Theories of Literacy and Theories of

Literacy Development
Posted on December 14, 2015by Sitwe
Reference as: Mkandawire, S. B. (2015). LTC 1000 Theories of
Literacy and Theories of Literacy Development. The University of
Zambia Lecture notes for week 9. Retrieved
from https://sitwe.wordpress.com/2015/12/14/306/
What is a Theory?
A theory is an idealized representation of reality that help us
explain some natural phenomena. It is an idea or thought pattern
about a particular subject matter and how it should be perceived.
Campbell & Zazkis (2002) contended that theories are like
toothbrushes where everyone has their own and no one wants to
use anyone else’s theory. Read the following theories or views or
ideas
from http://www.public.asu.edu/~petergo/courses/eng556/556.ht
ml
There are other theories or views on what literacy is or should be
and all these depend on how individuals in different field view the
concept of literacy.
6.3 Theories of Literacy Development
There are a number of theories associated with literacy
development. These theories are based on people’s ideas about
early literacy development and how children learn. In trying to
discuss the subject matter, we explore by asking ourselves a number
of questions such how our ideas about early literacy have
developed. What researchers and educators have influenced the
way reading and writing are approached today? It is important for
teachers who work with young children and their families to be
familiar with the history of early literacy as a foundation for current
practices (http://www.education.com/reference/article/early-
literacy/).
Theories of literacy development include the following: Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive Development, Maturation Theory, Theory of
Literacy Development, Stage Models of Reading, Emergent Literacy
Theory, and Family Literacy Theory. These theories help us
explain how literacy development in children is done in
the early years of education.
6.3.1 Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development
The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget contends that
there are different phases of intellectual development and each
stage is associated with certain behavioral activities. It is these
activities that guide educators and theorists in literacy on what is
and what is not tenable. Educationalists using this theory believe
that the nature of content that is given to pupils for learning must
relate their level of intellectual development. In other ways, the
emphasis is sequencing learner’s activities based on their stages of
intellectual development. This position is based on Piaget’s theory
that children’s cognitive growth occurs in a sequential pattern
through four related stages. In this way, what and how a child
learns is determined largely by the child’s present stage of
development. The Theory of Cognitive Development was
conceptualized by Jean Piaget in 1969 who is classified as both a
constructivist an a developmental theorist. It is one of the most
famous theories used to explain children’s overall cognitive
development. It can be used by literacy educators to understand the
learning stages though which students’ progress as they mature and
their relationship to literacy achievement.
Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes the ways
in which the quality of children’s thinking changes over time based
on their intellectual development. According to Piaget, there are
four factors that affect the quality of an individual’s thinking:
biological maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibration.
All these factors are linked to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development as discussed by Godwin, Herb, Ricketts & Wymer
(2013) namely:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years of age) – Children use
sensory exploration of the world: They do not use or have language
skills and are dependent on their senses. Class activities for literacy
development in this stage include: (i) Board books with brightly
colored pictures and (ii) Books with sound, things to touch, or smell
2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age) – There is rapid
language development skills in this stage as children begin to
categorize things with words. Literacy activities include story book
reading and discussing the story
3. Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years of age) – In this stage of
development, children use concrete objects to begin to think about
abstract concepts. Activities for Literacy development include
Graphic Organizers {Venn Diagrams, Flow Maps}and others.
4. Formal Operational (11 years of age to adult) – In this stage,
children use language in an abstract way. Activities for Literacy
include the use of metacognitive reading strategies helps students
to “think about their thinking” before and after they read.
Examples: Making Inferences and Summarizing information.
A literacy study that was conducted using theory of Cognitive
Development concluded that the mental age of six and half year old
child performed better on reading achievement than younger
children (https://prezi.com/a4yxj-rcptjs/theories-of-literacy-
development/). Using this research and other related studies
resolved that in applying Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development,
the following should be observed for literacy education:
(i) reading instruction should not be implemented until students
reached the age of 6 1/2 years of age
(ii) Initial literacy activities that are given to children at home must
be linked or related to the level of child’s intellectual development.
Other studies recommendations suggested that parents should not
attempt to teach reading to their children at home as educators
would cause damage to children’s reading ability if they attempted
to teach reading to children who were too young.
(iii) Reading abilities are linked to Maturation Theory which believe
learning to read is viewed as a natural developmental occurrence.
Furthermore, theorists believed that learning to read begins in the
home when children first see their parents read and have stories
read to them. In other ways, parents here are the models for
children and children strive to emulate what their parents do by all
means necessary. Emulation results in children’s first attempts at
reading, which are usually quite inaccurate and parents should
reinforce children’s first attempts at reading. As children’s attempts
at reading are reinforced, their skills develop, and children begin to
read for real and this is linked to the theory of Literacy
Development which purport that the ways in which children
approach the task of reading qualitatively change as they mature
(https://prezi.com/a4yxj-rcptjs/theories-of-literacy-
development/).
The site further reported that theorists believe that as children’s
reading skills develop, they increase both the number and type of
strategies they can use during reading experiences
Four stages of word development stages are discussed:
1. Pre-alphabetic Stage, 2. Partial Alphabetic Stage, 3. Full
Alphabetic Stage and 4. The Consolidated Alphabetic Stage. This is
what is known as the Stage Models of Reading which explains
literacy development and provides instructional guidance to
promote early literacy growth. The emphasis on these stages is the
period in a child’s life between birth and when the child can read
and write at a desirable level or in a conventional manner.
6.3.2 Maturation Theory
The maturation theory states that Children would be ready to read
when they have developed certain prerequisite skills and there is
little that teachers and parents can do to hurry the process of
cognitive development. In other ways, the theory advocate for not
teaching reading until children were mature enough for instruction.
Scholars for this theory hypothesized that this could happen when
children were at mental age of 6 1/2. Aldridge & Goldman (2007)
noted that the Maturational Theory of child development was
developed by Arnold Gesell with his colleagues including Morphette
and Washburne who constructed a set of behavioral norms that
illustrate sequential and predictable patterns of growth and
development. Gesell contended that all children go through similar
stages, although each child may move through these stages at their
own rate (Godwin, Herb, Ricketts & Wymer, 2013).
6.3.3 Theory of Literacy Development
The theory was developed by Holdaway in 1979 and it states that
learning to read was a natural development that is closely linked to
a child’s natural development of oral language skills. Holdaway’s
theory of literacy further contends that literacy development begins
in children’s homes and is based on meaningful learning
experiences. There are four key components in this theory as
itemized by (Godwin etal, 2013):
(a) observation -which demand that children need to have the
opportunity to observe literacy behaviours from others. For
example, parents and siblings to read for them.
(b) Collaboration – this require that children need to interact with
others who provide encouragement and help with the reading
process.
(c) Practice – children need the opportunity to practice alone in
order to self-evaluate, make corrections and increase their skills
independently.
(d) Performance – children need the opportunity to share their new
reading skills with those who support them.

It is important to note that these components are linked to the

child’s natural development occurrence which begins at home
which leads to a gradual formation of literacy development
practices. The classroom application or characteristics of natural
literacy development include;
i. Rich home literacy environment
ii. Parent – Child interactions of modeling literacy behaviors
iii. Rich literacy classroom environment by
 Labeling key items around the room
 Wide variety of high quality reading materials
 Meaningful language experiences
 Use of big books and shared reading
Holdaway highly recommends the use of big books and shared
reading to foster natural literacy development. He believes big
books can create the same positive feelings about story time that
children have when they read at home. He believes that these
natural storytelling times build student’s oral language, print
tracking, concept of letters, and words (Godwin etal, 2013).

