UMIST Module 330 Design 3 UMIST Module 330 Design 3

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering H J Newbon page 1 Department of Civil and Construction Engineering H J Newbon page 2

Extracts from EC 2 : Design of Concrete Structures Table 2.3 : Partial Safety Factors (γm) for material properties
Material Symbol factor
2.1 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Concrete (γc) 1.50
P(1) A structure shall be designed and constructed in such a way that
- with acceptable probability, it will remain fit for the use for which it is required, having due regard to its Reinforcement (γs) 1.15
intended life and its cost, and
- with appropriate degrees of reliability, it will sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF LOADS (as referred to in 2.2.2.2 above)
execution and use and have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.
Imposed (Variable) Loads
P(2) A structure shall also be designed in such a way that it will not be damaged by events like explosions, impact or
consequences of human errors, to an extent disproportionate to the original cause. Examples of design loadings for floors in buildings
2.2 DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS occupancy class floor area useage load intensity concentrated BS 6399
2
(kN/m ) load (kN) Table
2.2.1 LIMIT STATES AND DESIGN SITUATIONS self-contained
Residential 1.5 1.4 5
2.2.1.1 Limit States are states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requirements. dwellings
They are classified into :
- Ultimate Limit States (ULS) : full or partial collapse, or other form of structural failure hotel bedrooms 2.0 1.8
- Serviceability Limit States (SLS) : loss of function, without structural failure. 4.0 for each metre of
Institutional stationery stores 9.0
Serviceability relates to those aspects of the structure which do not immediately affect its safety but adversely storage height 6
affect its appearance, efficiency or functionality, e.g. assembly areas
Deflections Vibrations Fatigue without fixed seating 5.0 3.6
Durability Fire resistance Weather resistance
Public assembly Stages 7.5 4.5 7
2.2.1.2 Design Situations are classified as :
- persistent situations corresponding to normal conditions of use of the structure Offices offices for general 2.5 2.7 8
- transient situations, e.g. during construction or repair use
- accidental situations.
Industrial Foundries 20.0 - 10
2.2.2 ACTIONS
factories, workshops 5.0 4.5
2.2.2.1 A Direct Action is a force or load applied to the structure.
An Indirect Action is an imposed deformation (e.g. due to temperature effects or settlement).
Vehicular car parks 2.5 5.0 12
Actions may also be classified as :
- Permanent Actions (G), e.g. the self-weight of the structure, fixed equipment, etc. Where a member (e.g. a column) carries more than one floor, the total imposed load on a member carrying several floors
- Variable Actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads, wind or snow loads. can be reduced as shown in the following table :
- Accidental Actions (A), e.g. explosions or impacts from vehicles.
number of floors (see note 1 1 2 3 4 5 to 10 over 10
2.2.2.2 Characteristic values of actions are basic values defined by the client or designer, or obtained from relevant
b l )
literature and design codes. % reduction (see note 2 below) 0 10 20 30 40 50
2.2.2.4 Design values of actions are the characteristic values multiplied by a partial safety factor taking into account
the possibility of relevant deviations and inaccuracies. Note: 1. Number of floors (including roof, if appropriate) carried by the member under consideration
2. Percentage reduction in the total imposed load from all floors carried by the member under consideration.
2.2.3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3. The above reductions apply only to imposed loads ( not dead loads).
2.2.3.1 Characteristic values are statistical values representing a particular property (e.g. strength) of the material and 4. The designer must ensure that it is appropriate to apply the above reductions. (e.g. it may not be appropriate
are obtained by testing and/or from relevant standards. to reduce the imposed load in a multistorey stationery warehouse)
2.2.3.2 Design values are the characteristic values divided by a partial safety factor taking into account the possibility Roof Loads (Refer to BS6399 : Part 3 : 1988)
of relevant deviations and inaccuracies.
Minimum imposed load on roof with access
2.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS Where access is provided to a roof, allowance should be made for an imposed load equal to or greater than that which
produces the worst load effect from one of the following:
2.3.1 GENERAL (a) the uniformly distributed snow load; or
(b) the redistributed snow load; or
P(1) It shall be verified that no relevant limit state is exceeded. 2
(c) a uniformly distributed load of 1.5 kN/m measured on plan; or
P(2) All relevant design situations and load cases shall be considered. (d) a concentrated load of 1.8 kN.
Where the roof is to have access for specific usages, the imposed loads for (c) and (d) above should be replaced by the
2.3.3 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
appropriate imposed floor load.
Table 2.2 : Partial Safety Factors (γf) for actions (Loads): Ultimate Limit State
Minimum imposed load on roof with no access
permanent load (γG) imposed load (γQ) Where no access is provided to a roof (other than that necessary for cleaning and maintenance), allowance should be
load combination Adverse beneficial Adverse beneficial Wind made for an imposed load equal to or greater than that which produces the worst load effect from one of the following:
permanent (a) the uniformly distributed snow load; or
+ imposed 1.35 - 1.50 0.0 - (b) the redistributed snow load; or
2
(c) a uniformly distributed load of 0.6 kN/m measured on plan for roof slopes of 30º or less; or a uniformly
permanent 2
1.35 1.0 - - 1.50 distributed load of 0.6 [(60 - ß)/30] kN/m measured on plan for roof slopes (ß) greater than 30º and less
+ wind than 60º; or zero load for roof slopes greater than 60º.
permanent + (d) a concentrated load of 0.9 kN.
imposed + wind 1.35 - 1.35 - 1.35
Note : For earth and water pressures, the partial safety factor should be taken as 1.35 Environmental Loads may include wind, snow, ice, marine growth, earth pressures, earthquakes, the effects of
temperature changes, etc.
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WIND LOADS (with reference to CP3 : Chapter V: Part 2)

