food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463

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Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp

Chemical and technological properties of avocado

(Persea americana Mill.) seed fibrous residues

Enrique Barbosa-Martín a , Luis Chel-Guerrero a , Edith

González-Mondragón b , David Betancur-Ancona a,∗
a Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Periférico Norte Km. 33.5, Tablaje Catastral
13615, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo Inn, 97203 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
b Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca, Carretera a Acatlima Km. 2.5, 69000 Huajuapan de León, Oaxaca, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In industrial processing of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit only the pulp is used,
Received 22 June 2016 resulting in thousands of tons of seeds as a waste by-product. Chemical and techno-
Received in revised form 7 logical characterizations were done on fiber residues produced with one of two fiber
September 2016 extraction methods: Method A, using NaHSO3 ; and Method B, using NaHSO3 , NaCl and tris-
Accepted 23 September 2016 hydroxymethyl-aminomethane. Proximate composition, total, soluble and insoluble dietary
Available online 30 September 2016 fiber, acid and neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose
were determined. Also, technological properties were evaluated on fiber residues. The main
Keywords: results were: yield did not differ (p > 0.05) between methods (A: 45.63%; B: 48.11%), but they
Persea americana Mill. did differ (p < 0.05) in ash, moisture and nitrogen-free extract. The residues’ relatively high
Avocado seed proportions of soluble dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber and hemicellulose allowed them
Technological properties to retain four times their weight in water and six times their weight in oil. The properties of
Total dietary fiber avocado seed fibrous residues make them promising technological ingredients in industrial
Soluble dietary fiber food systems.
Insoluble dietary fiber © 2016 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction keted worldwide and processed into value-added products such as

Avocado Persea americana Mill. is a fruit tree native to Mesoamerica and
Central America, but is currently grown worldwide. A member of the
Lauracea family, mature trees can reach heights from 15 to 30 m. Its
fruit has a dark green, rugose rind that covers a yellow-green pulp
rich in oils that is appreciated for its sensory and nutritional charac-
teristics (Giffoni et al., 2009). The large seed accounts for an average of
15–16% of fruit weight. The pulp is a significant source of vitamins (D, E,
B6 , B12 and C), minerals as potassium, phosphorus, calcium, iron and
sodium (Dreher and Davenport, 2013), essential amino acids (valine,
lysine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, threonine and methionine)
and unsaturated fatty acids (oleic, linoleic and linolenic) (De Oliveira
et al., 2013).
Mexico is the leading avocado producer, accounting for approxi-
mately 38% of global production (Gutiérrez et al., 2010). Within Mexico,
the state of Michoacán is the primary producer. Avocado fruit is mar-
guacamole, puree, and oils, among other derivatives. These products
utilize only the pulp, leaving behind approximately 148,000 tons of
seeds as waste by-product (Gutiérrez et al., 2010). If not discarded prop-
erly, these pose a serious disposal challenge and can promote pest
vectors such as insects and rodents.
Avocado fruit seeds are a potential alternative fiber source. This
makes them a candidate for study as part of the current boom in iden-
tifying applications for vegetable by-products, such as dietary fiber
(Ceballos and Montoya, 2013). The major potential use in the food
industry of these tropical fruit by-products can be as food additives
as antioxidants, antimicrobials, colorants, flavorings, and thickener
agents. In addition, the complete utilization of fruits by-products could
lead the industry to a lower-waste agribusiness, increasing industrial
profitability (Ayala-Zabala et al., 2011).
Avocado seed fiber has possible biological and technological uses
(Mugdil and Barak, 2013). The seed is high in potassium and antioxi-

