REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of related literature dealing with the topics

related on the study.

Estuary

Estuaries are zones where fresh water and salt water meets. The mixture of fresh

water and salt water is called brackish water. Some consider estuary as a part of a river

because it extends far up a river, away from the coast. It usually closed in a land and open

to the sea. The size of an estuary depends on the tidal range at the river mouth.

Just like any bodies of water, estuary is important. According to Fall (2001),

estuary is the most productive ecosystem because of its brackish mixture of water. Many

types of plants and animals that can adapt to brackish water rely on estuary for their

living. Estuary is a nutrient rich ecosystem so aquatic organisms rely here for food. It also

serves as a safe place to live, breeding ground, and a stopover for aquatic animals. As

stated earlier, estuary serves as a breeding ground thus, it can be considered as a site for

fishery.

In addition, different microenvironments comprise the estuary. In these

microenvironment there are many plants and animals who are dependent in the quality of

estuary. Various component of estuary such as biological, physical and chemical can

determine whether an estuary is a healthy ecosystem. Estuary functions holistically, that

means if one part of estuary changes the entire system is affected. Therefore, continuous

monitoring of estuary is important.

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Valle- Levinson (n.d.) mentioned that the most acceptable definition of estuary

was proposed by Cameron and Pritchard (1963). According to them an estuary is a semi

enclosed and coastal body of water, with free communication with to the ocean, within

which ocean water is diluted by freshwater derived from land. However, the above

definition of estuary applies only to classical or temperate estuaries and irrelevant for

arid, tropical, and subtropical basins.

Brackish water or the water coming from the estuary is typically less saline than

seawater about 1000 – 10,000 ppm (parts per million) in total dissolve solid (TDS).

Presence of high amount of salt in water increases the specific gravity, thus adding to the

potential for suspended sediments. Due to water scarcity or insufficient supply of

freshwater, some country desalinates brackish water to have an alternative supply.

Desalination has two methods; distillation and reverse osmosis. The National Ground

water Association (2010) said that more water managers consider brackish groundwater

as part of the mix of available water resources.

Heavy Metals

Stated by the IAC Company, there is no standardized definition for a heavy metal

thus, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry considered heavy metal as a

meaningless term. However, there are metals that are considered as heavy metals. These

metals are in high density or high in atomic weight. Heavy metals can be also referred as

a metallic pollutant.

Heavy metal found in the bodies of water is due to the industrialization and

wastes from factories. There are over 50 elements that are classified as toxic metals. 17 of

them are very toxic. According to APEC Water Systems young organisms are more prone
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to the toxic effects of heavy metals. Heavy metal toxicity is not only obtained in water

but also in air. Heavy metals can enter the environment by natural cycle. However,

contamination of heavy metal in water is a major problem since many organisms depend

on water for living.

Heavy metal and organic compounds are the general classes of pollutants in

estuaries. Bergstrom, Ohrel and Schultz (2006) stated that some of heavy metals in

minimal amount are for metabolic process. If these heavy metals are in high

concentration, it can be toxic. The sources of these toxins include industrial discharges,

discharge from sewage system plants, and runoff from lawn, farmlands, and streets.

Estuary’s sediment can be also a source since sediments contain years of deposited

toxins. Estuary can accumulate toxic substances from the atmosphere. Rain, snow and

even dry particles may contain mercury vapor and lead particles that can mount up in the

estuary. Lead, mercury and copper are the metals closely monitored because of their

adverse effect on human health. All toxins can affect the estuary’s biological structure,

thus, affecting plants, animals dependent in estuary. In return, humans are affected by this

phenomenon by exposure in contaminated water or by eating animals that had been

deposited toxin in their tissues.

Lead (Pb)

According to the Minnesota Department of Health, lead never normal part of our

body. It is found in the air, soil, dust and the paint of some homes or buildings built

before 1978. Being exposed to too much lead can cause serious health problems.

Common lead sources at home are the household dusts. The dust can contain lead from

deteriorated, interior lead-based paint or tracked-in, contaminated soil. It can enter the
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body through intake of food or breathing. Eating cracking, chipping and peeling lead-

based paint is also a lead source at home. Lead paint was used on the inside and outside

of homes built before 1978.

