Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
QUESTION 1
(i) What do you understand hydrology?
(ii) Explain the hydraulic cycle in nature with the help of a neat sketch,
indicating its various phases.
(iii) Discuss clearly the various forms of precipitation
(iv) What are the functions of hydrology in water resources development?
(v) What are the basic data required for hydrological studies?
QUESTION 2
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 2
Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occured. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C
were 8.5, 6.7and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and
90 cm, respectively, estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
1
QUESTION 3
(v) Example 2.3 (a) The area shown in Fig. P (2.3a) is composed of a square
plus an equilateral triangular plot of side 10 km. The annual
precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at the four corners and
centre of the square plot and apex of the traingular plot are indicated in
figure. Find the mean precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon
method, and compare with the arithmetic mean.
2
QUESTION 4
(i) What do you understand by a hyetograph?
(ii) What do you understand by A mass curve of rainfall (or
precipitation)
(iii) Differentiate between Mean and Median
(iv) The annual rainfall at a place for a period of 10 years from 1961 to
1970 are respectively 30.3, 41.0, 33.5, 34.0, 33.3, 36.2, 33.6, 30.2,
35.5, 36.3. Determine the mean and median values of annual
rainfall for the place.
QUESTION 5
The following are the rain gauge observations during a storm. Construct:
(i) mass curve of precipitation,
(ii) hyetograph,
(iii) maximum intensity-duration curve and develop a formula, and
(iv) maximum depth-duration curve.
3
Water losses (evaporation, infiltration, transpiration)
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 2
(v) The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration
with a uniform intensity of 15 mm/hr is 21.6 Mm 3 . If the area of the
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basin is 300 km 2 , find the average infiltration rate and the runoff
coefficient for the basin.
QUESTION 3
QUESTION 4
(i) Discuss briefly the factors that affects Evapotranspiration,
(ii) What do you understand by infiltration,
(iii) List down the various methods used to determine infiltration,
(iv) For a given basin, the following are the infiltration capacity rates at
various time intervals after the beginning of the storm. Make a plot
of the f-curve and establish an equation of the form developed by
Horton. Also determine the total rain and the excess rain (runoff).
5
(v) For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of rain
was observed to be 90 mm/hr and decreased exponentially to
a constant rate of 8 mm/hr after
QUESTION 5
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CHAP4: RUNOFF
QUESTION 1
QUESTION 6
A 4-hour rain of average intensity 1 cm/hr falls over the fern leaf type catchment
as shown in Fig. 4.10. The time of concentration from the lines AA, BB, CC and
DD are 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours, respectively, to the site 0 where the discharge
measurements are made. The values of the runoff coefficient C are 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7
for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd hours of rainfail respectively and attains a constant value
of 0.8 after 3 hours. Determine the discharge at site 0.
7
QUESTIONS &ANSWERS ON INTRODUCTION
QUESTION 1
(i) What do you understand hydrology?
SOLUTION
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence,
distribution and disposal of water on the planet earth; it is the science
which deals with the various phases of the hydrologic cycle.
(ii) Explain the hydraulic cycle in nature with the help of a neat sketch,
indicating its various phases.
SOLUTION
Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and ocean,
and the cycle repeats. Of these three phases of the hydrologic cycle, namely,
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evaporation, precipitation and runoff, it is the ‘runoff phase’, which is
important to a civil engineer since he is concerned with the storage of
surface runoff in tanks and reservoirs for the purposes of irrigation,
municipal water supply hydroelectric power etc.
SOLUTION
Drizzle — a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5 mm) and intensity <1
mm/hr
Rain — the condensed water vapour of the atmosphere falling
in drops (>0.5 mm, maximum size—6 mm) from the cloud
Glaze — Freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with
cold objects.
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Sleet — Frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing
temperature.
Snow — ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e., water vapour
condenses to ice)
Snow flakes — ice crystals fused together.
Hail — small lumps of ice (>5 mm in diameter) formed by alternate
freezing and melting, when they are carried up and down in highly
turbulent air currents.
Dew — moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon
cool surfaces.
Frost — a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the
surface of exposed objects by dew or water vapour that has frozen
Fog — a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of
the earth by condensation of atmospheric vapour (interfering with
visibility)
Mist — a very thin fog
(iv) What are the functions of hydrology in water resources development?
SOLUTION
The study of hydrology helps us to know
(i) The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its
frequency; this is required for the safe design of drains and culverts,
dams and reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
(ii) The water yield from a basin—its occurence, quantity and
frequency, etc; this is necessary for the design of dams, municipal
water supply, water power, river navigation, etc.
(iii) The ground water development for which a knowledge of
the hydrogeology of the area, i.e., of the formation soil, recharge
facilities like streams and reservoirs, rainfall pattern, climate,
cropping pattern, etc. are required.