6.3.4 Stages Model of Reading

Stage Model theorists such as Frith (1985), Ehri (1991), and Gough,
Joel & Griffith (1992), believe that children’s reading is in stages of
word identification and that students increase the number of
strategies used during reading as their reading skills develop. Lower
staged reading strategies remain available to a reader as they
incorporate more difficult reading skills in later strategies. Chall
(1983) as quoted by Godwin etal, (2013) noted that there are four
Stages of Word Identification: 1. Pre – Alphabetic Stage 2. Partial
Alphabetic Stage 3. Full Alphabetic Stage 4. Consolidated
Alphabetic Stage, also available on the following site
(http://www.tiki-toki.com/timeline/entry/92488/Theories-of-
Literacy-Development/).
The four stages of word identification as discussed by (Godwin etal,
2013) have been expanded in detail:
(i) Pre – Alphabetic Stage {Logographic Stage}. This stage is
associated with a number of feature which include the following: (a)
Visual cues are primary method of word identification (b) One
might memorize words by their shape or “look” (c) Use of
environmental print and logos (d) Word Identification is not yet
related to letter – sound knowledge. Class activities for Literacy in
this stage include collecting samples of Environmental Print to
display in the classroom.
(ii) Partial Alphabetic Stage. This stage according to Godwin etal
(2013) uses “Phonetic Cue Reading” which further demand the use
of some letter – sound cues. First letter of the word and then use
just a letter or two as children develop.

(iii) Full Alphabetic Stage. In this stage students relies more on

letter – sound knowledge. Student tries to process all the letters in a
word and a child may become tied to letter-by-letter reading which
slows down the reading process. Class activities for Literacy here
includes: Puzzles, Word Card Games, Magnetic Letters, Alphabet
Books. Magazine Search, Letter Bingo and Word Sort: Beginning,
Middle, and End Sounds

(iv) Consolidated Alphabetic Stage. Here there is automatic

knowledge of sound – letter relationships. Students read letter
patterns within words and they use word family knowledge to aid
the reading process. Activities for Literacy include word Wheels,
Word Family Sorts, Poetry, Flip Books (Godwin etal, 2013

6.3.5 Family Literacy Theory

Godwin etal, (2013) contended that family literacy refers to a series
of ideas that researchers share, including the design,
implementation, and evaluation of programs to help facilitate
literacy development of family members; the relationship between
family literacy and student achievement; and the ways in which
literacy is naturally used in the home. This theory stresses the
importance of family involvement on student achievement. The
actions to encourage Family Literacy include;
i. Create a two – way street between parents and teachers in order
to gain information about literacy in the home.
ii. Teach parents about the school culture and necessary skills for a
student to be successful.
iii. Help parents understand what they can do at home to help
support and encourage their children’s academic success. Many
studies have been done on parent and child reading interactions to
support the importance of the connection between home and
school.
iv. Parent Volunteers Reading in the Classroom

6.3.6 Emergent Literacy Theory

The Emergent Literacy Theory states that there are levels of literacy
behaviours which children acquire before they formally get into
classroom which facilitates the acquisition of reading and writing
skills at a conventional level. Emergent literacy theorists believe
that literacy development starts in the maternity ward and is
continuous and ongoing. This early literacy development provides
educators with instructional guidance to promote early literacy
growth among their students. Theorists believe that children’s
development in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and
writing are all interrelated (http://www.tiki-
toki.com/timeline/entry/92488/Theories-of-Literacy-
Development/). In other ways, Emergent Literacy Theorists believe
that children’s listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills begin
at birth, it also emphasizes the importance of a literacy rich home
environment. Components of a literacy rich home environment
include; having large number of books available in the home,
Newspapers and Magazines, Parents read a variety of materials and
Reading is associated with pleasure, Parents frequently read to
children.
Marie Clay’s studies on emergent literacy indicated that children
know a great deal about reading and writing before they come to
school, and they are able to experiment with and apply their
knowledge in various ways (Clay, 1975). Reading readiness seemed
to be an inaccurate term, since Clay’s research showed that there
was not a specific sequence of skills children needed to master prior
to reading and writing. The children she studied seemed instead to
“emerge” into literacy—with writing, reading, and oral language
abilities developing together.
Emergent literacy was recently defined as “the view that literacy
learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation
with adults in meaningful activities; these literacy behaviors change
and eventually become conventional over time” (Neuman, Copple,
& Bredekamp, 2000, p. 123). From a very young age, children who
are exposed to oral and written language gradually gain control over
the forms of literacy. Print-related knowledge develops similarly to
the way children learn oral language (Morrow, 1997). When
children are actively engaged with interesting and meaningful
reading and writing experiences, they develop literacy knowledge
early in their lives.
6.3.7 Everyday Theories
These are ideas which individual people have about certain things
in the society and how they impinge on people’s lives. Everybody
makes theories almost every day about certain practices, values and
norm in the society. These theories are not known to many people
and they are not conventional in nature as they may be known to
one person only (Barton, 2007).
6.3.8 Professional Theories
These are conventionally recognized theories worldwide such as
those discussed above. In other ways, examples of professional
theories include Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development,
Maturation Theory, Theory of Literacy Development, Stage Models
of Reading, Emergent Literacy Theory, and Family Literacy Theory.

https://sitwe.wordpress.com/2015/12/14/306/

Early Literacy

Collect This Article

By E. Lilly|C. Green — Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall

Updated on May 1, 2014

Our ideas about early literacy have come a long way since the days when
young children sat on hard benches in dame schools reading from wooden
paddles, called horn books, which hung around their necks. How have our
ideas about early literacy developed? What researchers and educators have
influenced the way reading and writing are approached today? It is
important for teachers who work with young children and their families to
be familiar with the history of early literacy as a foundation for current
practices.
Maturationist Theory
Arnold Gesell (1925), the leader of the maturationist movement, compared
cognitive maturation to physical maturation. Children would be “ready” to
read, according to Gesell, when they had developed certain prerequisite
skills that could be evaluated by readiness testing. According to this theory
there is little teachers and parents can do to hurry the process of
development. Reading readiness and readiness testing were central themes
of early reading instruction until well into the 1950s.
Behaviorist Theory
Reading programs based on behaviorist theory, which are still used by
some school systems today, are fast-paced, teacher-directed approaches
based on the behaviorist science of the 1970s. Children learn language by
repeating words and sentences modeled by their teachers, and working
through sequences of reading skills in workbooks and programmed texts.
The act of reading is seen as a series of isolated skills addressed by
teachers hierarchically and scientifically.