Design procedure
1. Determine the basic wind speed (V) from the national map. (For Manchester, V = 45 m/s)
2. Determine the design wind speed (VS) by applying factors S1 to S4 as required.
VS (m/s) = V x S1 x S2 x S3 x S4
where S1 is a topography factor
S2 is a factor relating to ground roughness, building size and height above ground
S3 is a statistical factor which takes into account the acceptable degree of risk and the period of
exposure
S4 is a directional factor which depends on the orientation of the prevailing wind
(for further details of these factors, refer to the following sheet)
3. Determine the dynamic wind pressure (q)
2 2
where q (N/m ) = 0.613 x (VS)
4. Either apply pressure coefficients to q, to determine pressure variations around the building.
(Cpe = external pressure coefficient; Cpi = internal pressure coefficient)
Or apply a force coefficient (Cf) and/or drag coefficient (Cd) to obtain overall wind forces on the building.
The following tables are extracted from CP3 : Chapter V : Part 2
Topography factor S1
Topography Value of S1

A All cases except those in b and c below 1.0

Very expose hill slopes and crests where acceleration of the

B wind is known to occur. 1.1
Valleys shaped to produce a funnelling of the wind.
C Steep sided, enclosed valleys sheltered from all winds 0.9

Ground roughness, building size and height above ground, factor S2

Ground roughness category
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Height Class Class Class Class

(m) A B C A B C A B C A B C
up to 3 0.83 0.78 0.73 0.72 0.67 0.63 0.64 0.60 0.55 0.56 0.52 0.47
5 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.50
10 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.67 0.62 0.58
15 1.03 0.99 0.94 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.64
20 1.06 1.01 0.96 1.03 0.98 0.94 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.79 0.75 0.70
30 1.09 1.05 1.00 1.07 1.03 0.98 1.01 0.97 0.92 0.90 0.85 0.79
40 1.12 1.08 1.03 1.10 1.06 1.01 1.05 1.01 0.96 0.97 0.93 0.89
50 1.14 1.10 1.06 1.12 1.08 1.04 1.08 1.04 1.00 1.02 0.98 0.94
60 1.15 1.12 1.08 1.14 1.10 1.06 1.10 1.06 1.02 1.05 1.02 0.98

Note : ground roughness (1) open country with no obstructions

(2) open country with scattered wind breaks
(3) country with many windbreaks; small towns; outskirts of large cities
(4) surface with large and frequent obstructions, e.g. city centres

building classes A all units of cladding, glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings
B all buildings and structures where neither the greatest horizontal or vertical
dimension exceeds 50m
C all buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal or vertical dimension
exceeds 50m
Statistical factor S3
For most cases this factor is taken as 1.0.
Directional factor S4
If data regarding the prevailing winds is not available, this factor may be conservatively taken as 1.0.
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Internal pressure coefficients (Cpi)

Table 8. Pressure coefficients Cpe for pitched roofs of rectangular clad
buildings If the face of a building has a significant opening, the external pressure at the opening will be transferred to the interior of
the building. Where an opening occurs in the leeward face, the interior of the building may be subjected to a
corresponding suction. If the building has no internal walls, this suction will be applied to the internal face of the windward
Building height Roof Wind angle α= 0 Wind angle α= 90 Local Coefficients wall and will therefore be added to the positive external pressure on that wall.
ratio angle
It is therefore necessary to consider the possibility of dominant openings and their effects on the wind pressure
(degs) EF GH EG FH distribution.
Where dominant openings are unlikely to occur in severe wind conditions, the code suggests an internal pressure
0 -0.8 -0.4 -0.8 -0.4 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 coefficient of +0.2 or –0.3 (whichever causes the more onerous condition).
h b 0.5
w 5 -0.9 -0.4 -0.8 -0.4 -1.4 -1.2 -1.2 -1.0
10 -1.2 -0.4 -0.8 -0.6 -1.4 -1.4 -1.2 3.0 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
h
20 -0.4 -0.4 -0.7 -0.6 -1.0 -1.1 3.1 CONCRETE
w 30 0 -0.4 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -1.1 Tables 3.1 & 3.2 : Concrete Strength Classes
45 +0.3 -0.5 -0.7 -0.6 -1.1 Strength
60 +0.7 -0.6 -0.7 -0.6 -1.1 class C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
h
0.5 < w b 1.5 fck 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 -0.8 -0.6 -1 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0
5 -0.9 -0.6 -0.9 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 fctm 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
h 10 -1.1 -0.6 -0.8 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.2
Ecm 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.5 35.0 36.0 37.0
20 -0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -0.6 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -1.0
2
w 30 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8 -1.0 -1.0 All values shown are in N/mm .
45 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8 fck characteristic concrete cylinder compressive strength
C20/25 means C (cylinder strength) / (cube strength)
60 +0.6 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8
fctm mean value of axial tensile strength of the concrete
0 -0.7 -0.6 -0.9 -0.7 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 Ecm short-term secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete
1.5 < h
w
< 6.0 5 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0
10 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.2 3.2 REINFORCING STEEL
20 -0.8 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -1.2 Reinforcement is provided in a range of nominal diameters, as follows :
h 30 -1.0 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 (mm)
40 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.0
Larger diameters may be available for special requirements, but for most structural applications the maximum diameter
used is 32mm. Straight bars are usually manufactured to a maximum length of 12m.
w 50 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 Wind
60 +0.5 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 a y Two grades of reinforcement are generally used :
High-yield steel Round bars (usually with a ribbed surface) normally used as the main bars in beams, slabs and
y columns to resist flexure and axial loads.
2
Yield strength, fyk = 460 N/mm Notation : T25 = 25mm dia high-yield steel bar
Note 1. h is the height to eaves or parapet and w is the lesser horizontal F E
dimension of a building. Mild steel Plain round bars (normally not greater than 16mm diameter) mainly used for links and stirrups, since
y they can be bent to a relatively tight radius.
2
Note 2. The pressure coefficient on the underside of any roof overhang
H G Yield strength, fyk = 250 N/mm Notation : R16 = 16mm dia mild steel bar
should be taken as that on the adjoining wall surface
4.0 SECTION AND MEMBER DESIGN
Where no local coefficients are given the overall coefficients apply y = h or 1.5w, whichever is the lesser.
4.1 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS

4.1.3.3 Concrete cover

P(1) The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement (including links and stirrups)
and the nearest concrete surface.
P(2) A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure:
- the safe transmission of bond forces;
- that spalling will not occur;
- an adequate fire resistance;
- the protection of steel against corrosion.
P(3) The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends upon the continuing presence of a surrounding
alkaline environment provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-cured concrete. The thickness of
cover required depends both upon the exposure conditions and on the concrete quality.
P(4) The minimum concrete cover required for the criterion in P(3) above shall first be determined. This shall be
increased by an allowance (∆h) for tolerances, which is dependent on the type and size of structural element,
the type of construction, standards of workmanship and quality control, and detailing practice. The result is the
required nominal cover which shall be specified on the drawings.
P(6) The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement including links and stirrups should not be less than the
appropriate values given in Table 4.2, for the relevant exposure class defined in table 4.1.
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1.35Gk + 1.50Qk 1.35Gk

Table 4.1 : Exposure classes related to environmental conditions
( *a more conservative value may be used – see note below )
Exposure class Examples of environmental conditions

1 - dry environment - interior of buildings for normal habitation or offices

2 - humid environment
a - without frost - interior of buildings where humidity is high
- exterior components
- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water
alternate spans adjacent spans
b - with frost - exterior components exposed to frost * NB : CP110 specifies a minimum dead (permanent) load of 1.0Gk and in ‘sensitive’ cases EC2 (2.3.3.1(3))
- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water and recommends a minimum value of 0.9Gk
exposed to frost
- interior components when the humidity is high and exposed DESIGN STRENGTH CHECKS
to frost
BENDING

3 - humid environment with frost and de-icing salts - interior and exterior components exposed to frost and de- 4.3.1.2 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
icing agents P(1) In analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate resistance, the assumptions given below shall be used :
4 - seawater environment a - without frost - components completely or partially submerged in seawater (i) Plane sections remain plane.
or in the splash zone (ii) The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as that in the
surrounding concrete.
b - with frost - components partially submerged in seawater or in the splash (iii) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
zone and exposed to frost (iv) The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress-strain curve in either
Figure 4.2 or 4.3 of EC2.
The following classes may occur alone or in combination with the above classes: (v) The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the design curves in Figure 4.5 of EC2.
(viii) For cross-sections not fully in compression, the limiting compressive strain is taken as –0.0035.
5 - aggressive chemical a - slightly aggressive chemical environments (gas, liquid or
environment solid) (6) In the analysis of a cross-section which has to resist bending and only a small amount of longitudinal force, the
effect of the design ultimate longitudinal compressive force may be ignored if it does not exceed 0.08 fck times
b - moderately aggressive chemical environment (gas. Liquid or the cross-sectional area.
solid)
For a singly-reinforced section (i.e. with tension reinforcement only) subject to a design moment M, these assumptions
c - highly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid) are represented in the following diagram :

Table 4.2 : Minimum cover requirements for normal weight concrete

Exposure class, according to Table 4.1
1 2a 2b 3 4a 4b 5a 5b 5c
Minimum cover Reinforcement 15 20 25 40 40 40 25 30 40
(mm) Prestressing steel 25 30 35 50 50 50 35 40 50

P(9) For concrete cast against uneven surfaces, the minimum covers given in Table 4.2 should generally be increased
by larger allowances for tolerance. For example, for concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover
should be greater than 75mm; for concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover
should be greater than 40mm. Surfaces having design features, such as ribbed finishes or exposed aggregate,
also require increased cover.

The minimum cover must also be sufficient to satisfy any other criteria, e.g. fire resistance. EC2 (2.5.3.4.2) places limits on x which vary according to concrete class :
2
DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS either (a) for fck ≤ 35 N/mm , x ≤ 0.45d
2
(b) for fck ≥ 40 N/mm , x ≤ 0.35d
Calculation of maximum values of bending and shear (Patterned Loading) 2
At the limit for (a) with fck = 35 N/mm , x = 0.45d, so that z = d – 0.4 * (0.45d) = 0.82d
2.5.1.2 Load cases and combinations The ultimate moment at this limit, Mu =
2
0.167 fck * bd
P(1) For the relevant combination of actions, sufficient load cases shall be considered to enable the critical design Generally, x will be less than its limit, with z required for the calculation of As.
conditions to be established at all sections within the structure or party of the structure considered.
(4) For continuous beams and slabs in buildings without cantilevers subjected to dominantly uniformly distributed  0.882 M 
loads, it will generally be sufficient to consider only the following load cases :
z = d 0.5 + 0.25 − 
 bd 2 * fck 
(a) alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent load (γQ Qk + γG Gk); other spans carrying only
the design permanent load (γG Gk). BS 8110 stipulates an upper bound for z of 0.95d (in effect a lower limit for x).
(b) any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and permanent load (γQ Qk + γG Gk); all other spans M
carrying only the design permanent load (γG Gk). As =
0.87( f yk ) * z
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For a doubly-reinforced section (i.e. with both tension and compression reinforcement) is required when the design 4.3.2.4 Elements requiring design shear reinforcement
moment M exceeds the ultimate moment M u that can be carried by a singly-reinforced section without the limiting value of
x being exceeded. 4.3.2.4.1 General
2
Firstly, x is taken as its limiting value (0.45d for fck = 35 N/mm ), with z = 0.82d, as shown below. P(1) In beams, bent-up bars shall not be used as shear reinforcement except in combination with stirrups. At least
50% of VSd shall be resisted by vertical stirrups.
VRd2 = 0.3 . ν . fck . bw . d (where ν = 0.7 - fck / 200 and ν ≥ 0.5)
If VSd > VRd2, the section size should be increased.

