See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261385842

IEC standard high voltage circuit-breakers:

Practical guidelines for overvoltage protection
in generator applications

Conference Paper · January 2012

CITATIONS READS

2 803

5 authors, including:

Delcho Penkov Caroline Vollet

Schneider Electric Schneider Electric
17 PUBLICATIONS 47 CITATIONS 6 PUBLICATIONS 19 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Christophe Durand
Schneider Electric
3 PUBLICATIONS 2 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Christophe Durand on 29 May 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 IEC STANDARD HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT-BREAKERS: PRACTICAL
GUIDELINES FOR OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION IN GENERATOR
APPLICATIONS
D. Penkov C. Vollet C. Durand
Schneider Schneider Schneider
Electric Electric Electric
Grenoble Grenoble Grenoble
France France France
Abstract - The IEEE C37.013, [1] standard defines the
overvoltage withstand requirements for circuit breakers
(CBs) intended for use in generator applications. The
constraints of these requirements may lead to larger sized
CBs to be used. In Oil & Gas offshore applications, IEC
62271-100, [2], certified CBs are often preferred due to
their more compact size. However, detailed validation of
IEC CBs for generator applications has not been as well
defined compared to IEEE CBs. Hence, validation of IEC
CBs for overvoltage protection in generator applications is
required, usually by performing computer transient
simulation and analyses.
Very often a simplified model of the generator is believed
to be sufficient to provide reliable results. However, as
this paper will demonstrate, correct modeling of the
generator has a significant impact on the overvoltage
results, especially with salient pole machines. The main
purpose of this paper is to discuss the aspect of Transient
Recovery Voltage (TRV) analysis that have to be
conducted when an IEC breaker is intended for use in
generator applications. Main guidelines to understand and
perform such overvoltage analysis are also provided. The
influence of generator saliency on the TRV peak and
slope is demonstrated.
Index Terms —Transient Recovery Voltage, switching
over voltage, EMTP-ATP, transient simulation
I. INTRODUCTION
Previous paper [4], demonstrated how an IEC breaker
can be verified for capability of interrupting current with
high DC component for generator applications. Such
analysis is mandatory; however it is not sufficient in order
to validate the CB application. In fact, after current
interruption there is high overvoltage that takes place
between CB contacts. This voltage, called Transient
Recovery Voltage (TRV) is characterized in IEC and IEEE
standards by its steepness and peak value. In order that
the current is successfully interrupted, the breaker shall
withstand the TRV. Comparison of the two standards
reveals a much higher overvoltage withstand capability in
terms of peak and steepness in IEEE CBs specially
designed for generator applications, as compared to IEC
CBs. However, IEC CBs are often more preferred than
IEEE CBs for generator applications due to the following
advantages:
• IEC standard applications CBs are smaller in size
than IEEE C37.013 generator applications circuit
breakers. In an off-shore oil rig, space/weight is
critical, and of major priority.
• IEC CBs are much less expensive.
A. M. Husin K. C. Edey
KBR KBR
UK Ltd. UK Ltd
Leatherhead Leatherhead
UK UK
• They allow IEC CB manufacturers to get into the
market segment, allowing an alternative option
from IEEE CB for generator applications.
• IEC CBs offer a technical challenge to the
technology presented by existing IEEE generator
CBs.
The purpose of this paper is not to show how IEEE
certified generator breakers can be replaced by IEC ones.
Instead, the paper aims to address the concerns of
overvoltage protection in IEC CBs and validation steps
needed to apply the IEC CBs in generator protection
applications. The following chapters will be discussed:
• Basics of Transient Recovery Voltage and factors
that determine it
• Comparison of IEEE C37.013 / IEC62271-100
standards and scope of application
• Analysis of generator modeling for TRV
simulations
• Analysis of required data/software/simulation in
order to verify applicability of the IEC CB and
recommend protection solutions
• Simulations of 2 typical applications where IEC
breaker applicability has been proven, by means of
additional overvoltage protection
• Conclusions
II. BASICS OF TRV. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
A. Origins of TRV
Let us consider the simple circuit presented in Fig. 1:
R
Lp
Cp CB
Vm.cos(wt)
Fig. 1 Simplified equivalent circuit for TRV
Initially the CB is closed. At current zero, the CB opens
and the result is a transient voltage oscillation as shown in
Fig. 2. This transient voltage oscillation has an initial
maximum amplitude Vmax, before it stabilizes to the
value of the source voltage, Vm.cos(wt).
 2.0 3.0