Lead contamination in soil is caused by deteriorated, exterior paint on homes,

buildings, or fences and as the result of past use of leaded gasoline. Lead can also be

found in the soil near major roadways or intersections in urban areas. When there is a

high amount of lead present on the soil, there is a possibility the plant can absorb it. Lead

on water system can be caused by lead pipes or copper pipes with lead solder.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (May 2014) stated that lead is transported

into surface water via a wastewater effluent from municipalities and industry, storm

water, runoff, erosion, and accidental discharges. Most lead in aquatic systems is stocked

in the sediments. In shallow system and influenced by land sources, resuspension may

play a role in water column concentrations. Several studies documented that there is an

increase in lead deposition in the industrial age, including leaded gasoline usage. Aquatic

biota can contain lead that may be derived from historic or current atmospheric

deposition in the watershed, from historic or current direct water discharges or from

natural sources. A 20-year record of lead concentrations in blue and zebra mussels and

oysters in U.S. coastal waters provides varying evidence on temporal trends that may

reflect patterns in site-specific environmental releases as well as other ecosystem impacts

on lead fate and transport over that period according to Kimbrough et al., (2008), cited by

U.S. EPA.
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Mercury (Hg)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (November 2009) stated that

Mercury is an element and a metal that is found in air, water, and soil. Mercury exists in

three forms: elemental (or metallic) mercury, inorganic mercury compounds, and organic

mercury compounds.

Elemental mercury is used in thermometer, dental amalgams, fluorescent light

bulbs, some electrical switches, mining, and some industrial processes. This mercury is

released in the air when coals and other fossil fuels are burned. Inorganic mercury is

produced when mercury combines with other elements such as sulfur or oxygen. It occurs

naturally in the environment. Organic mercury is formed when mercury combines with

carbon. During the food chain, microscopic organisms in water and soil can convert

inorganic mercury to organic mercury.

Exposure to mercury is caused by inhalation of air containing mercury vapor or

by eating seafood that might contain mercury. In the food chain, the primary consumer

(ex. small fish), are the one that passes the mercury to the secondary consumer (ex.

Tuna), and so on. Mijares (06 February 2016) stated that in food chain, as the secondary

consumer eats the primary consumer that contains mercury, the mercury level in the

secondary consumer will increase. Organisms have tolerance in mercury but, if the

organisms exceed in the mercury tolerance, it will cause an adverse effect on his health.

Inhalation of too much mercury vapor may cause in lung damage. Mercury exposure will

cause skin rashes, nervous damage, kidney abnormalities. Studies show that pregnant

women who are exposed in high amount of mercury, likely to develop a baby with

abnormalities.
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Rosario, Cavite

According to Barroquillo (2013), the main economic activity in Rosario, Cavite is

fishing because the municipality is surrounded by bodies of water and due to many

fishing ground. These fishing ground are found in barangay Wawa, Sapa, Muzon and

Ligtong. There are many products that are produced from fishing this include dried fish

(daing), fish paste (bagoong), fish sauce (patis) and the main product of Rosario is

smoked fish or tinapa. Rosario was once a small town in Cavite but now, it is developed

and became a big municipality.

From a rural and agricultural-based economy, Rosario envisioned to be a balanced

agricultural-commercial-industrial setup. Rosario Fish port located at barangay Sapa is

the major fish port of the province. Rosario aims to be self-efficient in fisheries, livestock

and agriculture production with the help additional infrastructure support like food

processing facilities, a fish market, cold storage and a fish port. The municipality’s

economy boosted because of the establishments proving its movement towards

urbanization.

Bioaccumulation

The term “bioaccumulation” is used as a general term used to describe the process

in which pollutants enter the diet of organisms that are part of the food chain. This

process is typically seen as unwanted phenomenon because of the possibility of some

substances especially heavy metals that can build up in the body of an organism as stated

by EuroChlor (2013). However, this phenomenon can be an essential process since it

allows organisms to absorb and store certain substances that are needed for their survival

such as trace elements, various vitamins, fats and amino acids.

