Chapter 14: overview of metabolism and the provision of metabolic fuels

 Metabolism – interconversion of chemical

compounds in the body, the pathways taken by
individual molecules, their interrelationships,
and the mechanism that regulate the flow of
metabolites through pathways

CATEGORIES OF METABOLIC PATHWAY

1. Anabolic
- Synthesis of larger and more complex
compounds from smaller precursors
- e.g. synthesis of CHON from AA; synthesis
of reserves of triacylglycerol and glycogen
- Endothermic
2. Catabolic
- Breakdown of larger molecules
- Commonly involving oxidative reactions
- Exothermic
3. Amphibolic
- Links between the anabolic and catabolic
pathways
- e.g. Kreb’s cycle
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
↑ Body size = ↓ metabolic fuel needs

70-kg adult needs 8-12 MJ (1920-2900 kcal) of

metabolic fuel
Aldoses Ketoses
Carbohydrates – 40-60% Trioses Glycerose Dihydroxyacetone
(glyceraldehyde)
Lipids – 30-40% Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose
Pentoses Ribose Ribulose
Protein – 10-15% Hexoses Glucose Fructose
Heptoses Sedoheptulose

4. Disaccharides
PATHWAYS THAT PROCESS THE MAJOR PRODUCTS OF
- Condensation products of 2
DIGESTION
monosaccharide units
- i.e. lactose, maltose, isomaltose, sucrose,
trehalose

5. Oligosaccharides
- Condensation of 3 – 10 monosaccharides
- Most are not digested by human enzymes

6. Polysaccharides

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Chapter 14: overview of metabolism and the provision of metabolic fuels
- Condensation products of >10
monosaccharide units
- Sometimes classified as hexosans or
pentosans
GLUCOSE – THE MOST IMPOSTANT MONOSACCHARIDE
 Most important carbohydrate
 Major metabolic fuel
 Universal fuel of the fetus
- Hemiacetal – ring structure of an aldose
formed by reaction between an aldehyde
and an alcohol group
- Hemiketal – ring structure of ketose
- Crystalline glucose is α-D-glucopyranose
- In solution, cyclic structure is retained but
isomerism occurs at position 1, α-
glucopyranose is 38% and β-glucopyranose
is 62%

5. Epimers
- Variatons in configuration of the – OH and –
H on carbon atoms 2, 3, and 4
- Carbon 2 – Mannose
- Carbon 4 – Galactose

6. Aldose-ketose isomerism
- Fructose – keto group in position 2
- Glucose – aldehyde group in position 1
- Aldoses – reducing compounds

PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDES

VARIOUS FORMS OF ISOMERISM
PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT PENTOSES
1. D and L isomerism Sugar Source Clinical
- Orientation of the – H and – OH groups Importance
around Carbon atom adjacent to terminal D-Ribose Nucleic Acids and Structural
metabolic component of
alcohol carbon intermediates NAs, ATP,
- - OH on the right, D isomer NAD(P), flavin
- - OH on the left, L isomer D-Ribulose Metabolic Intermediate in
- Most naturally occurring are D isomers intermediate PPP
D-Xylose Plant gums, Constituent of
proteoglycans, glycoproteins
2. Optical activity
GAGs
- When a beam of light is passed through a D-Arabinose Plant gums Constituent of
solution, it rotates either right or left glycoproteins
- In solution, glucose is dextrorotary and L-Xylulose Metabolic Excreted in urine
sometimes known as dextrose intermediate in pentosuria

3. Pyranose and Furanose ring PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT HEXOSES

- Pyran – six membered ring Sugar Source Biochemical Clinical
- Furan – five membered ring Importance Importance
- Glucose in solution – 99% pyranose D- Fruit juice, Main Glucosuria on
Glucose starch, metabolic poorly
4. Alpha and beta anomers

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Chapter 14: overview of metabolism and the provision of metabolic fuels
maltose, fuel; “blood controlled
lactose sugar” DM
D- Fruit juice, Metabolized Fructose Hydrolysis of sucrose → glucose + fructose
Fructose honey, either via intolerance → “invert sugar”
inulin, glucose or fructose
isomerization directly accumulation
of glucose and DEOXY SUGARS LACK AN OXYGEN ATOM
syrups hypoglycemia OH- groups has been replaced with H+
D- Lactose Metabolized Failure to Deoxy L-fucose – glycoproteins
Galactose to glucose; metabolize 2-deoxyglucose – inhibitor of glucose metabolism
synthesized galactose →
in mammary cataracts
glands; AMINO SUGARS (HEXOSAMINES)
constituent Components of glycoprotein, gangliosides, GAGs
of glycolipids D-glucosamine – hyaluronic acid
and
D-galactosamine – chondroitin
glycoproteins
D-mannosamine
D- Plant Constituent
Mannose mannan of
gums glycoproteins

STORAGE AND STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONS OF

PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES

PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES  Starch

Sugar Source Clinical  Homopolymer of glucose (glucosan)
Importance  Amylose (13-20%) – nonbranching helical
Sucrose Cane, beet sugar, Sucrose
structure
sorghum, fruits intolerance →
and vegetables diarrhea and  Amylopectin (80-87%) – branched chains of
flatulence 24 to 30 glucose residues
Lactose Milk Lactose  Connected by α1-4 linkages (chain) and α1-
intolerance 6 (branched)
→diarrhea and
 Glycemic index – measure of digestibility
flatulence; may
be excreted in based on extent to which it raises blood
urine during glucose concentration compared with a
pregancy reference food
Maltose Hydrolysis of  Glycemic index ranges from 1 for starches
starch by amylase
that are readily hydrolyzed; 0 for those not
Isomaltose Hydrolysis of
starch by branch hydrolyzed at all
points of
amylopectin  Glycogen
Lactulose Heated milk Not hydrolyzed  Storage polysaccharide in animals, “Animal
by intestinal
starch”
enzymes, but is
fermented by
intestinal  Inulin
bacteria; used as  Polysaccharide of fructose found in tubers,
mild osmotic dahlias, artichokes, and dandelions
laxative
 Used to determine glomerular filtration rate
Trehalose Yeast and fungi

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Chapter 14: overview of metabolism and the provision of metabolic fuels
 Not hydrolyzed by enzymes; no nutritional
value

 Dextrins
 Intermediates in hydrolysis of starch

 Cellulose
 Chief constituent of plant cell wall
 β-D-glucopyranose units linked by β1-4
bonds
 Important source of “bulk” in diet

 Chitin
 polysaccharide in exoskeleton of
crustaceans, insects, and mushrooms
 N-acetyl-D-glucosamine joined by β1-4
glycosidic bonds

 Pectin
 Occurs in fruits
 Polymer of galacturonic acid linked by α1-4
bonds
 Partially methylated

 GAGs
 Complex carbohydrates containing amino
sugars and uronic acids
 Proteoglycan – GAG attached to a protein
molecule; provide ground or packing
substance of connective tissue
 i.e. hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
heparin

 Glycoprotein
 Aka mucoproteins; proteins containing
oligosaccharide
 CHON (main) + Carbohydrate
 Mannosamine + Pyruvate → Neuramic acid
→ Sialic acid

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