∗
Corresponding author. Fax: +52 9999460994.
E-mail address: bancona@correo.uady.mx (D. Betancur-Ancona).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2016.09.006
0960-3085/© 2016 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
458 food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463
dants, and is one of the best sources of dietary fiber. Has showed had
higher amounts of phenolic and a more intense in vitro antioxidant
potential than the than the edible portions (pulp) and the common
synthetic antioxidants as Trolox due to the content of tannins and
polyphenolic compounds within the seed (Rodríguez-Carpena et al.,
2011; Segovia-Goméz et al., 2014). Some phytochemical studies on avo-
cado seeds have identified various classes of natural products such as
saponin, phytosterols, triterpenes, fatty acids, furanoic acids, flavonol
dimers and proanthocyanidins. Some of them are related to antimi-
crobial, antifungal activities and larvicidal effects (Rodríguez-Carpena
et al., 2011; Giffoni et al., 2009). Pahua-Ramos et al. (2012) investigated
the effect of methanolic extract of avocado seed flour on the lipid levels
in mice on a hyperlipidemic diet and concluded that the antioxidant
activity of phenolic compounds and dietary fiber in avocado seeds may
be responsible for the hypocholesterolemic activity in a hyperlipidemic
model of mice.
Extracting dietary fiber from vegetable by-products provides an
opportunity to add value to primary production and mitigate the neg-
ative environmental impacts associated with their disposal (Ceballos
and Montoya, 2013). Dietary fiber has a number of reported biological
effects in humans, including early satiation (Kristensen and Jensen,
2011); retention/excretion of bile acids (Kristensen et al., 2012); gas-
trointestinal laxative (Jing et al., 2012); hypoglycemia (Post et al., 2012);
hypocholesterolemia (Hu and Yu, 2013); as well as prebiotic and car-
dioprotective properties (Slavin, 2013), among others. It also has useful
technological properties such as its capacity to improve softness in bak-
ery products (Mugdil and Barak, 2013) and as a potential emulsifier in
meat products (Ospina et al., 2011).
The present study objective was to better understand the poten-
tial of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) seed fiber produced using two
processing methods as an ingredient in food industry processes by
chemically and technologically characterizing it.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Persea americana Mill. seeds were obtained in the state of
Yucatan, Mexico. The fruits purchased from local market then
prepared in laboratory to obtain seeds. Impurities and dam-
aged seeds were removed. Reagents were analytical grade and
purchased from J.T. Baker (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA), Sigma Chem-
ical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA), Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) and
Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. (Hercules, CA, USA).
2.2. Seed powder preparation
Chopped avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill. cv. Hass) were
spread onto a tray and placed in an oven at 60 ◦ C until dry.
The chopped seeds were turned periodically to ensure uni-
form dryness. Later, the chopped seeds were finely ground
(20-mesh screen, 841 ␮m) using a Retsch® Ball Mill grinder
(Retsch GmbH, Germany) for 20 s. The resulting avocado seed
powder with 0.84 mm of average particle size was stored at
4 ◦ C until use.
2.3. Extraction of fiber residues
Avocado seed fibrous residues were produced by wet fraction-
ating the seed powder with two different processes. In the
first process (called method A), seed powder was suspended
in a sodium bisulphite solution (1500 ppm SO2 ) at a 1:5 (w/v)
ratio, and the suspension left to soak under constant agitation
a room temperature for 1 h (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016). The
suspension was sifted through an 80-mesh sieve (177 ␮m) to
retain a solid fraction containing the fiber residue and letting
a slurry fraction containing protein and starch (this fraction
is discarded). The fiber fraction was washed in distilled water
three times and then re-suspended in distilled water and cen-
trifuged at 1100 × g for 12 min (Mistral 3000i, Sanyo MSE, UK)
to recover the fiber after the final wash. This washed fiber frac-
tion was dried at 40 ◦ C in a convection oven for 12 h, weighed,