4.3.2.4.3 Standard method

If VRd1 < VSd ≤ VRd2, shear reinforcement is required.
A sw 1.11 * ( VSd − VRd1 )
The area (Asw) and spacing (Sw) of the stirrups are given by : =
Sw 0.87 * f ykw * d

DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS (T-BEAMS AND L-BEAMS)

A flanged beam may be designed as a singly-reinforced rectangular section with effective width beff providing that the
neutral axis lies within the depth of the slab, i.e. x ≤ h
2.5.2.2.1 Effective width of flanges

Compression reinforcement at effective depth d’ carries a compressive force Ns’. Usually d’ is such that the compression b
reinforcement will have yielded at failure. Additional tension reinforcement also carries Ns’.
beff
(M − Mu )
0.87(fyk ' ) * (d − d' )
As’ = (tension / compression steel grades may differ)

h
The total area of tension reinforcement
Mu Ns ' Mu (M − Mu )
As =
0.87(f yk ) * z
+
f yk( ) =
0.87(f yk ) * z
+
( )
0.87 fyk * (d − d' )

SHEAR
bw b1 bw
4.3.2.2 Design method for shear
(1) The method for shear design is based on the following values of design shear resistance :
T-BEAM L-BEAM
VRd1 the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement
1
(3) The effective width for a symmetrical T-beam may be taken as : beff = bw + Lo ≤ b
VRd2 the maximum design shear force that can be carried without crushing of the notional concrete 5
compressive struts
1
4.3.2.3 Elements not requiring design shear reinforcement and for an edge beam (L-beam) : beff = bw + Lo ≤ b1 + bw
10
The maximum shear force that a section without shear reinforcement can carry may be checked at a distance d from the where Lo is the distance between points of zero moment and may be taken as follows:
face of a direct support and is given in EC2 as for a simply-supported beam : Lo = effective span
for the end-span of a continuous beam : Lo = 0.85 x (effective span)
VRd1 = [ τ Rd * k(1.2 + 40ρ 1 ) + 0.15 σ cp ] * b w d for an internal span of a continuous beam : Lo = 0.70 x (effective span)
Table 4.8 : Basic shear strength τ Rd (including a partial safety factor γ c = 1.5)
BOND AND ANCHORAGE OF REINFORCEMENT
2
fck (N/mm ) 20 25 30 35 ≥40
5.2.2.2 Ultimate bond stress
τ Rd (N/mm ) 2 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41
P(1) The ultimate bond stress shall be such that no significant relative displacement between the steel and concrete
depth factor k = 1, where d ≥ 0.6m or more than 50% of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed. occurs under service loads, and that there is an adequate safety margin against bond failure.
k = (1.6 – d) elsewhere, with d in metres
(2) In conditions of good bond, the design values for the ultimate bond stress fbd are given in table 5.3. In all other
As cases (e.g. in the upper part of slabs over 250mm thick) the tabulated values should be multiplied by 0.7
steel ratio ρ1 = (where As extends at least an anchorage length beyond the section considered)
bwd Table 5.3 : Design bond stress ( fbd = fbk /1.5 )
and ρ 1 ≤ 0.02 fck 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

N Sd plain round bars

axial stress σ cp = (normally zero, except in columns) fyk = 250 N/mm2 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Ac
high bond bars (φ ≤ 32mm)
If the design shear force VSd ≤ VRd1, designed shear reinforcement is not required. However, shear reinforcement should 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3
fyk = 460 N/mm2
be provided for all beams (except those of minor importance, such as lintels with a span of 2m or less) and EC2 specifies
minimum amounts of shear reinforcement that should be provided in any event.
5.2.2.3. Basic anchorage length
For a slab, if VSd ≤ VRd1, no shear reinforcement is required. (If VSd > VRd1, the slab thickness should be increased.)
P(1) The basic anchorage length ( Lb ) is the straight length required for anchoring the force (As fyd) assuming
constant bond stress equal to fcd.
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(2) The basic anchorage length required for the anchorage of a bar of diameter φ is given by: The relevant provisions of 5.4.3. may be summarised as :
a) Main bending reinforcement in slabs should be spaced at ≤ 3h and ≤ 500mm.
 φ   f yd  b) Secondary reinforcement of at least 20% the area of the main reinforcement should be spaced at ≤ 3h and ≤
L b =   ⋅  
 where fyd = fyk /1.15
 4   fbd  500mm.
5.2.3.4 Required anchorage length (2) Where at least the minimum reinforcement given by 4.4.2.2 is provided, the limitation of crack widths to
 A s,req  acceptable values and avoidance of uncontrolled cracking between widely-spaced bars may generally be
The required anchorage length L b,net = α a ⋅ Lb ⋅   ≥ L b,min achieved by limiting bar spacings and/or bar diameters. Tables 4.11 and 4.12 below are designed to ensure that
 A s,prov  crack widths will not generally exceed 0.3mm for reinforced concrete.
 