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In addition, bioaccumulation is connected in the term “biomagnification”.

Biomagnification refers on the process wherein the substances are stored at a higher level

in predator than its prey. On the other hand, the term “bioconcentration” refers in the

uptake of substances of an organism from the water where it lives. In most instances of

bioaccumulation, substances obtained by an organism are stored in its fat tissues.

Moreover, substances that are hydrophobic or lipophilic are potentially bioaccumulative.

These substances when building up, does not depends on exposure but critically on the

extent that they are metabolized in the body and extent which they are excreted.

Substances that had been accumulated may have adverse effects in an organism.

However, these effects depend upon on the rates on which the substances were taken up,

distributed, metabolized or excreted by the organism.

Toxicology

Toxicology is a study where chemicals are involved. It also includes the

observing and reporting of symptoms, mechanisms, detection and treatments of toxic

substances. Toxicology means “arrow poison”. MedicineNet Inc. stated that

environmental agents and chemical compounds in nature also includes in toxicology.

Toxicology is useful especially in medical field because many organisms are prone to

have illness due to exposure to toxic materials.

Chemicals that are used commerce, home, environment, and medical practices

may present various types of harmful effects according to Dekant and Vamvakas (n.d.).

Toxicology studies the interaction between chemicals and biological systems to

determine the potential of chemicals to produce adverse effects in living organisms.

Research in toxicology is mainly concerned with determining the potential for adverse
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effects caused by chemicals, both natural and synthetic, to assess their hazard and risk of

human exposure.

AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy)

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy also called as Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

or Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry but known as AAS, is an analytical technique

that is widely used to determine the large numbers of heavy metals. Atomization is a

process wherein AAS is commonly implemented. Walsh and Alkemade in 1955, made

the first real application of atomic absorption to chemical analysis. The development of

AAS as an analytical tool was contributed by Walsh. The process AAS involves the

absorption by free atoms and can determine the concentration of metals. AAS is helpful

for the identification and quantitive determination of many elements present in the

samples. This technique is specific, so, individual heavy metal can be identified (Thermo

Fisher Scientific, 2008).

As stated by Levinson (n.d.), AAS is a sensitive technique that it can measure

down to parts per billion of a gram. It uses wavelength of light which the atom or element

absorb. There are three condition needed by the AAS, and these are: light source; sample

cell to produce gaseous atoms; and a means of measuring the specific light absorbed.

AAS has many uses in different areas of chemistry. This includes clinical analysis, the

analysis of metals in body fluids; AAS is used to determine amount of catalyst present in

the product in pharmaceutical; In mining, AAS is used to determine whether rocks are

worth it to be mined. For this study the use of AAS is for environmental analysis. It helps

to find out the levels of heavy metal in estuary.

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Cold Vapor AAS

According to Mijares (06 February 2016), mercury is not stable on higher

temperature therefore it does not uses flame instead cold vapor is used in order to

determine the concentration of mercury present on the sample. Cold vapor principle was

first proposed by Poluektov and co-workers in 1963 as stated by Hobbins and Shradder

(2010). In this process, an acidified solution containing mercury is reacted with stannous

chloride in a vessel external to the AA instrument. Ground state mercury atoms are

produced which subsequently are transported by an air or inert gas flow to an absorption

cell installed in the AA instrument. This method provides sensitivities approximately four

orders of magnitude than flame AAS.

Flame AAS

A few of more relevant discoveries for Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy was first

observed by Newton. The first quantitative analysis (of sodium) by flame emission was

made by Champion, Pellet and Grenier in 1873. In Flame AAS a source of pure light is

needed to excite the analytes without causing excessive instrumental noise. In atomic

absorption the function of the flame is to convert sample aerosol into atomic vapor which

can then absorb light from the primary light source. Atoms of different elements absorb

characteristic wavelength of light. By using AAS the amount of metals such as gold in

rocks can be determined to see whether it is worth mining the rocks to extract the gold A

lamp containing lead emits light from excited lead atoms that produce the right mix of

wavelengths to be absorbed by any lead atoms from the sample. The greater the number

of atoms present in the vapour the more radiation is absorbed. (Levinson, n.d)