13. Based on Fig. 2.13 the

Figure 2.13: Free vibration response of a critically damped (ζ = 1) mass-spring-damper system.


2.3 Forced vibration 15

response is non-periodic. Furthermore, oscillations are not possible here. Critical damping merely
represent a borderline between the cases ζ > 1 and ζ < 1. For the given initial conditions a critically
damped system tends to approach the equilibrium position the fastest, see Fig. 2.12.

2.3 Forced vibration


Consider the forced vibrations of a viscously damped spring-mass system subjected to an external force
F (t), as shown in Fig. 2.14(a). The free body diagram of the mass is shown in Fig. 2.14(b). Based on the
balance of forces, the equation of motion can be obtained as:

Figure 2.14: (a) Forced vibrations of a mass-spring-damper system, where the free body diagram of the
mass is shown in (b).

mẍ + cẋ + kx = F (t). (2.41)

Since this Eq. (2.42) is non-homogeneous, the general solution x(t) is given by the sum of the homogeneous
solution (xh ), and the particular solution (xp ),

x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t). (2.42)

The homogeneous solution (xh ) is the solution of the homogeneous equation

mẍ + cẋ + kx = 0, (2.43)

which is discussed in detail in Section 2.2.2. Therefore,

xh (t) = e−ζωn t cos(ωd t − ϕ0 ). (2.44)

In this course, the particular solution is estimated for a mass-spring-damper system subjected harmonic
excitation, i.e., F (t) = F0 cosωt hence the governing differential equation can be written as:

mẍ + cẋ + kx = F0 cosωt. (2.45)

The particular solution xp (t) can be obtained by assuming a solution of the form:

xp (t) = Acosωt + Bsinωt. (2.46)


16 Vibrations

where ω is the frequency of the driving force/external excitation and A and B are the constants to be
estimated, which are not the constants of integration. Substituting the solution in Eq. (2.46) in Eq. (2.45)
and separating the terms, constants A and B are estimated as:

F0 (k − mω 2 )
A= , (2.47a)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2
F0 cω
B= . (2.47b)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2

Therefore, the particular solution can be written written as:

F0 (k − mω 2 ) F0 cω
xp (t) = cosωt + sinωt, (2.48a)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2 (cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2
!
F0 (k − mω 2 ) cω
=p cosωt + p sinωt , (2.48b)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2 (cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2 (cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2
p

F0 F0
=p (cosϕcosωt + sinϕsinωt) = p cos(ωt − ϕ), (2.48c)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2 (cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2

where,
cω 2ζω/ωn
tanϕ = = , (2.49)
(k − mω )
2 1 − (ω/ωn )2

since k
m = ωn2 and 2ζ
ωn = kc . Furthermore, the response amplitude in Eq. (2.48)(c) can be rewritten as:

F0 F0 /k F0 /k
=p =p . (2.50)
(cω)2 + (k − mω 2 )2 (1 − (m/k)ω 2 )2 + ((c/k)ω)2 (1 − (ω/ωn )2 )2 + (2ζω/ωn )2
p

Therefore, the particular solution can be written as:

F0 /k
xp (t) = p cos(ωt − ϕ) (2.51)
[1 − (ω/ωn )2 ]2 + (2ζω/ωn )2

Equation (2.51) can be rearranged as:

xp (t) 1
G(ω) = =p (2.52)
F0 /k [1 − (ω/ωn ) ]2 + (2ζω/ωn )2
2

The factor G(ω) is known as the magnification factor. Now, the total solution becomes:

x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t) = e−ζωn t cos(ωd t − ϕ0 ) + G(ω)cos(ωt − ϕ) (2.53)

A close analysis of Eq. (2.53) indicates that the homogeneous solution (the first part of Eq. (2.53)) will
decay in a short period of time. The second term is called the steady-state solution. Therefore, the first
term can be omitted and hence, the total solution is given by:

x(t) = G(ω)cos(ωt − ϕ) (2.54)

Considerable insight into the system system behaviour can be gained by examining the variation of the
magnification factor and the phase angle with the driving frequency ω for various values of ζ. Figure 2.15(a)
shows a distribution of the amplitude ratio in Eq. (2.52) with the frequency ratio ω
ωn for various values of
ζ. The peaks of the curves in Fig. 2.15(a) can be estimated by finding the stationary values of the function
2.3 Forced vibration 17

Figure 2.15: Variation of the (a) amplitude ratio and (b) the phase angle, of a mass-spring-damper system
with the frequency ratio, for various values of damping ratios.

G(ω), estimated by differentiating Eq. (2.52) with respect to ω and set the result equal to zero. This leads
to the conclusion that the peaks occur at:

ω = ωn (1 − 2ζ 2 ), (2.55)
p

indicating that the maxima do not occur at the undamped natural frequency (ωn ) for values ω/ωn < 1,

depending on the amount of damping. Clearly, when ζ > 1/ 2 the response has no peaks and for ζ = 0,
the homogeneous differential equation reduces to that of a harmonic oscillator, therefore, when the driving
frequency ω approaches the natural frequency ωn the response of the harmonic oscillator tends to increase
indefinitely. In such cases the harmonic oscillator is said to approach a resonance condition, characterised
by violent vibration.
Based on the phase angle plots in Fig. 2.15(b), all the curves pass through the point π/2 at ω/ωn = 1.
Moreover, for ω/ωn < 1, the phase angle tend to zero as ζ → 0, whereas, for ω/ωn > 1 it tends to π. For
ζ = 0, the plot ω/ωn has a discontinuity at ω/ωn = 1, jumping from ϕ = 0 for ω/ωn < 1 to ϕ = π for
ω/ωn > 1. Therefore, the response is in phase with the excitation for ω/ωn < 1 and 180o out of phase for
ω/ωn > 1.

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