Vmax 2.5
1.5
TRV
2.0 Vmax with
1.0 Isolated neutral
1.5

0.5
Vm 1.0
Vmax with
Supply Voltage Earthed neutral
0.5
0.0

0.0

-0.5
-0.5

-1.0 -1.0
0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20 0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20
(f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :TRV_1 - (f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :CB_EA -CB_E_A v :CB_IA -CB_I_A

Fig. 2 TRV waveform vs. steady state Fig. 4 First pole to clear factor

The parameters of the transient voltage are: This factor is close to but lower than 1.5 and is
1. Frequency, 1 expressed as the following [5]:
F=
2.π . Lp.Cp 3.( X 0 + 3.RN )
kpp = (2)
2. Amplitude Damping, D = exp(− t X 1 + 2.( X 0 + 3.RN )
)
2.R.Cp
In case of RN->∞ kpp->1.5, if RN=0 and X1=X0, (Lm=0),
The crest value of voltage is a function of the above then kpp=1. In practice X0>X1 (X0=3.X1) and kpp is typically
parameters and moment of current interruption. It can not around 1.3.
exceed 2 times the value of Vm. The peak of the TRV across the breaker can be
An amplitude factor is defined as: expressed as:
Vmax Vmax = d .Vm
k af = , k af ≤ 2 (1) d = k af k pp (3)
Vm
d − peak factor phase to earth
Note that voltages (Vmax and Vm) are measured
between phase and earth. Given typical values of kaf and kpp, one can estimate
Typical values for kaf lie in the range 1.4-1.7, depending that TRV peak (or the peak factor d) across a breaker
on the moment of current interruption, i.e. the power would lie in the range of 1.4-1.7 to 2-2.55 pu of steady
factor of the system during the fault. This is also state phase to earth voltage amplitude.
confirmed in IEC 62271-100, where kaf varies with the test The IEEE C37.013 defines the peak factor with respect
duty. to the rated maximum system voltage of the CB. The
system voltage is the phase to phase rms voltage.
B. First pole to clear factor Therefore the above value of d shall be multiplied by
2 / 3 in order to be compliant with that definition. For
Let us now consider a three phase system as per Fig.
3: rated short-circuit current ANSI C37.04-1999 gives values
R CB as k af = 1.54 and k pp = 1.5 for systems below 100kV,
Vm.cos(wt) Lp

R Cp
which leads to the peak factor of d = 1.89 , defined in
Vm.cos(wt-2/3.π) Lp
Lm
ANSI standards.
Lm Cp
The rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) in the
RN
R above case can be conservatively assumed as:
RRRV = d .Ur.π .F
Vm.cos(wt-4/3.π) Lm
Lp

(4)
Cp
F − oscillating frequency
Fig. 3 Three phase system for TRV analysis Ur − rated system voltage