and milled in a Cyclotec (Tecator, Sweden) mill until it passed
through a 60-mesh screen (250 ␮m). It was stored at room tem-
perature in a sealed container.
The second process (called method B) was done according
to Kahn (1987). Seed powder was immersed in a solution con-
taining 2 mM Tris (pH 7.0), 7.5 mM NaCl and 80 mM NaHSO3
This suspension was wet-milled with a Kitchen-Aid® (Benton
Harbor, MI, USA) mill and the resulting slurry passed through
a 80-mesh sieve (177 ␮m). It was then washed twice with sol-
vent A to separate the fiber solids from the starch. The fiber
was oven dried at 40 ◦ C for 12 h and then milled in a Mykros
(Infraestructura Inteligente, Mexico) impact mill until passing
through a 60-mesh sieve (250 ␮m). The methods used (Kahn,
1987; Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016) raise the integral use of avo-
cado seeds. Both processes propose the use of reagents to
solubilize proteins and disperse of the starch granules for
obtaining the fibrous residues.
Chemical and technological characterizations were done
separately of the fiber fractions obtained from each extraction
method. All analyses were done in triplicate.
2.4. Fiber residue proximate composition
Standard AOAC (1997) methods were used to determine nitro-
gen (method 954.01), fat (method 920.39), ash (method 925.09),
crude fiber (method 962.09), and moisture (method 925.09)
contents in the fiber residues. Nitrogen (N2 ) content was
quantified with a Kjeltec Digestion System (Tecator, Höganäs,
Skåne län, Sweden) using cupric sulfate and potassium sulfate
as catalysts. Protein content was calculated as nitrogen × 6.25
to facilitate comparison with other sources, because there
is no specific conversion factor for avocado seed fibrous
residues. Fat content was obtained from a 1 h hexane extrac-
tion according to Soxhlet principle using a Soxtec System
(Tecator, Höganäs, Skåne län, Sweden). Ash content was cal-
culated from sample weight after burning at 550 ◦ C for 2 h.
Moisture content was measured based on sample weight loss
after oven-drying at 110 ◦ C for 2 h. Carbohydrate content was
estimated as nitrogen-free extract (NFE) by difference from the
sum of the protein, fat, ash and crude fiber contents.
2.5. Total dietary fiber (TDF), insoluble dietary fiber
(IDF) and soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
2.5.1. Total dietary fiber (TDF)
TDF content was measured with the gravimetric enzymatic
method (Prosky et al., 1988). Avocado seed fiber residue (1 g)
was weighed and 50 mL phosphate buffer (50.0 mM, pH 6)
was added. ␣-Amylase enzyme (0.1 mL, Sigma A-3306) was
incorporated and agitated at 60 rpm, 100 ◦ C for 15 min. Pro-
tease (0.1 mL, Sigma P-3910) was added and were agitated at
60 rpm, pH 7.5, 60 ◦ C, for 30 min. Amyloglucosidase (0.3 mL,
Sigma A-9913) was added and agitated at 60 rpm, pH 4.0, 60 ◦ C
for 30 min. Finally, 95% ethanol (v/v), preheated to 60 ◦ C, was
added at a 4 volume ethanol for one volume sample. This
sample was vacuum filtered into crucibles for dietary fiber at
constant weight, into which a 1 g cap Celite (Sigma C-8656)
had been previously placed. The residue remaining in the flask
 food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463
was washed three times with 20 mL of 78% ethanol, twice with
10 mL of 95% ethanol, and twice with 10 mL acetone. Protein
content (N × 6.25) and ash was quantified for residues.
[Residue weight (g) − protein (g) − ash (g)] × 100
TDF (%) =
Sample weight (g)
2.5.2. Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF)
The same method (Prosky et al., 1988) was used to quantify
IDF, but with omission of addition of 95% ethanol (v/v) at 1:4
(v/v).
2.5.3. Soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
This parameter was calculated as the difference between TDF
and IDF:
SDF (%) = TDF − IDF
2.6. Van Soest fiber components
2.6.1. Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
Avocado seed fiber residues were oven dried at 55 ◦ C. They
were then dried in 50 mL fritted glass crucibles overnight
at 100 ◦ C and hot weighed (W1). Fibrous residues (approx-
imately 1 g) were weighed (W2) into a Berzelius beaker.
100 mL of acid-detergent solution (20 g cetyltrimethylammo-
nium bromide—CTAB) in 1 L 1.0 N sulfuric acid was added
and heated to boiling for 10 min. It was then refluxed for
60 min from boil onset. The sample was filtered using minimal