Connectionist Theory
Another current theory of literacy acquisition is the connectionist theory
(Adams, 1990). Proponents of this part-to-whole theory declare that
literacy knowledge is built on a sequence of skills and experiences.
Children are taught reading and writing through direct, explicit skill
instruction following a predetermined scope and sequence. There is an
emphasis on mastering the alphabetic code, reading words, automaticity of
reading, over-learning, and reading for fluency and comprehension
(Adams, 1990; Morris, 1999). Young children who do not reach the
reading and writing benchmarks for their grade level within a reasonable
time receive individualized remediation.
Social Constructivist Theory
The social constructivist theory, based on Vygotskian principles, adds a
cultural dimension to the conversation about children’s acquisition of
literacy (Vygotsky, 1978). The basic tenets of this theory are that (a)
children construct knowledge within a socially mediated cultural context,
(b) language is a key component in children’s appropriation of knowledge,
(c) knowledge is constructed most effectively when adults scaffold, or
support, children’s development at appropriate levels, and (d) children
acquire knowledge with the assistance of an adult or more experienced
peer within a continuum of behavior called the zone of proximal
development (Bodrova & Leong, 1996).
Children who come from homes and communities in which adults model
and discuss reading and writing have quite different literacy schemas and
practices than do children whose caregivers interact less with the tools and
processes of literacy (Heath, 1982). Thus, children’s development of
language and literacy processes reflects the total cultural milieu in which
they are raised (Bodrova & Leong, 1996). Emma, age 3 1/2 years, for
example, has noticed her mother writing letters and bills, which she leaves
clothes-pinned to the mailbox on their front porch for the postal carrier.
Emma decided one day to write a letter to Elizabeth, her neighbor. Her
“letter” was a crayon drawing, which she folded and clipped to the
mailbox, just as her mom had done.
The relationship between social context and literacy development is based
firmly on language, as supportive adults help young children reach higher
levels of learning through scaffolding—assisting young learners with
initial attempts at a task (Bodrova & Leong, 1996). When Maggie and her
mother read Yoko (Wells, 1998) Maggie asked, “Why did Mrs.
Jenkins fret about Yoko?” Natalie explained that “fretted” was just like
“worried,” and Maggie asked why Mrs. Jenkins was worried. During this
exchange, and many more like it, Maggie’s language and concepts were
being socially constructed (Vygotsky, 1978), or learned with the
assistance of someone more knowledgeable. Children are not passive
learners; they reconstruct language as they learn and apply it, making it
their own.
Critical Theory
Critical theory addresses the social and cultural backgrounds children
bring with them when they come to school, and involves an understanding
of the inequalities of certain groups in acquiring literacy (Freire, 1985;
Gee, 1996). Young children from nonmainstream environments may have
very different ways of “taking meaning” from the environment and from
language than the mainstream population (Heath, 1983). Home literacy
can take many forms that do not match the discourse of school
communities (Taylor, 1997). Teachers who adhere to critical theory are
sensitive to the ways some groups of children with diverse backgrounds
“read the world” differently than mainstream children, putting them on an
unequal footing in early literacy development (Freire, 1985). These
teachers support a multicultural approach, address issues of social justice
and nonviolence, and help children become critical thinkers and readers.
Proponents of critical theory advocate social change and gender equality
within the literacy curriculum (Shannon, 1998).
Emergent Literacy
The work of Marie Clay, a New Zealand educator, heralded changes in the
way researchers and teachers viewed early reading. Her studies indicated
that children know a great deal about reading and writing before they
come to school, and they are able to experiment with and apply their
knowledge in various ways (Clay, 1975). Reading readiness seemed to be
an inaccurate term, since Clay’s research showed that there was not a
specific sequence of skills children needed to master prior to reading and
writing. The children she studied seemed instead to “emerge” into
literacy—with writing, reading, and oral language abilities developing
together.
Emergent literacy was recently defined as “the view that literacy learning
begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in
meaningful activities; these literacy behaviors change and eventually
become conventional over time” (Neuman, Copple, & Bredekamp, 2000,
p. 123). From a very young age, children who are exposed to oral and
written language gradually gain control over the forms of literacy. Print-
related knowledge develops similarly to the way children learn oral
language (Morrow, 1997). When children are actively engaged with
interesting and meaningful reading and writing experiences, they develop
literacy knowledge early in their lives.

A Balanced Approach
In sum, current research reveals that “learning to read and write is a
complex, multifaceted process that requires a wide variety of instructional
approaches” (Neuman et al., 2000, p. 39). The debates over which method
of teaching reading may be put to rest by the studies show that no single
method is best for all children all the time. Many teachers now incorporate
a “balance” of research-based strategies, believing this to be the most
effective way to approach literacy development (Tompkins, 2003). There
are three basic principles in a balanced approach to literacy: (a)
developing skills and strategies while nurturing a love of literature, (b)
varying instructional approaches to fit the needs of the children, and (c)
immersing children in a variety of reading materials (Fitzgerald, 1999).
The balanced approach to literacy instruction incorporates the best in
research, stresses the role of the teacher as an informed decision maker,
allows the teacher flexibility in building a literacy program, and is based
on a comprehensive view of literacy that includes reading and writing
(Spiegel, 1998). Cambourne’s Conditions for Literacy Development

https://www.education.com/reference/article/early-literacy/
Literacy and language: new developments in
research, theory, and practice

The importance of the early years in the young children’s lives and
the rigid literacy achievement inequality among all children (e.g.
different economic levels, ages, abilities, disabilities, cultures) that
presently exist provide both a stimulating and amazing time
for Early Child Development and Care to publish a special issue on
research in young children’s language and literacy and
development. The present period of accountability in the early
childhood classrooms with the No Child Left Behind Act (2001No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, Title I, Part B,
Subpart 1, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002) [Google Scholar]) places a
perplexing amount of demands on early childhood education
teachers and a transformation in disseminating information, using
computers, and social media technologies that have gained access
to all segments of society makes this issue essential. Many
perceive that the early childhood classroom is a weak substitute for
the world of games, chat rooms, virtual worlds, and other electronic
media. Social and sociological energies persist to rise from
contemporary types of media, diverse cultures and languages,
concerns about security, instabilities in the global ecology,
unreliable economies, and conflicts. Research motivates early
childhood education and other disciplines (e.g. child development,
psychology, educational psychology, other related fields) to
continue changing. These disciplines need to sustain their scientific
reliability in the constant challenges of the modern time. It is
essential that these disciplines examine, improve, and refine
theories related to research in young children’s language and
literacy development. Early childhood education settings are
complex, which require them to have an easy stability between the
methodological rigour in the research designs and studying children
in natural, acceptable, and valid learning settings. Some
interdisciplinary teams conduct early childhood education studies
that deviate in methodological procedures among disciplines.
Nevertheless, each scientific undertaking has both a resilient
empirical groundwork and a persuasive analytical rationalization for
research and practical applications.
Throughout the evolution of the special issue of Early Child
Development and Care, all of these principles were kept in mind.
The manuscripts reported new data and empirical analyses that
advanced theory of language and literacy. Researchers used
different methodologies in conducting their study, but they had both
a sound empirical underpinning and a captivating analytical
rationalization of the results. Researchers used several
methodological methods (e.g. quantitative, qualitative) that fully
described format (1) ‘the complete concept of the study, (2) the
achievement of the study, and (3) the description of the study’
(Jalongo & Saracho, 2016Jalongo, M. R., & Saracho, O.
N.(2016). Writing for publication: Transitions and tools that support
scholars’ success. New York, NY: Springer.[Crossref], [Google
Scholar], p. 134) in an appropriate manner based on the study’s
methodology. The manuscripts included a range of topics such as
dual language learners, second language learners, Latino
immigrant children, children who have hearing disabilities, parents’
and teachers’ beliefs about language development, early literacy
skills of toddlers, shared book reading, language and literacy
interventions, multimodalities in early literacies, writing and early
literacy development, Reggio Emilia, family literacy, and many
others. Studies were conducted in various early childhood settings
such as child care, nursery school, Head Start, kindergarten, and
primary grades. The subjects in the studies represented the
pluralism of the globe – it is a pluralism of language, backgrounds,
ethnicity, abilities, and disabilities.
Gathered in this volume are results of studies and researchers’
ideas that describe how (1) the children acquire language and
literacy and (2) their knowledge in language and literacy progress
from infancy through the preschool years and to the early years of
school. Based on the results of the studies, all authors offer
research and practical applications in early childhood education.
Researchers can use the studies in the special issue to conduct
future studies that contribute to theory, while practitioners can use
the studies’ results to promote and support the children’s language
and literacy in their classrooms.
This special issue of Early Child Development and Care was a joint
effort of an editorial team working together to develop a high quality
special volume on research in language and literacy. The team
consisted of the journal’s (Early Child Development and Care)
editor, Roy Evans; Guest Editor, Olivia N. Saracho; and reviewers.
Both the editor and guest editor supervised the manuscript review
and revision process to ensure that the studies were based on a
sound theoretical framework.
Theoretical frameworks transformations