In this system, there are no mutual impedances Note that the oscillating frequencies of the transient
(Lm=0). If the system has solidly earthed neutral (RN=0 voltage also differ with earthing conditions. This will be
Ohm), during a three phase to earth fault the amplitude explained in chapter IV. C.
factor is equivalent to a single phase system. However if
the system is earthed through an impedance, or the fault III. IEEE AND IEC STANDARDS COMPARISON
is isolated from earth, the obtained overvoltage on the CB
terminals would have a higher value. This is particularly This section summarises the main differences between
true during the first pole to clear. The waveforms in Fig. 4 the IEC 62271-100 standard for normal CBs and IEEE
illustrate the earth fault voltage of these two cases. The C37.013 standard for CBs designed for generator
ratio of the peak values of these waveforms is defined as applications in determining the TRV parameters of a CB.
the first pole to clear factor (kpp), which is linked to the
earthing of the system and the ratio between the system’s A. IEC TRV rating and parameters
positive and zero sequence impedances.
The IEC HV circuit breakers (U<100 kV) are specified
in accordance to IEC62271-100 standard and can
withstand the TRV according to Table 1 for Cable-
systems and Table 2 for Line-systems. TABLE III
In IEC, the TRV is approximated to a damped single IEEE DEFINED TRV FOR GENERATOR FED FAULT
frequency oscillation. This waveform is adequately Generator Inherent TRV – E2 RRRV
represented by an envelope consisting of two line Rating kV/µs
segments defined by means of two parameters: uc and t3. MVA
For example, for an 11 kV network and for Cable- 100 or less 1.84 V 1.6
systems, the standard values for TRV is given in TABLE I: 101-400 1.84 V 1.8
401-800 1.84 V 2.0
TABLE I 801 or more 1.84 V 2.2
TRV PARAMETERS FOR CABLE SYSTEMS AT 15KV
Rated Type of test TRV peak value RRRV a For our example of an 11 kV network, the rated
voltage uc, k uc/t3 maximum voltage to consider is 15kV. The result for TRV
Ur, kV kV/µs peak as per IEEE C37.013 standard is 27.6 kV, a value
15 Terminal fault 25.7 0.39
higher than the 25.7kV indicated in the IEC standard. We
Out-of-phase 38.3 0.29
will see in the following sections that in some particular
conditions the calculated TRV peak value could be above
The mandatory short circuit breaking tests are defined the IEEE C37.013 level.
in the same standard by Table 24 and 25 where the TRV
limits are given according to the % of rated short circuit For generator rating below 100MW (which is the norm in
breaking current of the CB. For the same 11kV network generator applications), RRRV of 1.6kV/µs is indicated for
example, the TRV parameters are given in TABLE II : the breaker to withstand. The value is conservative, more
than 4 times its equivalent for standard applications
TABLE II C37.011 breakers, to cover the worst case, but in
TRV PARAMETERS BY FAULT CURRENT practice, the actual RRRV can often be much lower. In
Rated Test duty TRV peak value RRRV a fact, as it will be shown in section VI. , the issue in O&G
voltage uc, k uc/t3
Ur, kV kV/µs
applications often can be the TRV peak value, rather than
15 T100 25.7 0.39 its steepness.
T60 27.6 0.95
T30 29.4 1.96 IV. ESTIMATION OF GENERATOR TRV
T10 31.2 2.08
The ANSI (IEEE) certified generator circuit breakers have
There is no indication in the IEC62271-100 that passed multiple tests in order to guarantee their
specifies exclusive generator application CBs. There are applicability in generator applications. For that reason no
also no mandatory tests requirements indicated for typical specific study is generally required. If IEC certified
cases in generator application (i.e. out of phase breakers are intended for use then it is necessary to
switching). carefully determine the appropriate way to consider the
generators in the system. This means that the equivalent
B. IEEE/ ANSI TRV rating and parameters model of the generator shall be represented in sufficient
detail to capture the major factors that influence the TRV.
The IEC 62271-100 equivalent standard IEEE/ANSI A ‘simple generator model’ approach will not be sufficient.
C37.011 "Application guide for Transient Recovery The following factors will need to be included in modeling
Voltage for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a the equivalent generator for TRV analysis.
Symmetrical Current Basis" [3], has been revised in order
to introduce the two parameters description of the TRV as A. Surge reactance
used in IEC Switchgear Standards. This description has
already been introduced in the revisions of Standards Estimation of generator surge reactance has been
C37.04 and C37.06. subject of numerous works, [6] and others. A great
The IEEE C37-013 standard is the dedicated standard majority of these works consider that the equivalent
for AC HV generator circuit breakers. It also describes reactance of the generator is a function of its
how a CB intended for common generator protection use Xd " reactance only. This is a valid assumption for big
has to be tested. These tests should guarantee that the generators, generally turbo-generators, (typical examples
IEEE CB is ready to use without additional analysis. For are given in [7]). Turbo-generators are round rotor
circuit breakers certified C37.013, there is confidence that machines by construction and since its direct axis
the CB is completely suitable for the application. impedance equals its quadrature axis one, the equivalent
impedance is always Xd”.
In Table 6 of IEEE C37.013-1997, the TRV peak and rate- For salient poles generators however, the quadrature
of-rise are given. Their values are obtained by considering axis reactance is not equivalent to its direct axis
an amplitude factor and first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.5. reactance and hence shall be considered. The equivalent
TABLE III below indicates the TRV characteristics reactance of a generator after interruption of the current in
based on generator rating in IEEE C37.013 standard the first phase depends on the position of the rotor in
(where V is the rated maximum voltage of the equipment relation to the stator. It depends itself on the phase-shift
in kV): between voltage and current. If they are in line, the direct
axis impedance shall be considered, Xd " ; if they are in
quadrature, then it is the quadrature reactance Xq" that
will become the equivalent impedance of the generator.
Three phase fault on generator terminals or close to it
imposes nearly 90° phase-shift; therefore at the mo ment
of current interruption, the equivalent reactance of the The evolution of these voltages for 11kV-40MVA salient
machine will be its quadrature subtransient reactance. poles generator is depicted on Fig. 5:
Since this type of fault is also considered in TRV analysis, Comparison of fundamental and second harmonic voltages
1.5
the generator shall be considered by its Xq" reactance. Fundamental undamped
Fundamental transient damped
Fundamental subtransient damped
In addition the generator saliency will impact the TRV 1
Second harmonic damped