coefficient α a = 1 for straight bars; 0.7 if the side cover to a bent bar in tension ≥ 3φ. Tables 4.11 & 4.12 : Maximum diameter ( φ ) and
Lb,min = 0.3lb, ≥ 10φ, for tension anchorages spacing for high bond bars Note* the service stress should be evaluated for
Llb,min = 0.6lb, ≥ 100mm, for compression anchorages max. spacing the characteristic dead load + a proportion of
service stress* φ max.
( mm ) the characteristic imposed loads :
Anchorages may be straights, bends, hooks or loops. Straights should be used for compression anchorages, but ( N/mm2 ) ( mm )
0.2 - for dwellings
straights or bends should not be used to anchor smooth bars in tension with φ > 8mm. 160 0.3 - for offices
32 300
At a simple support at least 50% of the span reinforcement must be continued to provide an anchorage. 0.6 - for car parks
200 25 250
0.0 - for snow or wind loads
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT AREAS IN BEAMS 240 20 200
For beams ≥ 1m deep, additional longitudinal
5.4.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement 280 16 150 reinforcement to the sides is required to
320 12 100 control cracking. There are also restrictions
(1) The effective cross-sectional area of the longitudinal tensile reinforcement (As) should not be less than : on shear link spacing in beams which ensure
0.6 bd 360 10 50 that diagonal cracking between the links is
As ≥ and As ≥ 0.0015 b.d (whichever gives the greater value) not excessive.
f yk 400 8 -
For a flanged beam, only the width of the web (bw) is taken into account.
(2) The cross-sectional area of the tension reinforcement (As)and of the compression reinforcement (As’) should not 4.4.3 LIMIT STATES OF DEFORMATION (DEFLECTION)
be greater than 0.04 Ac (except at laps). 4.4.3.1 Basic considerations
5.4.2.2 Shear reinforcement P(1) The deformation of a member or structure should not be such that it adversely affects its proper functioning or
(5) The shear ratio is given by : Table 5.5 : Minimum values of ρ w appearance.
A sw
ρw = Concrete strength Steel grade P(2) Appropriate limiting values of deflection taking into account the nature of the structure, of the finishes, partitions
S w .b w . sin α and fixings and upon the function of the structure should be agreed with the client.
class 250 460
where
Asw = the total area of the stirrup(s) C12/15 & C20/25 0.0015 0.0008 P(5) The appearance and general utility of the structure may be impaired when the calculated sag of a beam, slab or
Sw = the spacing of the stirrups cantilever subjected to the quasi-permanent loads exceeds [span/250].
C25/30 & C35/45 0.0022 0.0012
bw = is the breadth of the web of the beam P(6) Deflections may cause damage to partitions, to members attached to, or in contact with the member considered,
sin α = 1.0 for vertical stirrups C40/50 & C50/60 0.0028 0.0014 and to fixtures or finishes, if the calculated deflection occurring after construction of the elements which could
suffer damage is excessive. An appropriate limit will depend upon the nature of the elements which could suffer
damage but, as a guide, a limit of [span/500] is considered reasonable for most circumstances.
DESIGN SERVICEABILITY CHECKS
4.4.3.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted
4.4.2 LIMIT STATES OF CRACKING
P(1) Generally, it is not necessary to calculate the deflection explicitly as simple rules, such as limits to span/depth
4.4.2.1 General considerations
ratio may be formulated which will be adequate for avoiding deflection problems in normal circumstances. More
P(1) Cracking shall be limited to a level that will not impair the proper functioning of the structure or cause its rigorous checks are necessary for members which lie outside such limits or where deflection limits other than
appearance to be unacceptable. those implicit in simplified methods are appropriate.
P(2) Cracking is almost inevitable in reinforced concrete structures subject to bending, shear, torsion or tension (2) Providing reinforced concrete beams or slabs in buildings are dimensioned so that they comply with the limits of
resulting from either direct loading or restraint of imposed deformations. span to depth given in this clause, their deflections should not normally exceed the limits set out in 4.4.3.1.(5)
and (6).
4.4.2.2 Minimum reinforcement areas
Table 4.14 : Basic ratios of span/effective depth for reinforced
A ct concrete members without axial compression
Equ.(4.78) A s ≥ k c ⋅ k ⋅ fct,eff ⋅
σs Structural System Concrete Concrete
highly lightly These values provide a useful
where kc = 0.4 for a section in pure bending, 1.0 for a section in pure tension. stressed stressed guide in determining an initial
k= 0.8 where cracking is due to normal loading, shrinkage or early-age thermal contraction, (0.5
1. Simply supported beam, one or two-way 18 25 depth of the beam or slab for
where h ≥ 800mm) and 1.0 where due to imposed deformations (e.g. foundation settlement).
spanning simply-supported slab use in further calculations.
fct,eff is the concrete tensile strength at the time when cracking is expected to occur, with an upper limit of 3
2 However, they may need to be
N/mm . modified to take into account
2. End span of continuous beam or one-way 23 32
Act is the area of concrete within the tension zone.
continuous slab or two-way spanning slab any special considerations, e.g.
σs is the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after cracking of the concrete (σs ≤ continuous over one long side very large spans where applied
fyk) finishes or partitions are
3. Interior span of beam or one-way or two-way 25 35 sensitive to excessive
4.4.2.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation spanning slab deflections. Alternatively, it may
(1) For reinforced slabs in buildings subjected to bending without significant axial tension, measures specifically to 4. Slab supported on columns without beams (flat 21 30 be necessary to carry out a
control cracking are not necessary where the overall depth does not exceed 200mm and the provisions of 5.4.3 slab) - based on longer span rigorous analytical check of the
have been applied. deflection.
5. Cantilever 7 10
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4.4.3.3 Checking deflections by calculation α is a factor to take into account the restraint conditions at the remote end of the beams:
α = 1.0 : opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained
P(1) Where a calculation is deemed necessary, the deformation shall be calculated under load conditions which are
appropriate to the purpose of the check. α = 0.5 : opposite end free to rotate
α = 0.0 : for a cantilever beam
P(2) The calculation method adopted shall represent the true behaviour of the structure under relevant actions to an
accuracy appropriate to the objectives of the calculation. Figure 4.27 : Nomogram for the calculation of the effective length
(3) Appendix 4 of EC2 gives further information on the calculation of deflections.