This special issue is grounded on the profound transformations that

have occurred in the fields of early childhood education, child
development, psychology, language arts, emergent literacy, and
literacy education. Initially, the conservative understanding of the
field was that children under six years of age should not be
provided with formal reading instruction. Currently, as suggested in
this special issue, research and theory propose that from the
beginning, young children need to actively be involved in language
development experiences that will ultimately guide these children to
become proficient readers. Instead of delaying instruction until
young children mature, they can be provided with developmentally
appropriate instruction that corresponds to the children’s
developmental level that helps them acquire new proficiency in both
oral and written language.
Reforms in the sources of early childhood practice have modified
the field of early childhood education. They involve transformations
in (1) developmental theories associated with language, literacy,
and cognition, (2) children in early childhood settings, and (3) the
nature of language and literacy instruction. Each of these is briefly
described in the following sections to provide a perspective for the
contents in this special issue.
Developmental theory

Initially, early childhood education teachers were frequently

forbidden to offer any print material in the classroom, because it
was assumed that this material would only pressure children to
start reading prematurely or frustrate the children who were not yet
‘ready’ to read. The traditional knowledge of that period was that
children would only be prepared to learn how to read when they
reached the mental age of six- and one half years. This was based
on a classic study of the 1930s by Morpell and Washburne
(1931Morpell, M. V., & Washburne, C.(1931). When should children
begin to read? Elementary School Journal, 31, 496–503.
doi: 10.1086/456609[Crossref], [Google Scholar]) and Arnold
Gesell’s (1940Gesell, A. (1940). The first five years of
life. New York, NY: Harper & Bros. [Google Scholar]) theories on a
maturationist view of development. Throughout his professional life,
Gesell (1940Gesell, A. (1940). The first five years of
life. New York, NY: Harper & Bros. [Google Scholar]) searched for
the children’s progressive norms that would explain the progression
of their development. His theory indicated that development
depends on maturation. Effective instruction should follow this
developmental sequence. Any type of instruction that is introduced
prematurely would cause the children to be disillusioned and
frustrated. The children’s readiness for learning needs to be
identified prior to presenting instruction. Based on the results of
these studies, before beginning formal reading instruction, the
children’s readiness was assessed through several reading
readiness tests and direct observations.
Prior to the 1960’s, limited studies had examined pre-first grade
literacy. Then in the 1960s studies started to surface addressing
the reading readiness paradigm and the outdated belief that literacy
development occurred through formal reading instruction in school.
Later, Durkin’s (1966Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early:
Two longitudinal studies. New York, NY: Teachers College
Press. [Google Scholar]) study showed that children were reading
earlier than first grade and that the reading readiness paradigm
was theoretically and rationally inappropriate. Other researchers
supported Durkin’s results. Clay (1975Clay, M. M. (1975). What did
I write?Aukland: Heinemann. [Google Scholar]) was one of the
researchers who supported these results and proposed that the
term ‘emergent literacy’ be used rather than ‘reading readiness’
(Clay, 1966Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading
behaviour (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Auckland, New Zealand. [Google Scholar]). She stated that no
result ‘suggests that contact with printed language forms should be
withheld from a five-year-old child on the ground that he is
immature’ (Clay, 1975Clay, M. M. (1975). What did I
write?Aukland: Heinemann. [Google Scholar], p. 24).
The 1970s and early 1980s groundbreaking studies were
conducted to examine the children’s early language and literacy
development as well as the reassessment of the concept of reading
readiness. Language and literacy researchers proposed a
reconceptualization of the process that children experience from
birth to the time when they are able to read and write, which
addresses Clay’s (1966Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading
behaviour (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Auckland, New Zealand. [Google Scholar]) proposed term
‘emergent literacy.’ The emergent literacy concept extended
throughout the 1980s and 1990s as part of developmentally
appropriate practice (DAP; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C.,
& Bredekamp, S.(2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in
early childhood programs serving children from birth through age
8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of
Young Children. [Google Scholar]) that focused on providing young
children with developmentally appropriate experiences for their
literacy learning [International Reading Association (now called the
International Literacy Association (ILA) & The National Association
for the Education of Young Children, 1998International Reading
Association [IRA] & National Association of the Education of Young
Children [NAEYC]. (1998). Learning to read and write:
Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. The
Reading Teacher, 52, 193–216. Also in Young Children, July
1998, 53(4), 30–46[Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]].
Later developmental theories had a drastic change when
researchers began to use Jean Piaget’s
(1947Piaget, J. (1947). The psychology of
intelligence. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield.[Crossref], [Google
Scholar], 1951Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in
childhood. New York, NY: Norton. [Google Scholar]) research for
their theoretical framework. He found that children used their
experiences to construct their knowledge based on several
developmental levels, which were greatly influenced by
maturational factors. Instead of offering experiences that would
help children progress to advanced levels of development, it was
better to match the children’s experiences to their existing levels of
development. The children’s educational experiences need to be
‘developmentally appropriate’ (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C.,
& Bredekamp, S.(2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in
early childhood programs serving children from birth through age
8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of
Young Children. [Google Scholar]); they should not be ‘hurried’
(Elkind, 1981Elkind, D. (1981). The hurried
child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. [Google Scholar]). Even
when the proposed instructional approaches for young children
might vary, Piagetian theory continued to recommend that
instruction should correspond to the children’s levels of
development. Intriguingly, Piagetian theory drastically influenced
early childhood methods in mathematics and science, but it
moderately affected language and literacy instruction. Hence, the
‘reading readiness’ method of the earlier period continued, but it
was later modified with new theories.
During the 1960s and 1970s developmental theories continue to
change based on L. S. Vygotsky’s (1962Vygotsky, L.
S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.[Crossref], [Google Scholar], 1978Vygotsky, L.
S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. [Google Scholar]) social development theory. The main
concept of the theory is that how individuals interact with others and
their culture affects their mental abilities. Vygotsky’s work was
mainly unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. He
distinguishes between ‘natural’ and ‘cultural’ development. Cultural
development permits individuals to learn systems of cultural
behaviour, including means of reasoning. Language and literacy
development is a structure of cultural development, which is part of
a socio-historic framework. The forms of knowledge that are
generated within the culture contribute to the children’s learning.
They are also transmitted from those who are more refined to those
who are less refined in a culture, such as adults transmit knowledge
to older children who then transmit it to younger children.
The ‘zone of proximal development (ZPD)’ is a fundamental
concept in Vygotsky’s theory. It is the region outside of the
children’s achievement abilities where children need assistance.
This type of assistance is considered to be providing ‘scaffolding’ or
helping children to progress forward. Since this type of learning is
beyond the children’s developmental levels, it expands their
development. Therefore, Vygotsky’s theory improves the children’s
development instead of following it. His work contributed to early
childhood education, especially in the area of language and
literacy. This understanding of development has profoundly guided
contemporary interpretations of language and literacy education, as
observed in the articles in this special issue. The children’s
language and literacy emerge early in their lives and continue to
develop for an extended period of time. Their early literacy
experiences before formal reading instruction can affect their later
reading achievement.
This literacy concept is an evolving practice that is promoted
through language and literacy experiences such as literacy-related
play, shared story reading, and other related literacy experiences.
Reading, writing, speaking, and listening need to be effectively
merged into the children’s language and literacy programme.
Populations in school settings