(iv) The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design
of a drainage project in the area.
(v) What are the basic data required for hydrological studies?
SOLUTION
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(i)Climatological data
(ii) Hydrometeorological data like temperature, wind velocity,
humidity, etc.
(iii) Precipitation records
(iv) Stream-flow records
(v) Seasonal fluctuation of ground water table or piezometric heads
(vi) Evaporation data
(vii) Cropping pattern, crops and their consumptive use
(viii) Water quality data of surface streams and ground water
(ix) Geomorphologic studies of the basin, like area, shape and slope of
the basin, mean and median elevation, mean temperature (as well as
highest and lowest temperature recorded) and other physiographic
characteristics of the basin; stream density and drainage density; tanks
and reservoirs.
(x) Hydrometeorological characteristics of basin
QUESTION 2
SOLUTION
HYDROLOGIC EQUATION
I = O + ∆S ...
Where I = inflow
O = outflow
∆S = change in storage
This equation states that during a given period, the total inflow into a given area
must equal the total outflow from the area plus the change is storage. While
solving this equation, the ground water is considered as an integral part of the
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surface water and it is the subsurface inflow and outflow that pose problems in the
water balance studies of a basin.
12
range and Agumbe in the western Ghats of south India get very heavy
orographic precipitation of 1250 cm and 900 cm (average annual rainfall),
respectively.
(iv) Cyclonic (cyclonic precipitation)—This type of precipitation is due to
lifting of moist air converging into a low pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure
differences created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface. Here the
winds blow spirally inward counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere. There are two main types of
cyclones—tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or typhoon) of
comparatively small diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind
velocity and heavy precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone of large
diameter up to 3000 km causing wide spread frontal type precipitation.
13
(ii) Discuss the three various types of recording rain gauges
SOLUTION
14
b) Weighing type rain gauge
15
Float type rain gauge. In this type, as the rain is collected in a float
chamber, the float moves up which makes a pen to move on a chart
wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.6). When the float chamber
fills up, the water siphons out automatically through a siphon tube kept in
an interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the drum
once in 24 hours. The clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a
week when the chart wrapped round the drum is also replaced. This
type of gauge is used by IMD.
(iii) What factors you consider in selecting a site for a rain-gauge station?
SOLUTION
Distance from the ocean
Direction of the prevailing winds
The mean annual temperature
Altitude of the place and
Its topography
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(iv) (a) Distinguish between recording and non-recording rain-gauges,
SOLUTION
Recording Rain Gauge
This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge.
This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement
consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph paper fixed around it
and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall From this
mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity
of rainfall at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of
rainfall, can be determined.
17
(v) (a) Explain:
1) A method for estimating the missing rainfall data at a station in a
basin.
SOLUTION
a) Station-year method—In this method, the records of two or more
stations are combined into one long record provided station records are
independent and the areas in which the stations are located are
climatologically the same. The missing record at a station in a particular
year may be found by the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison.
b)
QUESTION 2
Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occured. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C
were 8.5, 6.7and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and
90 cm, respectively, estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
Solution By equating the ratios of storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each station, the
storm rainfall at station D (PD) is estimated as
Eg:pg 25
QUESTION 3
SOLUTION
18
RAIN-GAUGE DENSITY
The following figures give a guideline as to the number of rain-gauges to be
erected in a given area or what is termed as ‘rain-gauge density’
Area Rain-gauge density
Plains 1 in 520 km2
Elevated regions 1 in 260-390 km2
Hilly and very heavy 1 in 130 Km2 preferably with 10% of the
rainfall areas rain-gauge stations equipped with the self
recording type
Point rainfall—It is the rainfall at a single station. For small areas less than 50 km2,
point rainfall may be taken as the average depth over the area.
(iii) As the rainfall over a large area is not uniform, the average depth of
rainfall over the area is determined by three methods discuss them briefly
SOLUTION
Arithmetic average method—It is obtained by simply averaging
arithmetically the amounts of rainfall at the individual rain-gauge stations in
the area, i.e.,
This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the
gauges are uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary
very widely from the mean. These limitations can be partially overcome if
topographic influences and aerial representativity are considered in the selection of
gauge sites.
19
if P1, P2, P3, ....are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1, A2, A3,
.... are the areas of the polygons surrounding these stations, (influence areas)
respectively, the average depth of rainfall for the
entire basin is given by
The isohyetal method—In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on a
suitablebbase map and the lines of equal rainfall (isohyets) are drawn giving
consideration to orographic effects and storm morphology, Fig. 2.11.
Figure at pag 28
20
SOLUTION
(a) Arithmetic average method
21
(c) Isohyetal method
The isohyets are drawn as shown in Fig. 2.11 and the mean areal
depth of rainfall is worked out below:
(v) Example 2.3 (a) The area shown in Fig. P (2.3a) is composed of a square
plus an equilateral triangular plot of side 10 km. The annual
precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at the four corners and
centre of the square plot and apex of the traingular plot are indicated in
figure. Find the mean precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon
method, and compare with the arithmetic mean.