vacuum and the beakers were washed using acid detergent
solution and boiling water to insure complete transfer of all
fiber particles into the crucible. This residue was rinsed twice
with 30–40 mL acetone. Finally, the fiber residue was dried
overnight at 100 ◦ C and weighed hot (W3). Percent acid deter-
gent fiber (ADF) was calculated as follows (Van Soest et al.,
1991; Segura-Campos et al., 2014a):
W3 − W1 × 100
%ADF (DM basis)
W2
where W1 = crucible tare weight in grams; W2 = initial sample
weight in grams; and W3 = dry weight of crucible and dry fiber
in grams.
2.6.2. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF).
Samples of avocado seed fiber residues (1 g) were processed
as above but with a volume of 100 mL neutral-detergent solu-
tion. This solution was prepared add 30.0 g sodium lauryl
sulfate, 18.61 g EDTA, 6.81 g sodium tetraborate decahydrate,
4.56 g sodium phosphate dibasic; and 10.0 ml triethylene gly-
col, in 1 L distilled water. The solution was stirred and heated
(50 ◦ C) to facilitate solubility and pH was adjusted to 6.9–7.1
(Van Soest et al., 1991; Segura-Campos et al., 2014a).
2.6.3. Acid detergent lignin (ADL)
Avocado seed fiber residues were processed as above for ADF,
but using a volume of 100 mL 72% H2 SO4 solution. The cru-
cibles containing samples were burned in a muffle furnace at
500 ◦ C for 2 h, and the crucible weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg
(W3) (AOAC, 1990).
2.6.4. Cellulose and hemicellulose
These parameters were calculated as follows:
Cellulose (%) = ADF (Cellulose, lignin, cutin)
−ADL (Lignin, cutin) .
459
Hemicellulose (%)
= NDF (Hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, cutin)
−ADF (Cellulose, lignin, cutin) .
2.7. Technological properties
2.7.1. Water-holding (WHC) and oil-holding capacity
(OHC)
Both these capacities were measured following Chau et al.
(1997) modified by Segura-Campos et al. (2014b). Avocado seed
fiber residues (1 g d.b.) was weighed out and stirred into 10 mL
distilled water or corn oil (Mazola, CPI International) for one
min. These fiber suspensions were centrifuged at 2200 × g
for 30 min and supernatant volume measured. Water-holding
capacity was expressed as kilograms of water retained per
kilogram of sample, and oil-holding capacity as kilograms
of oil retained per kilogram of fiber. Corn oil density was
0.92 g/mL.
2.7.2. Water absorption capacity (WAb C)
This property was determined according to AACC method
88-04 (1984) adapted by Segura-Campos et al. (2014b).
Approximate water absorption capacity (AWAC) was initially
measured by weighing out of avocado seed fiber residues
(2 g d.b.), adding water until saturated (approx. 40 mL) and
centrifuging at 2000 × g for 10 min. Excess water was dis-
carded and the residue weighed and AWAC was calculated.
Water absorption capacity (WAb C) was then confirmed by
placing samples in four tubes, adding different quantities of
water to bracket the measurement (1.5 mL and 0.5 mL water
above initial weight, and 1.5 mL and 0.5 mL water below initial
weight; one in each tube), agitating vigorously in a vortex for
2 min, and centrifuging at 2000 × g for 10 min (Beckman GS-15R
centrifuge). The supernatant was discarded and the residue
weighed. Average water absorbed was measured, WAb C cal-
culated, and expressed as kilograms of water absorbed per
kilogram of sample.
2.7.3. Water adsorption capacity (WAd C)
This property was determined according to Chen et al. (1984)
adapted by Segura-Campos et al. (2014b). Briefly, Avocado
seed fiber residues (1 g d.b.) was placed in an equilibrium
micro-environment at 98% relative humidity, generated by
placing 20 mL saturated potassium sulfate saline solution
in tightly sealed glass flasks and placing these in desicca-
tors at 25 ◦ C. The sample was left in the microenvironment
until reaching constant weight (72 h). Water adsorption capac-
ity was expressed as kilograms of water per kilogram of
sample.
2.8. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were done to identify the data’s central
tendency and deviations. One-way ANOVAs and a Duncan
statistics test (5% significance level) were run to evaluate
proximate composition, dietary fiber content and functional
properties. All analyses were done according to Montgomery
(2014) and implemented with the Statgraphics Plus ver. 5.1
software (Statpoint Technologies Inc., WA, USA).
460 food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463