Amplitude of internal voltages, in pu of fundamental undamped

peak, as it will be discussed in the next point B. In point
C. the voltage speed of change (frequency of the
0.5
transient) will put in evidence the importance of the
generator earthing arrangement, as well as the fault
“earthing” connection. 0

B. Generator transient overvoltage -0.5

In case of three-phase fault the current supplied by a -1

generator is given in ref [12] as:

 1  1 1  −t 
 Xd +  Xd ' − Xd . exp( Td ') + 
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

 
time, (s)

Ia (t ) = −e  . cos( wt + θ 0 ) +
 1 1   Fig. 5 Internal Fundamental and Second harmonic
 − . exp( − t ) 
 Xd " Xd '  Td "  voltages evolution after fault at t=0s
(5)
e 1 1 
+ . + . exp( − t ). cos(θ 0 ) +
2  Xd " Xq"  Ta All of these voltages will have a peak factor after
current interruption and the resulting TRV peak and rate
e 1 1 
+ . − . exp( − t ). cos( 2.wt + θ 0 ) of rise will be the sum of the individual contributions. For
2  Xd " Xq"  Ta
the case of round rotor machines, the major contribution
It can be observed that the second-half of Eq.1 consists will come from the undamped and transient damped
of a second harmonic component depending on both Xd” voltages. For the case of salient rotor machines, the peak
and Xq”. Hence, this verifies the affect of generator and rate of rise will depend on the alignment of the
saliency in modifying the current value Ia(t) in case of second harmonic and fundamental voltages, basically
fault. undamped and transient damped.
As a consequence of the presence of this additional
For the purposes of TRV analysis, the fault inception voltage source, salient pole generators will experience a
angle on the first pole to clear shall be such as there is no much higher TRV peak and rate of rise than round rotor
dc component in the current, or θ 0 = π / 2 . machines.
The current expression is then deduced to: High TRV peak will occur if the breaker is requested to
 1  1 1   open very quickly after fault appearance, where the
 + − . exp( − t Td ') +  second harmonic component is still present within the
Xd  Xd ' Xd 
Ia (t ) = −e  . sin( wt ) + waveform, and if the current interruption happens when
  1 1  
+  − . exp( − Td ")
t  (6) the peaks of the fundamental and second harmonic
  Xd " Xd '   voltages are on the same side i.e. at 10-30-50-70ms for
e  1 1  system at 50Hz.
+ . − . exp( − t ). sin( 2.wt )
2  Xd " Xq"  Ta The impact of the second harmonic voltage decreases
after 4-5 cycles. Obviously, if current interruption happens
In the above expression two components of the current at 20-40-60-80 ms-etc. the TRV peak will be much lower,
can be identified - a fundamental, composed of which might be a plus.
permanent, damped transient and damped subtransient
contributions, and a second harmonic component which For conservative approach in the TRV analysis, it is
is damped with time constant Ta (Ta~0.1-0.2s). It can be recommended to consider the worst case, i.e. interruption
assumed that there are as many internal voltages as when voltages are on the same side, typically at 50ms.
contributions to the fault current. Indeed these voltage This is in line with recommendations in the standards
sources are shifted by 90° leading the current (fro m Eq. (IEEE and IEC). It is also necessary to assume that the
6), if resistance is neglected. generators are at full load during fault initial conditions
The mathematical expressions of the different voltage (i.e. generator is at maximum field voltage), which gives
sources are given as: rise to the worst case maximum peak TRV value.
VH 1 _ undamped = −e. sin( wt + θ 0 ) θ 0 = 90° = −e. cos( wt )