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

SWAY AND NO-SWAY FRAMES
A structural frame which induces significant secondary effects is defined as a sway frame. From 4.3.5.3.3 (3), 'frames
may be classified as no-sway if the first-order displacements of the connections do not increase the effects of actions
calculated without considering these displacements by more than 10%' (i.e. if the secondary effects are not more than
10% of the first-order effects).
This is stated more clearly in 4.3.5.1.P(5) : In compression members, the influence of second order effects should be
considered if the increase above the first order bending moments due to deflections exceeds 10%.
In general, an individual column may be considered to be braced (and therefore non-sway) if the bracing element or
system is sufficiently stiff to resist at least 90% of all lateral forces.
COLUMN DESIGN
4.3.5.6 Simplified design methods for isolated columns
4.3.5.6.1 General
(1) For buildings, a design method may be used which assumes the compression members to be isolated and
adopts a simplified shape for the deformed axis of the column. The additional eccentricity is then calculated as a
function of the slenderness.
4.3.5.6.2 Total eccentricity
(1) The total eccentricity attributed to columns of constant cross-section (concrete and steel, ignoring laps) in the
most heavily stressed section (critical section) is given by :
(a) First order eccentricities, equal at both ends
etot = e0 + ea + e2 where eo = first order eccentricity = MSd1 / NSd
MSd1 = first order applied moment
NSd = applied longitudinal force
ea = additional eccentricity due to geometrical imperfections
e2 = second order eccentricity, related to column slenderness.
(b) Where the first order eccentricities are different at both ends
For columns of constant cross-section (concrete and steel, ignoring laps) subjected to first order moments (2) Isolated columns are considered slender if the slenderness ratio λ of the column considered exceeds 25 or
varying linearly along their length and having eccentricities at their ends which differ in value and/or sign, an 15/√(νu), whichever is the greater.
equivalent eccentricity ee should be used instead of eo for the critical section. where λ = Lo / i
The equivalent eccentricity ee can be taken as the higher of the following values : Lo = effective height or length of the column
i = radius of gyration of the column section = √(Icol/Ac)
ee = 0.6 . eo2 + 0.4 . eo1 νu = the longitudinall force coefficient for the column
ee = 0.4 . eo2 where eo1 and eo2 denote the first order eccentricities at the two ends and i.e. νu = NSd / (Ac . fcd)
eo2 ≥ eo1 NSd = applied longitudinal force along column axis
Both ea and e2 are dependent upon the effective length of the column. Ac = gross area of column
fcd = concrete design strength = fck / 1.5
4.3.5.3.5 Slenderness of isolated columns
If the slenderness ratio is less than the above value, then the column is defined as short and secondary effects need not
(1) For buildings, the effective height or length of a column Lo = β . Lcol can be determined by means of Figure 4.27 be considered.
in which the coefficients kA and kB denote the rigidity of restraint at the columns ends.
4.3.5.4 Imperfections
Note : The effective length Lo of the column is defined as "the length at which a pin-ended strut would be affected by
slenderness to the same extent as the column under consideration". P(1) Allowance shall be made in the design for uncertainties associated with the prediction of second order effects
Lcol is the height of column measure between idealised centres of restraint. and, in particular, dimensional inaccuracies and uncertainties in the position and line of action of the axial loads.
kA and kB are ratios of column-to-beam stiffnesses at the top and bottom of the column. In the absence of other adequate provisions, this may be achieved by the use of equivalent geometrical
imperfections.

kA (or kB) =
∑E cm ⋅ (I col / L col ) (3) For isolated elements, the equivalent geometrical imperfections may be introduced by increasing the eccentricity
∑E cm ⋅ α ⋅ (Ib / L eff ) of the longitudinal force by an additional eccentricity ea, acting in the most unfavourable direction.
ea = ν . Lo / 2 where ν is the greater of 1/200 or 1/(100√L)
where Ecm = modulus of elasticity of the concrete (for each individual beam or column) L is the total height of the structure in metres
Icol, Ib = second moment of area (gross section) of the column or beam respectively
Leff = effective span of beam
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4.3.5.5.3 COLUMN DESIGN CHARTS

(2) Isolated columns in non-sway structures need not be checked for second order effects if the slenderness ratio λ
is less than or equal to λcrit even though the columns may be classified as slender by 4.3.5.3.5 above.
where λcrit = 25 . (2 - eo1 / eo2)
However, in this case the first order column moments should not be less than NSd . h / 20
where h is the column dimension in the direction of bending.
In general, the slenderness ratio should not exceed 140.
Second order effects due to slenderness - e2
4.3.5.6.3 Model column method
(2) A model column is a cantilever column which is
- fixed at the base and free at the top
- bent in simple curvature under loads and moments which give the maximum moments at the base
The maximum deflection, which equals the second order eccentricity e2 of such a column may be assumed to be
K 2 ⋅ (L o ) 2 ⋅ f yk
e2 =
1035000 ⋅ d
K2 is a modification factor to take account of the strain conditions in the section and is given by :
Nud − N Sd
K2 = ≤ 1.0
Nud − Nbal
where Nud is the design ultimate capacity of the section when subject to axial load only
Nud may be taken as 0.567 . fck . Ac + 0.87 . As . fyk
Nbal is the axial load which, when applied to the section, maximises its ultimate moment capacity.
Nbal may be taken as 0.267 . fck . Ac
d is the effective depth of the cross-section in the expected direction of failure.
Ac is the area of concrete
As is the area of reinforcement
It will always be conservative to assume that K2 = 1.0
Alternatively it may be found iteratively taking an initial value of K2 = 1.0
Separate checks should be made for both axes of rectangular columns.
COLUMN DESIGN LOADS
The total eccentricity for which the column section is to be designed is given by :
etot = (eo + ea + e2)
The axial load NRd and bending moment MRd for which the column section is to be designed is therefore given by
NRd = NSd MRd = NSd . etot
COLUMN DESIGN
The clauses in EC2 used previously in the Ultimate Limit State design of beams in bending are also relevant to the design
of columns :
4.3.1.2 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
P(1) In analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate resistance, the assumptions given below shall be used :
(i) Plane sections remain plane.
(ii) The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as that in the
surrounding concrete.
(iii) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
(iv) The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress-strain curve in either
Figure 4.2 or 4.3 of EC2.
(v) The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the design curves in Figure 4.5 of EC2.
(vii) For cross-sections subject to pure longitudinal compression, the compressive strain in the concrete is
limited to –0.002. Rectangular columns (d’/h = 0.15)
(viii) For cross-sections not fully in compression, the limiting compressive strain is taken as –0.0035. In
intermediate situations, the strain diagram is defined by assuming that the strain is –0.002 at a level 3/7 of
the height of the section from the most compressed face.
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BIAXIAL BENDING OF RECTANGULAR COLUMNS