Table 1 – Proximate composition (g/100 g sample) of avocado seed fibrous residues (ASFR) produced with two methods,
and whole Hass avocado seeds.
Component ASFR Method A ASFR Method B Hass avocado seeds (Bressani et al., 2009)

Moisture 9.05 ± 0.04a 9.99 ± 0.02b 7.66 ± 0.53

Crude protein 4.98 ± 0.05a 4.98 ± 0.03a 3.44 ± 0.03
Crude fat 2.17 ± 0.03a 2.14 ± 0.02b 5.52 ± 0.00
Crude fiber 5.98 ± 0.13a 6.25 ± 0.49b 3.98 ± 0.45
Ash 1.30 ± 0.03a 2.45 ± 0.16b 3.85 ± 0.03
Nitrogen-free extract 76.52 ± 0.13a 74.19 ± 0.23b 75.55 ± 0.56

Data are mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different superscript letters in the same component indicate statistical difference (p < 0.05).

3. Results and discussion Table 2 – Total, insoluble and soluble dietary fiber,
neutral and acid detergent fiber, lignin, hemicellulose
3.1. Fibrous component extraction and cellulose in avocado seed fiber residues (g/100 g
sample).
Fiber yield did not differ (p > 0.05) between methods: Component ASFR Method A ASFR Method B
45.63 ± 2.49% for Method A (NaSO3 ); and 48.11 ± 3.28% for
Total dietary fiber (TDF) 47.84 ± 0.78a
47.41 ± 0.14a
Method B (NaSO3 , NaCl and hydroxymethyl-aminomethane).
Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) 36.39 ± 0.18a 38.15 ± 0.59b
Either method can therefore be used to extract avocado seed Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) 11.08 ± 0.65a 9.25 ± 0.49b
fiber residues (ASFR). Considering that they produce the same Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 40.44 ± 0.48a 39.66 ± 0.64a
amount of fiber, Method A is preferable since it uses fewer Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 20.63 ± 0.39a 21.21 ± 0.24a
reagents, has consequently lower costs and generates fewer Acid detergent lignin (ADL) 12.99 ± 0.19a 13.47 ± 0.27a
potentially environmentally harmful effluents. The avocado Hemicellulose 19.81 ± 0.18a 18.45 ± 0.22b
Cellulose 7.64 ± 0.28a 7.74 ± 0.25a
seed is an example of tropical fruit by-products that have a
successful opportunity at the secondary process of extrac- Data are mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different superscript let-
tion of compounds and ingredients for food industry. The ters in the same component indicate statistical difference (p < 0.05).
integral use of agricultural by-product as avocado seeds is a
requirement and a demand that needs to be met by develop-
ing countries wishing to implement low-waste technology in
2012). To generate more accurate data on the fiber fraction,
their agribusiness (Ayala-Zabala et al., 2011).
total dietary fiber (TDF), soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insol-
uble dietary fiber (IDF) were quantified. No difference was
3.2. Chemical characterization observed between samples for TDF (p > 0.05), but they did differ
(p < 0.05) in terms of SDF (soluble hemicelluloses and pectins)
Proximate composition results showed the samples not to and IDF (cellulose and insoluble hemicelluloses). The SDF/IDF
differ (p > 0.05) in terms of fat, protein and fiber contents. ratio in samples processed with Method A was 0.304 and that
Differences (p < 0.05) were identified in ash, moisture and for samples processed with Method B was 0.242 (Table 2). TDF
nitrogen-free extract contents. Comparison of the present content found in the ASFR extracted in this study (47%) were
data to previously reported composition data for Hass avocado higher than those reported by Pahua-Ramos et al. (2012) in
variety seeds (Bressani et al., 2009), suggests that extraction avocado seed meal (34.8%). These authors claim that high
process modifies proximate composition (Table 1). dietary fiber content is of sufficient level to promote benefi-
Fat content in the ASFR was lower (Method A: 2.17%; cial health effects as a reduction of cholesterolaemia, changes
Method B: 2.14%) than that reported for Hass avocado pulp on the glycemic and insulinaemic responses, and antioxidant
(15.4%) (Dreher and Davenport, 2013) and seeds (5.52%) activity.
(Bressani et al., 2009). Avocado pulp has been touted as a good Available carbohydrates (AV) were estimated by difference
protein source, but the results showed the ASFR to have a (100 − weight in grams of moisture + protein + fat + ash + total