SOLUTION
The Thiessen polygon is constructed by drawing perpendicular bisectors
to the lines joining the rain-gauge stations as shown in Fig. P (2.3a). The
weighted mean precipitation is computed in the following table:
Area of square plot = 10 × 10 = 100 km 2
22
Difference = 50 km 2
Area of each corner triangle in the square plot =
23
Arithmetic mean =
Which compares fairly with the weighted mean
QUESTION 4
(i) What do you understand by a hyetograph?
SOLUTION
A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall
with respect to time(Fig. 2.16) and is useful in determining the
maximum intensities of rainfall during a particular storm as is
required in land drainage and design of culverts.
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(ii) What do you understand by A mass curve of rainfall (or
precipitation)
SOLUTION
Is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against time (Fig. 2.17). From the mass
curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time can
be found.
,
where x = the mean value
Σx = sum of all the items
n = total number of items.
To find the median, the items are arranged in the ascending order;
if the number of items is odd, the middle item gives the median; if
the number of items is even, the average of the central two items
gives the median.
25
(iv) The annual rainfall at a place for a period of 10 years from 1961 to
1970 are respectively 30.3, 41.0, 33.5, 34.0, 33.3, 36.2, 33.6, 30.2,
35.5, 36.3. Determine the mean and median values of annual
rainfall for the place.
SOLUTION
a)
b) Median: Arrange the samples in the ascending order 30.2, 30.3 33.3,
33.5, 33.6, 34.0, 35.5, 36.2, 36.3, 41.0
No. of items = 10, i.e., even
Median =
Note the difference between the mean and the median values. If 11 years
of record, say1960 to 1970, had been given, the median would have been
the sixth item (central value) when arranged in the ascending order.
26
QUESTION 5
The following are the rain gauge observations during a storm. Construct:
(i) mass curve of precipitation,
(ii) hyetograph,
(iii) maximum intensity-duration curve and develop a formula, and
(iv) maximum depth-duration curve.
SOLUTION
27
(iii) maximum intensity-duration curve and develop a formula, and
Maximum depth–duration curve. By inspection of time (t) and
accumulated rainfall(cm) the maximum rainfall depths during 5, 10,
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15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 min durations are 0.7, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8,
2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0 and 3.1 cm respectively. The plot of the
maximum rainfall depths against different durations on a log-log
paper gives the maximum depth-duration curve, which is a straight
line, Fig. 2.20 (a).
60, i.e., 8.4, 7.8, 6.4,5.4, 5.52, 5.0, 4.63, 4.35, 4.0 and 3.72 cm/hr,
respectively. The plot of the maximum intensities against the different duration on
a log-log paper gives the maximum intensity-duration curve which is a straight
line, Fig. 2.20 (b). The equation for the maximum intensity duration curve is of the
form
29
which can now be verified as
t = 10 min, i = 7.2 cm/hr
t = 40 min, i = 4.25 cm/hr
which agree with the observed data.
Example 2 in the book
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QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON Water losses
(evaporation, infiltration, transpiration)
QUESTION 1
31
SOLUTION
The Dalton’s law states that the evaporation is proportional to
the difference in vapour pressures ew and ea. A more general
form of the Eq. (3.2) is given by
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QUESTION 2
Thus the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual
evaporation from water surfaces of lakes and reservoirs, i.e., by
multiplying by a coefficient called pan coefficient and is defined as
Pan coefficient =
(iii) The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan.-Dec.)
at Krishnarajasagara in a certain year in cm.
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16.7, 14.3, 17.8, 25.0, 28.6, 21.4,
16.7,16.7, 16.7, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in
that year was 2.80 km 2 and at the end of December it was measured as
2.55 km 2. Calculate the loss of water due to evaporation in that year.
Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7.
SOLUTION
Mean water spread area of lake
(iv) Compute the daily evaporation from a Class A pan if the amounts of
water added to bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rainfall (mm): 14 6 12 8 0 5 6
Water –5 3 0 0 7 4 3
added (mm): (removed)
What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface
area = 640 ha) in the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?
SOLUTION
Pan evaporation
34
(v) The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration
with a uniform intensity of 15 mm/hr is 21.6 Mm 3 . If the area of the
basin is 300 km 2 , find the average infiltration rate and the runoff
coefficient for the basin.
SOLUTION
QUESTION 3
SOLUTION
35
By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By
spreading a manomolecular layer of acetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) C16
H33OH over the reservoir surface (from boats).
By allowing flow of water, temperature is reduced and evaporation is
reduced; i.e.,by designing the outlet works so that the warmer surface
water can be released.