5.4.1.2.2 Transverse reinforcement
There are a number of approximate methods of dealing with columns which have applied bending about two axes. The (1) the diameter of the transverse reinforcement (links, loops or helical spiral reinforcement|) should not be less than
following is taken from CP110 (but using EC2 notation). 6mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars, whichever is greater; the diameter of the
wires of welded mesh fabric for transverse reinforcement should not be less than 5mm.
A section may be designed for bi-axial bending by checking that the resulting design satisfies the equation :
αn
(2) The transverse reinforcement should be adequately anchored.
αn
M x  M 
+ y ≤ 1.0 (3) The spacing of the transverse reinforcement along the column should not exceed the lesser of the following
 Mux   M uy  three distances :
- 12 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
where Mx & My are the moments due to ultimate loads, about the major and minor axes respectively - the least dimension of the column
Mux is the maximum moment capacity, assuming ultimate axial load NSd and bending about the major - 300mm.
axis only (4) The spacing should be reduced by a factor of 0.6 :
Muy is the maximum moment capacity, assuming ultimate axial load NSd and bending about the minor (i) in sections located above and below a beam or slab over a height equal to the larger dimension of the
axis only column cross-section,
(ii) near lapped joints, if the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars is greater than 14mm.
αn is related to NSd / N ud as given in the following table :
(6) Every longitudinal bar (or group of longitudinal bars) placed in a corner should be held by transverse
NSd / Nud αn
reinforcement.
Note : In addition to the above, CP110 requires that links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate bar or
≤ 0.2 1.00 group in an outer layer of reinforcement is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an included
0.4 1.33 angle of not more than 135°. All other bars or groups within a compression zone should be within 150mm of a
restrained bar.
0.6 1.67
≥ 0.8 2.00

where NSd is the design axial load on the column

PAD FOUNDATIONS
Nud = 0.567 . fck . Ac + 0.87 . fyk . As
Definitions
Ac is the cross-sectional concrete area
Gross loading intensity The total pressure on the ground beneath the foundation after the structure has been
As is the area of the longitudinal reinforcement erected and fully loaded.
fck is the characteristic strength of the concrete Overburden pressure The total pressure due to the weight of both soil and water acting on any plane at or
fyk is the characteristic strength of the reinforcement below the foundation level before construction operations commence.
Net loading intensity Net increase in pressure on the ground beneath the foundation due to the dead
(permanent) load and live (variable) loading applied to the structure.
DETAILING ARRANGEMENTS i.e. (net loading intensity) = (gross loading intensity) - (overburden pressure)
In order to satisfy the design requirements of EC2, the following rules related to detailing arrangements should be Ultimate bearing capacity the value of gross loading intensity at which the ground fails in shear.
satisfied :
Allowable bearing capacity The maximum design value of net loading intensity appropriate to the particular type
5.4.1 COLUMNS of ground and foundation, taking into consideration the ultimate bearing capacity,
estimated amount and rate of settlement that will occur, and the ability of the structure
This clause deals with columns for which the larger dimension is not greater than 4 times the smaller dimension.
to accommodate settlement.
Note : When the larger dimension is greater than 4 times the smaller dimension, the member is classified as a wall.
DESIGN OF PAD FOUNDATIONS
5.4.1.1 Minimum dimensions
There are two stages to the design:
(1) The minimum permissible transverse dimension of a column cross-section is
1. Bearing capacity to ensure that the foundation is of sufficient size so that the allowable bearing capacity
- 200mm for columns of solid section, cast in-situ (vertically)
is not exceeded.
- 140mm for precast columns cast horizontally.
2 Structural design to ensure that the foundation is strong enough to resist the internal stresses (bending
5.4.1.2 Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
and shear) imposed by the applied loads.
5.4.1.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
1. Bearing Capacity (Serviceability Limit State)
(1) Bars should have a diameter of not less than 12mm.
Since the allowable bearing capacity is determined by considerations of settlement, it is governed by serviceability criteria
(2) The minimum amount of total longitudinal reinforcement As,min should be derived from the following condition : and is therefore based on corresponding load factors,
0.15 ∗ N Sd i.e. design load = 1.0 . Gk + 1.0 . Qk where Gk = permanent (dead) load
A s,min = ≥ 0.003 A c
f yd Qk = variable (live) load
N.B. In the majority of cases, where the foundation is below ground level, the self-weight of the foundation can be
where fyd is the design yield strength of the reinforcement ignored since it is similar to the weight of soil it has displaced.
NSd is the design axial compression force In many cases the foundation has an axial load and an applied bending moment, and the maximum and minimum
Ac is the cross-sectional area of the concrete foundation pressures are determined by:
N M
(3) Even at laps, the area of the reinforcement should not exceed the upper limit of 0.08Ac σ= ±
A W
(4) The longitudinal bars should be distributed around the periphery of the section. For bars having a polygonal
cross-section, at least one bar shall be placed at each corner. For columns of circular cross-section the minimum where N = applied axial load A = plan area of foundation
number of bars is 6. M = applied bending moment W = first moment of area (section modulus)
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If the moment is increased, the minimum pressure will decrease to zero and the pressure distribution will become
triangular.
c) Design for Punching Shear
The applied axial load and moment are equivalent to a resultant eccentric load,
where the eccentricity (e) = M / N 4.3.4 PUNCHING