higher protein content (4.98%) than both Hass avocado pulp dietary fiber, in 100 g of fiber residues). AV contents were
(3.71%) and seeds (3.44%) (Bressani et al., 2009). Indeed, other 34.66 ± 0.25% and 33.11 ± 0.33%, for samples processed with
studies have reported even lower protein contents (1.2–2.1%) Method A or Method B, respectively. This available carbohy-
in Hass avocado pulp (Jacobo et al., 2013). Crude fiber content drate represents that fraction of carbohydrate that can be
in the ASFR was within the range reported for Hass avocado digested by human enzymes, is absorbed and enters into inter-
pulp (between 5.2% and 24.55%) (Ceballos and Montoya, 2013; mediary metabolism and they are available to provide energy
Bressani et al., 2009), but higher than reported for seeds of to body cells.
different avocado varieties (0.7% and 4.24%). The differences Since dietary fiber accounted for almost half of the ASFR
could be due to variability in agro-climatic conditions for grow- samples from either method, they could be used for their
ing of avocado fruit (Bressani et al., 2009). nutraceutical characteristics or as functional ingredients.
Their high IDF proportion (A: 36.39%; B: 38.15%) may pro-
3.3. Dietary fiber quantification vide the ASFR the physiological properties of this fiber type,
including increase of the fecal mass, improvement of intesti-
Values for crude fiber represent only an approximate per- nal transit (Mugdil and Barak, 2013), retention of bile acids
centage of fiber content, and provide no detailed information (Kristensen et al., 2012) and decreased serum cholesterol levels
on dietary fiber content, such as indigestible polysaccharides (Hu and Yu, 2013). The samples would also retain the physio-
(cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin) and lignin (Misurcová et al., logical properties of SDF (A: 11.08%; B: 9.25%), such as delayed
 food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463
gastric emptying and retention of soluble substances, among
others (Kristensen and Jensen, 2011).
Their high IDF contents also suggest use of the ASFR as
additives in food systems because this type of fiber modi-
fies characteristics such as texture or general acceptance in
different foods (Elleuch et al., 2011). For example, in cereal
products (pasta, bread, cakes and extrudates) IDF promotes
greater density increases nutritional value and improves and
functional characteristics (Foschia et al., 2013). In meat prod-
ucts, IDF can have positive impacts on texture by increasing
consistency and promoting formation of stronger structures
(Ospina et al., 2011). The SDF fraction is useful as a beverage
stabilizer (Dhingra et al., 2012) and for promoting freshness
and softness in baked products (Mugdil and Barak, 2013).
3.4. Van Soest fiber fractions
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin
and cutin), acid detergent fiber (ADF) (cellulose, lignin and
cutin) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) (lignin and cutin) con-
tents were quantified for the IDF fraction. These components
did not differ (p > 0.05) in either ASFR (Table 2). Cellulose and
hemicellulose contents were estimated in response to the
observed NDF, ADF and ADL contents. Cellulose levels did
not differ (p > 0.05) between methods A (7.64%) and B (7.74%),
but hemicellulose values were higher (p < 0.05) with method
A (Table 2). Comparison of the NDF:ADF ratios of the ASFR
(A: 1:0.51; B: 1:053) to a high SDF cereal such as oats (1:0.4)
(Savioli et al., 2000), showed the studied samples to have a
higher proportion of insoluble elements. In contrast, arrowleaf
sida (1:0.92) (Savón, 2002) has a much higher IDF content than
the ASFR, so much so that it is used as fodder. As mentioned
previously, IDF has a number of physiological properties all of
which provide it specific technological properties (Mugdil and
Barak, 2013).
The present ASFR samples had levels of different IDF com-
ponents that make them a promising element in food systems.
For example, hemicellulose can be used in baked products to
generate firmness and improve sensory acceptance (Hu et al.,
2009). Cellulose can be substituted for up to 50% of pork fat,
resulting in quality sausages with 45% less fat and 15% less
cholesterol (Campagnol et al., 2012). Lignins present a similar