The children in the schools experience an ethnic turmoil as growing

quantities of cultural and linguistic diverse children are in the
schools. Such children are considered to be ‘at-risk.’ The at-risk
term refers to the children’s problems in practical language
competency rather than their lack of ability to learn linguistic
practices. Unfortunately, outdated methods in teaching language
and literacy continue to keep these children at risk of later school
failure.
Several of these young children who first attend school may
discover that their language and culture at home vary from the one
that is used by the teachers, schools, and books. This dissimilarity
may cause young children to respond to the instructional situation
based on their cultural level
 Level 1. (Lowest level): Students become confused when they
experience a drastic difference between the two languages and
cultures.
 Level 2. Students deny their language and culture, pretending
that their language and culture is the same as the school’s.
 Level 3. Students adapt to those new or different customs in the
culture in which they perceive to have more advance patterns.
Therefore, children will assess each language and culture to
adapt only the best patterns or customs to make them their own.
 Level 4. (Highest level): Students are able to make the transition
back and forth from one language and culture to another
language and culture (Saracho, 1986Saracho, O.
N. (1986). Teaching second language literacy with computers.
In D. Hainline (Ed.), New developments in language
CAI (pp. 53–68). Kent: Croom Helm. [Google Scholar], pp. 53–
54).
Young children whose culture and language differ from the ones in
the school encounter functional language difficulties, such as
differences in using language to communicate for various purposes.
Language and literacy methods of instruction need to reflect the
children’s language proficiency to assist them in becoming bilingual
and biliterate. Therefore, language and literacy approaches need to
be modified to make them appropriate for these young children
when necessary.
Literacy instruction

Practically from the beginning of formal schooling in America,

disagreement has existed on ways to teach reading. Different
reading methods have been used for each time period. Several
practitioners preferred whole word methodology, where children
memorized the words and then looked at the words and identified
them. Others preferred the phonics methods where children
learned to sound out each letter in a word to identify the word. Each
method had its advocates and its proportion of successes and
failures. When some children continued to fail in learning to read,
practitioners and criticizers persisted in asking, ‘Why Johnny can’t
read’ (Flesch, 1955Flesch, R. (1955). Why Johnny can’t
read. New York, NY: Harpers. [Google
Scholar], 1988Flesch, R. (1988). Why Johnny still can’t
read. New York, NY: Harpers & Row. [Google Scholar]).
The concern for improving the success of school children in
learning to read has led increasingly in the last decade to
suggestions that formal reading instruction should begin earlier,
moving that instruction from the primary grades down into the
kindergarten and preprimary grades, which is not considered to be
developmentally appropriate. The uneasiness for developing the
success of school children in learning how to read has been
directed more and more to watering down initial formal reading
instruction to kindergarten and the preprimary grades. This major
curriculum position attracted the attention of various professional
organizations such as the International Reading Association (now
International Literacy Association, LRA) and National Association of
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). These organizations
believe that learning to read and write is essential to the children’s
success in school and future years. The greatest indicator of their
ability to achieve in school is the degree to which the children
develop in language, reading, and writing. While reading and
writing capabilities develop throughout the young children’s life
span, the period from birth through eight years of age is the
furthermost significant period for their literacy development. This is
the reason that IRA and NAEYC joined forces to develop a position
statement in relation to the young children’s acquisition of literacy
using ‘developmentally appropriate practices’ when teaching young
children to read and write. In 1998, IRA and NAEYC
(1998International Reading Association [IRA] & National
Association of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC].
(1998). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate
practices for young children. The Reading Teacher, 52, 193–216.
Also in Young Children, July 1998, 53(4), 30–46[Web of Science
®], [Google Scholar]) approved a position statement on young
children’s literacy development that supported that literacy be
taught according to a progression of the children’s literacy
development irrespective of age. Developmentally appropriate
practice utilizes child development theory to encourage teaching
that emphasizes the young children’s individual progress and
learning based on their developmental areas in a way that speaks
to ‘the social and cultural contexts’ in which they live (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C.,
& Bredekamp, S.(2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in
early childhood programs serving children from birth through age
8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of
Young Children. [Google Scholar], p. 10).
The development of current theories on acquisition of language and
literacy guides the present transformation of reading instruction.
Emergent literacy has been replaced for the concept of reading
readiness. The recognition that all language abilities must be
balanced has helped merge children’s literacy-related play,
literature, and shared storybook reading within literacy instruction.
Cultivating competent, literate children during their early childhood
years is essential before introducing them to formal reading
instruction. This component has guided the family literacy
movement. Families and early childhood education teachers need
to be sensitive to the way they teach language and literacy. They
need to know developmentally appropriate literacy strategies and
activities that integrate literacy-related play, writing, story reading,
creative dramatics, art, and any content area. Teachers need to
know the children’s cultural and linguistic knowledge, their child
rearing styles, and how to set up effective physical and social
classroom environments. They need to be active in their
 professional development to keep up to date with current
professional knowledge.
Teachers are encouraged to offer young children instruction that
corresponds to their developmental level, cultural level, and ability
level in both oral and written language. Table 1 presents the levels
in the children’s development.
Table 1. Levels in children’s development of reading and writing: from
infancy through third grade.
CSVDisplay Table