For compatibility and equilibrium, the "volume" of the pressure diagram must be equal to the applied load and the centroid 4.3.4.1 General
of the pressure diagram must lie on the line of action of the resultant eccentric load. P(1) The principles and rules given in this section complement those given in 4.3.2 (shear – see previous notes).
If the applied moment is increased still further, the eccentricity of the resultant load (and the centroid of the pressure They are concerned with punching shear in slabs containing flexural reinforcement determined according to
4.3.1 (bending – see previous notes); they also cover punching shear in foundations and waffle slabs with a solid
diagram) moves away from the centre-line of the foundation, and part of the foundation is subject to uplift (since it must
be assumed that the underside of the foundation cannot develop negative pressure or suction). The foundation remains section around the loaded area.
stable as long as the equilibrium conditions are maintained and the maximum pressure does not exceed the allowable P(2) Punching shear may result from a concentrated load or reaction acting on a relatively small area, called the
value. ‘loaded area’, of a slab or of a foundation.

2. Structural Design (Ultimate Limit State) P(4) The shear resistance shall be checked along a defined critical perimeter. Outside the critical perimeter the slab
has to satisfy the requirements of section 4.3.2.
The following factors are considered in the structural design of the foundation:
(9) The amount of longitudinal tensile reinforcement in two perpendicular directions, x and y should be greater than
a) Flexure the critical section is at the face of the column 0.5%, calculated allowing for any differences in effective depth in the two directions.
b) Shear the critical section is at a distance d from the face of the column, 4.3.4.2.2 Critical perimeter
where d is the effective depth of the foundation slab.
(1) The critical perimeter for circular or rectangular loaded areas located away from unsupported edges is
c) Punching shear the critical section is at a distance of 1.5d from the face of the column defined as a perimeter surrounding the loaded area and at a defined distance from it. It is assumed to be
1.5d.
For Ultimate Limit State calculations, the ground bearing pressure (i.e. ground reaction) has to be converted to an
equivalent Ultimate Load. 4.3.4.3 Design method for checking punching shear
a) Design for Flexure (1) The method for punching shear design set out in the following sections is based on three values of the design
(N.B. where possible, pad foundations should be designed as singly-reinforced, i.e. if necessary, the depth should be shear resistance at the critical perimeter :
increased to suit.) VRd1 - the design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab without shear
reinforcement
z 0.882 M VRd2 - the maximum design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab with shear
= 0.5 + 0.25 − reinforcement.
d bd 2 * fck VRd3 - the design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab with shear reinforcement.
As noted previously, z should not exceed 0.95d (2) No shear reinforcement is required if VSd ≤ VRd1
M (3) If VSd exceeds VRd1, shear reinforcement or other forms of shear connector, where their application can be
∴ As =
0.87(f yk ) * z justified, should be provided such that VSd ≤ VRd3
(4) In the case of a concentrated load or support reaction, the applied shear per unit length is
Bending in transverse direction
VSd ⋅ β
Note that the bending of the foundation occurs in both directions (irrespective of the bending in the column) and the v Sd = where
u
transverse direction must also be checked for flexure.
VSd is the total design shear force developed. In a slab this is calculated along the perimeter u. For a
Refer to the pressure diagram above. In this case, for any transverse section the pressure across the section will be
foundation this is calculated along the perimeter of the base of the truncated punching shear cone,
constant but its value will vary depending on the position at which the section is taken. Some judgement may be required
assumed to form at 33.7° (to the horizontal), provided this falls within the foundation. (Note that the
as to a suitable value, but a conservative solution is to assume the mean value used in the main direction.
cotangent of 33.7° = 1.5)
Anchorage
u is the perimeter of the critical section
It is particularly important to check the reinforcement for anchorage. If required, additional anchorage can be achieved by
providing a 90° bend in the bar, with a vertical leg at the edge of the foundation. β is a coefficient which takes account of the effects of eccentricity of loading. In cases where no
eccentricity of loading is possible, β may be taken as 1.0. In other cases, the values given in figure
b) Design for Shear
4.21 may be adopted. Based on a more rigorous analysis, other values of β may be used, when
Refer to EC2 clauses re. shear in previous notes. In addition : associated with appropriate methods of ensuring the anchorage of the reinforcement at the edge of the
4.3.2.2. (10) Because of the increased resistance due to direct transmission of loads close to supports, it will slab.
normally be conservative to evaluate VSd at a distance d from the face of a direct support on beams or
slabs with continuously distributed loading.
The values of β in Figure 4.21 are summarised as :
The maximum shear occurs at the critical section (distance d from the face of the column).
From previous notes shear resistance when there is no axial load across the section is given by : β The load on the critical section is the total vertical load
VRd1 = τ Rd * k(1.2 + 40ρ 1 ) * b w d on the foundation, reduced by that part of the load
Axially loaded column 1.00 which is supported by the ground within the critical
(note that the ‘axial load’ in this case refers to lateral forces perpendicular to the critical section, not the axial load in the section.
column) Internal column 1.15
Edge column 1.40 Check the amount of flexural reinforcement passing
A sw 1.11 * ( VSd − VRd1 ) through the critical section (refer to 4.3.4.1 (9) )
If Vsd > VRd1, =
Sw 0.87 * f ykw * d Corner column 1.50

EC2 (5.4.2.2) specifies a minimum amount of shear reinforcement as :

A sw
ρw = where ρ w = 0.0022 for fck = 35 N/mm2 & fyk = 250 N/mm2
S w .b w