behavior to hemicellulose and cellulose. Have many possible
applications in foods since their strong molecular bonds con-
fer them high resistance under extreme conditions, meaning
they are largely unaffected by high temperatures, among other
conditions (Dhingra et al., 2012).
3.5. Technological characterization
No significant differences (p > 0.05) between the fiber residues
produced with either method were observed for WAb C (3.18%
vs. 3.60%), WHC (4.13% vs. 4.03%), and OHC (6.37% vs. 6.22%).
Water adsorption capacity (WAd C) was higher (p < 0.05) in the
Method B residues (Fig. 1). All these are important properties
of dietary fiber sources, and are influenced by a fiber’s struc-
tural matrix, its IDF:SDF ratio, particle size, vegetal source and
extraction process (Zambrano et al., 2003).
Water holding capacity (WHC) is explained by two action
mechanisms: the physical interaction of water absorption
capacity (WAb C) and the chemical interaction of water adsorp-
tion capacity (WAd C). The soluble components of a fiber
residue’s SDF fraction (Table 2) and its protein content are
mainly responsible for WHC (Table 1). It is the interac-
461
7
6.37a 6.22a
6
5
4.13a 4.03a
g / g sample
4 3.60a
3.18a
3
2
0.54b
1 0.23a
0
WHC OHC WAbC WAdC
Method A Method B
Fig. 1 – Water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity
(OHC), water absorption capacity (WAb C) and water
adsorption capacity (WAd C) of avocado seed fiber residues
extracted with one of two methods. Data are
mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different superscript
letters in the same property indicate statistical difference
(p < 0.05).
tion between SDF compounds (pectin, gums and mucilages)
(Kristensen and Jensen, 2011) and proteins (Aminlari et al.,
2009), which have an affinity for soluble components, that
allows fibrous residues to hold four times their weight in water.
At the gastrointestinal level, water retention of this sort results
in increased bolus viscosity, possible greater fecal mass, early
postprandial satiety, as well as the trapping and removal of
soluble components such as glucose (Misurcová et al., 2012).
The fibrous residues produced with either method were
able to retain six times their weight in oil, due largely to their
high IDF contents (Table 2). Residue OHC was due to the affin-
ity of the IDF structure for oil components, and is expressed as
the bond between the residues and lipids such as cholesterol
and fatty and bile acids (Misurcová et al., 2012).
The physical and chemical effects of the ASFR SDF con-
tent, expressed as WHC, would allow their use in food systems
requiring water capture and retention, such as jams, jel-
lies, creams, ketchup and baked products. This is possible
because SDF increases system viscosity and stability, and dis-
perses more readily in water than IDF (Mugdil and Barak,
2013; Dhingra et al., 2012). The residues’ high WHC would
also make them potentially useful technological ingredients
in meat products, in which they could impart juiciness and
improve texture (Ospina et al., 2011). One limitation of the
studied ASFR is that their high OHC would cause an unpleas-
ant greasy sensation if used in fried products.
When compared to other high IDF content plant-origin
by-products, the ASFR studied here had notably high OHC
values (Method A: 6.37 g/g; Method B: 6.22 g/g). These were
clearly higher than values reported for pumpkin peel (3.75 g/g)
(Nyam et al., 2013), banana stem (2.68 g/g) (Jacometti et al.,
2015), banana peel (2.64 g/g) (Alarcón et al., 2013) and apple
pulp after processing for cider (1.69 g/g) (Cerda et al., 2015).
The OMAC values for the ASFR (Method A: 0.71 g/g; Method
B: 0.68 g/g) were similar to those reported for pumpkin shell
(0.74 g/g) (Nyam et al., 2013), but lower than those for banana
peel (2.33 g/g) (Alarcón et al., 2013).
4. Conclusions
The two tested fiber component extraction methods resulted
in avocado seed fibrous residues with similar chemical
and technological properties. No differences (p > 0.05) were
462 food and bioproducts processing 1 0 0 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 457–463

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Conflict of interest
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