Such interpretations contributed to the transformations in

developmental theories related to literacy, language, and cognition.
The teachers’ ability to understand diverse populaces that are
found in their classrooms can help them provide developmentally
appropriate literacy instruction to all children.
NAEYC promised to provide resources to early childhood education
teachers that they can use to assist young children to become
literate and motivate them to read and write for enjoyment,
information, and communication. Teaching practices must be
appropriate, effective, and focus on the young children’s
developmental attributes, culture, language, and specific learning
needs. They need to learn through different, research-based
teaching techniques that will support the young children’s language
and literacy development. NAEYC and IRA (2009National
Association of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC] &
International Reading Association [IRA]. (2009). Where we STAND
on learning to read and write. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/WWSSLearnin
gToReadAndWriteEnglish.pdf [Google Scholar]) report the following
research outcomes that need to be considered:
 Children take their first critical steps toward learning to read and
write very early in life.
 Children do not become literate automatically; careful planning
and instruction are essential.
 Ongoing assessment of children’s knowledge and skills helps
teachers plan effective instruction.
 No one teaching method or approach is likely to be effective for
all children, at all times.
 As children move from preschool into kindergarten and the
primary grades, instruction focused on phonemic awareness,
letter recognition, segmenting words into sounds, and decoding
printed text will support later reading competence.
 Children who are learning English as a second language will
become literate more easily if they have a strong foundation in
their home language (NAEYC & IRA, 2009National Association
of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC] & International
Reading Association [IRA]. (2009). Where we STAND on
learning to read and write. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/WWSSLear
ningToReadAndWriteEnglish.pdf [Google Scholar]).
Conclusion

Over the years, early childhood education has endured recurring

curriculum transformation. Major modifications have occurred in the
area of language and literacy. Early childhood researchers and
practitioners need to be cognizant of these changes. They must
improve the knowledge and skills required to sustain an early
childhood education programme that focuses and addresses the
young children’s needs in present society.
The development of theories in language learning modified how
children were taught literacy. The reading readiness paradigm was
substituted with the concept of emergent literacy. The early
childhood years before introducing children to formal literacy
 instruction is viewed as critical in developing competent and literate
children. All early childhood education teachers, at all levels, are
considered to be literacy teachers, even before children participate
in formal reading instruction. Instead of forcing formal reading
instruction on children who are not developmentally ready for this
instruction in the preprimary grades, teachers need to use
contemporary methods that focus on the young children’s language
abilities to provide experiences that will lead them to become more
competent readers in their later years.
This special issue has studies related to the critical skills,
environments, and adult interactions that contribute to young
children’s language and literacy development. The studies take into
account the contemporary theoretical reforms that have emerged in
the language and literacy education of young children.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03004430.2017.1282235

Early Literacy: Policy and Practice in the Preschool

Years
By: Dorothy Strickland, Shannon Riley-Ayers

As early childhood education moves front and center in the public policy debate, more
attention is being paid to early literacy. Early childhood professionals have long
recognized the importance of language and literacy in preparing children to succeed in
school. Early literacy plays a key role in enabling the kind of early learning experiences
that research shows are linked with academic achievement, reduced grade retention,
higher graduation rates and enhanced productivity in adult life. This report synthesizes
the body of professional knowledge about early literacy and offers research-based
recommendations.

What we know:
 Literacy development starts early in life and is highly correlated with school
achievement.
 All of the domains of a child's development —physical, social-emotional, cognitive,
language and literacy—are interrelated and interdependent.
 The more limited a child's experiences with language and literacy the more likely he or
she will have difficulty learning to read.
 Key early literacy predictors of reading and school success include oral language,
Alphabetic Code, and print knowledge.
 Well-conceived standards for child outcomes, curriculum content, and teacher
preparation help establish clarity of purpose and a shared vision for early literacy
education.
 Increased demands for program accountability are often heavily focused on assessments
of children's early literacy development.
 Highly capable teachers are required to implement today's more challenging early
literacy curriculum.
 Teacher knowledge, respect and support for the diversity of children's families, cultures,
and linguistic backgrounds are important in early literacy development.
Policy recommendations:

 All children should have access to early childhood programs with strong literacy
components that include clear adaptations for children with special needs.
 Early literacy curricula and teaching practices should be evidence-based, integrated with
all domains of learning, and understandable to staff members.
 Early literacy standards should be established that articulate with K-12 programs and
reflect consistency and continuity with overall program goals.
 Early literacy assessment should use multiple methods and use the information to
improve both teaching and the total preschool program.
 Standards for early childhood professionals should require staff to meet early literacy
instructional standards.
 Parent involvement programs should have a strong early literacy component that guides
parents and caregivers in providing early literacy experiences at home.
 Support for English Language Learners should be specified and provided in both the
home language and English where feasible.
A growing body of evidence shows that early learning experiences are linked with later
school achievement, emotional and social well-being, fewer grade retentions, and
reduced incidences of juvenile delinquency and that these outcomes are all factors
associated with later adult productivity.1 Other research has identified key predictors for
reading and school success.

An analysis of the research literature indicates specific skills and abilities of children ages
birth through 5 years that predict later reading outcomes.
2

Key predictive skills and abilities include:

 Oral language
listening comprehension, oral language vocabulary
 Alphabetic Code
alphabet knowledge, phonological/ phonemic awareness (the ability to discriminate
sounds in words), invented spelling
 Print Knowledge/Concepts
environmental print, concepts about print
Other less significant indicators include: Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN); visual
memory; and visual perceptual abilities.

How young children acquire early literacy and its oral language foundation has gained
the attention of educators and policymakers. Research establishes four major principles
of early literacy acquisition:

Oral language is the foundation for literacy development.

Oral language provides children with a sense of words and sentences and builds
sensitivity to the sound system so that children can acquire phonological awareness and
phonics. Through their own speech children demonstrate their understanding of the
meanings of words and written materials.
Supporting evidence
 Children reared in families where parents provide rich language and literacy support do
better in school than those who do not. Languagepoor families are likely to use fewer
different words in their everyday conversations and the language environment is more
likely to be controlling and punitive.3
 Exposure to less common, more sophisticated vocabulary (rare words) at home relates
directly to children's vocabulary acquisition. Rare words are those that go beyond the
typical 8,500 most common words in the English language.4
 There is a strong relationship between vocabulary development and reading
achievement. Understanding the meanings of words is critical to understanding what a
child reads. Good readers combine a variety of strategies to read words. Even when
children have strong familiarity with the alphabetic code, they frequently meet words for
which the pronunciation is not easily predictable.
Children who acquire strong vocabularies increase their ability to make sense of what a
word might be while using what they know about phonics.5

Children's experiences with the world greatly influence their

ability to comprehend what they read.
Reading involves comprehending written texts.What children bring to a text influences
the understandings they take away and the use they make of what is read.

Supporting evidence
 Background knowledge about the world is built from a child's experiences.
 The more limited a child's experiences the more likely he or she will have difficulty
comprehending what is read.

Learning to read and write starts long before first grade and has
long-lasting effects.
Learning to read and write is an ongoing process from infancy. Contrary to popular
belief, it does not suddenly begin in kindergarten or first grade. From the earliest years,
everything that adults do to support children's language and literacy is critical.

Supporting evidence
 Language and literacy develop concurrently and influence one another. What children
learn from listening and talking contributes to their ability to read and write and vice
versa. For example, young children's phonological awareness (ability to identify and
make oral rhymes, identify and work with syllables in spoken words, and the ability to
hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds— phonemes—in spoken words) is
an important indicator of their potential success in learning to decode print. Early
vocabulary development is an important predictor of success in reading comprehension.
Both phonological awareness and vocabulary development begin early with participation
in rhyming games and chants, shared book experiences, and extended conversations
with adults.6
 Children who fall behind in oral language and literacy development in the years before
formal schooling are less likely to be successful beginning readers; and their
achievement lag is likely to persist throughout the primary grades and beyond. 7
 Responsive adults have a special role in supporting children's ongoing, self-generated
learning. Instructional support that relies on the accumulation of isolated skills is not
sufficient. Teaching children to apply their knowledge and skills in meaningful situations
has a significantly greater effect on their ability to learn to read.8

Children's experiences with books and print greatly influence

their ability to comprehend what they read.9
Reading with adults, looking at books independently, and sharing reading experiences
with peers are some of the ways that children experience books.