By removing the water loving weeds and plants like Phreatophytes from
the periphery of the reservoir.
By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water
surface (along the length) is reduced and hence evaporation is reduced.
By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small
agricultural ponds and lakes.
By developing underground reservoirs, since the evaporation from a
ground water table is very much less than the evaporation from a water
surface.
If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the evaporation
loss will be less due to cooller environment.
(ii) Differentiate between transpiration and transpiration ratio
SOLUTION
Transpiration is the process by which the water vapour escapes from the
living plant leaves and enters the atmosphere.
Transpiration ratio =
SOLUTION
36
Evapotranspiration (Et) or consumptive use (U) is the total water lost from a
cropped (or irrigated) land due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the
plants or used by the plants in building up of plant tissue. Potential
evapotranspiration (Ept) is the evapotranspiration from the short green
vegetation when the roots are supplied with unlimited water covering the soil. It is
usually expressed as a depth (cm, mm) over the area.
SOLUTION
37
QUESTION 4
(i) Discuss briefly the factors that affects Evapotranspiration
SOLUTION
Factors affect the evapotranspiration:
Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind speed,
mean monthly temperature and humidity.
Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing
season.
The moisture level in the soil.
(ii) What do you understand by infiltration
SOLUTION
INFILTRATION
Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. It
replenishes the soil moisture deficiency and the excess moves
downward by the force of gravity called deep seepage or
Percolation and builds up the ground water table.
(iii) List down the various methods used to determine infiltration
SOLUTION
The methods of determining infiltration are:
Infiltrometers
Observation in pits and ponds
Placing a catch basin below a laboratory sample
Artificial rain simulators
Hydrograph analysis
38
(iv) For a given basin, the following are the infiltration capacity rates at
various time intervals after the beginning of the storm. Make a plot
of the f-curve and establish an equation of the form developed by
Horton. Also determine the total rain and the excess rain (runoff).
SOLUTION
The precipitation and infiltration rates versus time are plotted as
shown in Fig. 3.10.In the Hortons equation, the Horton’s constant
39
40
(v) For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of rain
was observed to be 90 mm/hr and decreased exponentially to
a constant rate of 8 mm/hr after
SOLUTION
QUESTION 5
41
Balance goes to recharge ground water (Gr), increase the soil moisture
(SMA) and as surface runoff (streamflow, R).
The water balance equation can be written as
P + Gi = E + Et+ G0 + SMA + Gr + R
42
QUESTION & ANSWERS CHAP4: RUNOFF
QUESTION 1
Influent and Effluent streams. If the GWT is below the bed of the stream, the
seepage from the stream feeds the ground-water resulting in the build up of water
mound (Fig. 4.6).Such streams are called influent streams. Irrigation channels
function as influent streams andmany rivers which cross desert areas do so.
43
When the GWT is above water surface elevation in the stream, the ground water
feeds the stream, Fig. 4.7. Such streams are called effluent streams. The base flow
of surface streams is the effluent seepage from the drainage basin. Most of
the perennial streams are mainly effluent streams.
Intermittent and perennial streams. If the GWT lies above the bed of the
stream during the wet season but drops below the bed during the dry season, the
stream flows during wet season (due to surface runoff and ground water
contribution) but becomes dry during dry seasons. Such streams are called
intermittent streams.
(iv) Dicuss the various factors, which affect the runoff from a basin
SOLUTION
The various factors, which affect the runoff from a drainage basin depend
upon the following characteristics:
(a) Storm characteristics : Type or nature of storm and
season
Intensity
Duration
Areal extent (distribution)
Frequency
44
Antecedent precipitation
Direction of storm movement
Temperature
Humidity
Wind velocity,
Pressure variation
Size
Shape
Slope
Altitude (elevation)
Topography
Geology (type of soil)
Land use /vegetation
Orientation
Type of drainage net
Proximity to ocean and mountain
Ranges
Depressions
Pools and ponds / lakes
Stream
Channels
Check dams (in gullies)
Upstream reservoir /or tanks
Flood plains, swamps
Ground water storage in pervious
deposits (aquifers)
45
(v) What are the methods of estimating runoff from a catchment?
SOLUTION
The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following methods:
Empirical formulae, curves and tables
Infiltration method
Rational method
Overland flow hydrograph
Unit hydrograph method
Coaxial Graphical Correlation
QUESTION 6
A 4-hour rain of average intensity 1 cm/hr falls over the fern leaf type catchment
as shown in Fig. 4.10. The time of concentration from the lines AA, BB, CC and
DD are 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours, respectively, to the site 0 where the discharge
measurements are made. The values of the runoff coefficient C are 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7
for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd hours of rainfail respectively and attains a constant value
of 0.8 after 3 hours. Determine the discharge at site 0.
SOLUTION
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47
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