Supporting evidence
 Knowledge about print is built from children's experiences with books and other written
materials.
 Shared book reading experiences have a special role in fostering early literacy
development by building background knowledge about the world and concepts about
books and print.10
Although the abundance of research evidence supports the need for attention to early
literacy and its oral language foundations, it also raises essential questions about how
early childhood programs can foster the skills and abilities young children need to
become successful readers and writers and how reading difficulties can be prevented.
 The answers to these essential questions involve consideration of the following five
important and related issues:
1. early literacy learning standards
2. curriculum
3. accountability and assessment
4. teacher education and professional development
5. home-school connections
Those charged with the responsibility for early childhood education must carefully
consider each of these issues.

Issue 1: Developing and using early literacy learning

standards
The growing trend to generate standards for early childhood education may be the best
indication of a felt need to specify curriculum content and child outcomes for early
education programs. Kendall and Marzano offer at least three principal reasons for the
development and use of standards: to establish clarity of curriculum content, to raise
expectations for the achievement of all children, and to ensure accountability for public
education.11 It has only been in recent years, however, that the field of early education
has been a part of the standards movement.12

One national effort to produce early language and literacy standards is the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Accreditation Performance
Criteria for early childhood programs. These standards provide guidelines for the content
that children are learning, the planned activities linked to these goals, the daily schedule
and routines and the availability and use of materials for children.

Because oral language and literacy are so highly interrelated, the National Center on
Education and the Economy produced a comprehensive standards document on speaking
and listening for preschool through third grade to accompany a previously published
document that only focused on standards for reading and writing.13

Each topic is described in terms of real life settings with implications for instruction and
applications to different cultures and linguistic settings. In addition to national efforts,
individual states have embraced the standards movement. In 2005, 43 states report
having early childhood standards, which is a substantial increase over the past few
years.14Specifically, the standards include oral language development, phonological
awareness, print knowledge and use, and writing.Many of them also specify criteria for
teaching and program structure.

It is critical to develop standards wisely and with caution. In a joint policy statement on
early learning standards NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood
Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) describe the risks and
benefits of early learning standards.15 They caution that a major risk of any standards
movement is that the responsibility for meeting the standards will be placed on
children's shoulders rather than on the shoulders of those who should provide
opportunities and supports for learning. They suggest that culturally and linguistically
diverse children, as well as children with disabilities, may be at heightened risk.
Nevertheless, they conclude that clear, research-based expectations for the content and
desired results of early learning experiences can help focus curriculum and instruction
and increase the likelihood of later positive outcomes.

Issue 2: The early literacy focus of effective curriculum

Although most educators and policy makers agree that a strong start in early literacy is
critical, there is less agreement about how this is best accomplished. A major concern is
ensuring that the curriculum addresses the overall learning and growth of the young
child by continuing to stress the physical, social, emotional, and overall cognitive
development of children and at the same time, strengthening the academic curriculum.
Some express concern about what they perceive as an over-emphasis on early literacy
and the creation of a curriculum imbalance. They caution against early literacy curricula
that focus too narrowly on literacy skills and neglect consideration for all the domains of
development that interact to promote children's personal and academic growth. Indeed,
the physical, social, emotional, cognitive and language development of young children
are actually major factors that influence early literacy development.16

Evidence-based practice and the early literacy curriculum

In the area of literacy, both federal and state expectations have emphasized evidence-
based practice to guide curriculum adoption and the evaluation of curriculum
effectiveness. Evidence must be grounded in scientifically based research, a term used
across a variety of fields that requires the application of systematic and objective
procedures to obtain information to address important questions in a particular field. It
is an attempt to ensure that those who use the research can have a high degree of
confidence that it is valid and dependable. Whether a curriculum is homegrown or
commercially prepared, those who develop and use it are expected to support their
claims with a research base. Key components of an early literacy curriculum grounded in
evidence- based early literacy research include: (1) oral language development, which
includes vocabulary and listening; (2) an understanding of the alphabetic code, which
includes phonological/phonemic awareness and knowledge of the alphabet; and (3)
knowledge and understanding about print and its use.

Key components of the early literacy curriculum

Oral Language. Oral language develops concurrently with literacy development, and it
includes listening comprehension, verbal expression, and vocabulary development. Oral
language development is facilitated when children have many opportunities to use
language in interactions with adults and each other and when they listen and respond to
stories. Young children build vocabulary when they engage in activities that are
cognitively and linguistically stimulating by encouraging them to describe events and
build background knowledge.

Alphabetic Code. English is an alphabetic language, which means that the letters we
use to write represent the sounds of the language that we speak. Knowledge of the
alphabet letters and phonological awareness (the ability to distinguish the sounds within
words) form the basis of early decoding and spelling ability, and both are correlated with
later reading and spelling achievement. Young children can learn to name letters and to
distinguish them from each other. They can also begin to develop an awareness of the
constituent sounds within words, such as syllables, rhymes and phonemes.

Children should be immersed in language-rich environments in order to develop

phonological awareness and similarly, it would be difficult to master the ABCs without
lots of exposure to the alphabet (in books, on blocks, on refrigerator magnets, in cereal,
in soup, in attempts to write, in having their messages written for them, etc.).
Knowledge of the ABCs and phonological awareness do not usually just happen from
exposure for most children, however. Parents, teachers, and older siblings often
intentionally teach children the alphabet, and studies have shown that it is possible to
teach phonological awareness to preschoolers and kindergarten children in ways that do
not interfere with a comprehensive and rich curriculum focus but do improve later
literacy.17

Print Knowledge and Use. Making sense of print involves an awareness and
understanding of environmental print and an understanding of concepts of print, such as
where to begin to read a book or a page and in what direction to read. Each of these is
likely learned from interacting with others around print. An early literacy curriculum
might include grocery store visits; being read to on a daily basis; having a writing center
where children can experiment with written communication, and environmental print
that is purposeful such as functional signs, labels and charts. In addition, effective early
literacy teachers model the reading and writing processes during shared reading and
writing. They explicitly comment aloud about what they are thinking as they read and
write so as to make the process transparent to children.

The literacy curriculum as a program for prevention and

intervention
Studies of the relationship between early literacy development and school achievement
have had a profound impact on the early literacy curriculum as an intervention process
for children considered to be at risk for failure. Risk factors include exhibiting a
developmental disability (e.g. oral language impairment, mental retardation, hearing
impairment), having a parent with a history of a reading disability, speaking a language
or dialect that differs from the local academic curriculum, and/or living in a household in
which experiences with oral and written language are infrequent.18 For children in such
circumstances, a preventive intervention may be required to encourage timely
attainment of the skills and abilities needed for later school readiness and achievement.

The key curriculum components are viewed as standard or essential elements of

instruction for all children. Nevertheless, children vary in how well any "basic" curriculum
will serve them. They differ in what they bring to the preschool setting and what they
gain from it. Some children enter preschool having had the advantage of an abundance
of experiences with books and other written materials, visiting interesting places,
engaging in creative problem-solving and play, and participating in thought-provoking
conversations and activities that serve to expand their general knowledge and
intellectual development. For these children, both their linguistic and experiential
backgrounds prepare them to benefit from a curriculum that reinforces and expands the
rich reservoir of skills and knowledge these children possess. Other children need more,
different, or specifically targeted learning opportunities in preschool. Skillful teachers,
and the specialists who advise them, make adjustments within the framework of the
curriculum to make instruction more responsive to student needs.

Issues related to a child's linguistic and cultural background represent a continuing and
growing challenge for early literacy educators and curriculum developers. Latinos, for
example, are now the largest minority group in the country—a group that is growing at a
faster rate than the population as a whole.19 Even for many Englishspeaking children, the
school language (or dialect) and culture may differ greatly from that of their homes.
Teachers of young children need to keep in mind that a child's prekindergarten
classroom may be the first setting of sustained contact with a new culture and will help
set the stage for early success or failure with formal schooling.20 Effective educators seek
to learn as much as they can about the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the
children.Whenever practical, programs specifically focus on the development of both
English and the child's home language. In general, the curriculum is implemented in
ways that foster respect for what children bring to the learning situation and provide
continuity between the child's experiences at home and those within the early childhood
program.

Class size and teacher-pupil ratio are related to how well teachers meet the demand for
high quality. The strongest evidence that preschool programs can produce large
educational benefits for economically disadvantaged children comes from studies in
which programs had both highly capable teachers and relatively small groups of
children.21

Issue 3: Accountability and assessment

Measuring children's early literacy development is an important part of a comprehensive
early childhood program. Assessment is used to measure development and learning, to
guide teacher and program planning and decision making, to identify children who might
benefit from special services, and to report to and communicate with others.22 In
addition to the ongoing, day-by-day systematic observations that link closely to the
early childhood curriculum, there is a growing trend toward child assessment for
program accountability. These assessments, in which early literacy is often a major
component, reflect an increasingly high-stakes climate in which programs are required
to demonstrate effectiveness in improving school readiness and creating positive child
outcomes.

Concerns about trends in early literacy assessment include the use of assessments that
focus on a limited range of skills and the nature of the assessments in use. Both factors
may cause teachers to narrow their curriculum and teaching practices, especially when
the stakes are high. For example, the ability to name the letters of the alphabet is
usually assessed in a decontextualized manner in which the child is asked to name each
letter as it is presented, one at a time. Unfortunately, this can lead to teaching in which
the letters of the alphabet are presented in a discrete and decontextualized manner
apart from children's names or the application of that knowledge to other meaningful
print.
Although children may be capable of naming letters in a robotic-like, rote memorization
manner, they may fail to acquire the long-term goal— an understanding of how the
letters function for reading and writing and the ability to use what they know to make
sense of the print in their environment.

Issue 4: Teacher education and professional

development
The need for highly capable teachers is a constant theme in the literature on early
childhood education. This is particularly true in the area of early literacy. National
reports and government mandates have raised expectations for the formal education
and training of early childhood teachers, especially in Head Start and in statefunded
prekindergarten programs.23Today's early childhood teachers are expected to implement
a more challenging and effective curriculum in language and literacy and to assess and
document progress in increasingly complex ways.24 Rising expectations coupled with an
expanding number of early childhood programs have led to a major crisis in staffing,
both in terms of the number of early childhood teachers and in the quality of their
preparation. In response, several states have established P-3 (prekindergarten through
third grade) certification programs and launched incentive efforts to encourage teachers
and caregivers to upgrade and expand their knowledge and skills.

Whether pre-service or in-service, the demands regarding what early childhood teachers
need to know and do have changed dramatically. Described in broad terms, teachers of
young children need to know the importance of oral language competencies, early
literacy experiences and family literacy in learning to read. They need to be able to
foster a wide range of language and literacy related dispositions and competencies,
including a love of literacy and the development of vocabulary, oral language abilities,
phonological awareness, and print-related knowledge. They must be able to use a
variety of instructional methods that are age and developmentally appropriate and have
the ability to adjust those methods to the specific needs of individuals. They must be
skilled in the ability to use multiple methods of monitoring children's literacy
development and interpreting assessments in order to make sound instructional
decisions.

In order to develop the competencies of the type listed above, schools of education must
provide pre-service programs that are grounded in current scientific knowledge about
how children learn to read and write and the best instructional practices to help them
learn. Obviously, it is not possible to offer prospective teachers all the knowledge they
need in a preservice program. Like other professional fields, the knowledge base for
learning and teaching is strengthened as new knowledge is gained and meshed with old.
A fairly recent and promising effort designed to address this issue is the appointment of
literacy coaches to the instructional team of teachers, directors and other support staff.
Literacy coaches are teachers with special expertise and training, who provide continuing
support and guidance to classroom teachers in order to improve classroom instruction.
Thus, teacher education is viewed as an ongoing process involving rigorous pre-service
training and experiential opportunities along with continued professional development.
Issue 5: Home-school connections
The link between supportive parental involvement and children's early literacy
development is well established. Snow et. al. and others have shown that children from
homes, where parents model the uses of literacy and engage children in activities that
promote basic understandings about literacy and its uses, are better prepared for
school.25 Several national efforts such as Reading is Fundamental and Reach Out and
Read have focused with some success on getting books into the hands of parents and
children and promoting regular parentchild book reading. Tabors, Snow, and these have
evidently worked to some extent, citing national surveys showing an increase in parent-
child literacy activities among families with preschoolers.26Unfortunately, the increases
among families considered to be at greater risk lagged behind that of other families.
These researchers recommend that efforts to promote shared reading with children go
beyond giving books to families to include suggestions for how parents might engage in
these activities to promote conversation and dialogue. They go further to suggest that it
is not the frequency of book reading accompanies book reading alone that is related to
children's language and literacy abilities, but the broader pattern of parent-child
activities and interactions that support children's language and literacy development.
The challenge to get the message across to all parents, particularly to low-income and
low-education parents, that everyday activities of all sorts, accompanied by interesting
talk with lots of new vocabulary words, can play an important part in their children's
language and literacy development.27

Summary
The policy recommendations offered in this brief emanate from basic understandings
and findings from the research on early literacy. Literacy development starts early in life
and is highly correlated with school achievement. All the domains of a child's
development, including literacy, are interrelated and interdependent. The more limited a
child's experiences with language and literacy, the more likely he or she will have
difficulty learning to read.

Well-conceived standards for child outcomes, curriculum content, and teacher

preparation help establish clarity of purpose and a shared vision for early literacy
education. Early literacy curricula and teaching practices should be evidence-based,
integrated with all domains of learning. States and districts should establish standards
for early literacy that are articulated with K-12 programs and reflect consistency and
continuity with overall program goals. At the same time, programs should be designed
to provide comprehensive support for all children, including English Language Learners.

In many instances, this may require major changes in policies involving standards and
accountability for children, programs and the professionals responsible for them.
Competent leadership in the policy arena is essential. As Roskos and Vukelich aptly
state, "What early literacy policy accomplishes in the next decades depends not only on
the structures placed on and in settings and programs, but also on the people who act
on those structures to create patterns of activity that can either advance, resist or stall
change."28
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/early-literacy-policy-and-practice-
preschool-years