VH 1 _ transient _ damped = −e. sin( wt + θ 0 ). exp − t ( Td '

) θ 0 = 90° = As a conclusion, the salient poles machines are subject
to greater TRV after fault clearance if clearing happens in
(
= −e. cos( wt ). exp − t
Td '
) the first cycles after fault incidence. However, saliency
VH 1 _ subtransient _ damped = −e. sin( wt + θ 0 ) exp − t ( Td ' '
) θ 0 = 90° =
can also preserve them from high TRV if clearing is
synchronized to happen at current zero, after complete
(
= −e. cos( wt ). exp − t
Td ' '
) (7) number of cycles when they are in phase opposition.
Note that such conclusions were not exposed in any
VH 2 _ damped =
e
2
. sin(2.wt + θ 0 ). exp − t
Ta
( ) θ 0 = 90° = available paper dealing with TRV analysis on generators.
Common practice for generator TRV analysis is to use the
=
e
2
(
. cos(2.wt ). exp − t
Ta
) traditional “simple” generator model of a single source
behind single direct axis impedance. This modeling hides
Note that in case of round rotor machine the above the effect of generator saliency, neglecting the second
expressions remain valid except that for the damped harmonic internal voltage contribution, and the resulting
second harmonic is equals to zero.
TRV will have a lower value than if saliency is considered. 1.25
ratio of TRV frequencies on earthed/isolated generator vs. factor k

Possible reason for the usage of the above method is that

1.2
often the saliency of the generators is neglected, also in
standards (IEEE C37.013). In several works for the 1.15

establishment of the surge model of a generator, tests are 1.1

performed with the rotor being stalled, the machine being 1.05
in no-load and no-fault condition, [6], [8], [9]. The obtained
1
model gives more precise values of the surge reactance
but does not account for the internal voltages of the 0.95

machine, especially for the second harmonic component. 0.9

0.85
C. Frequency of the voltage transient after fault clearing
0.8
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
k, =Lm/Lp
The analyses of a TRV also require verifying the ability
of the breaker to withstand the speed of voltage increase Fig. 6 Ratio of TRV frequencies depending on
after the fault clearing. This speed can be defined by generator earthing and factor k at the moment of current
analyzing the frequency of the voltage oscillation during interruption
that time. As it will be shown, this frequency varies with
the earthing path between generator and fault. For k > −0.33 the TRV frequency of a solidly earthed
generator will be higher than if it was isolated, also will the
Consider the same circuit as presented in Fig. 3. RRRV.
For a system with earthed neutral, the frequency is
given by Eq.8, where Lm=0: V. DATA, MODELING TOOLS AND
1 METHODOLOGY FOR SUCCESSFUL TRV
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm =0 = (8) ANALYSIS
2.π . Lp.Cp
This frequency will vary with mutual inductances (see This section details the major factors that should be
Appendix A. ); where Lm is related to Lp with a coefficient considered for successful TRV analysis.
factor k as:
Lm A. Data
k= (9)
Lp
The following TABLE IV summarizes the system data
The coefficient k is positive for static equipment required for TRV analysis:
(transformers or cables) and negative during the initial TABLE IV
instants after current interruption for generators, see REQUIRED DATA FOR TRV ANALYSIS
Appendix B. The exact numerical value of k at the Equipment Short-circuit data Additional data for
moment of current interruption is function of the generator TRV
values and on the power factor during the fault, i.e. the Upstream source Attenuation and
position of the rotor with respect to the stator at the (Utility) S.c. power, rated natural frequency
moment of current interruption. voltage, X/R ratio (RC branch
For earthed neutral systems with Lm≠0, the frequency connected phase
of the transient will be reduced as given in Eq.10: to earth)
Transformers Rated power, Capacitance
Voltage, short- primary/secondary
1
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm ≠ 0 = circuit voltage, no to earth and
1 + k − 2.k 2 load current, zero primary to
2.π . .Lp.Cp (10) sequence secondary winding
1+ k impedances
Generators Rated Power and Capacitance phase
For the case of isolated neutral with earthed fault, Voltage, Xd, Xd’, to earth
independently on the presence or not of mutual Xd”, Xq, Xq’, Xq”,
impedances, a fixed oscillating frequency will be obtained; Td’, Td”, Tq”, Ta,
Ra
it will be lower by a factor of 2 / 3 compared to the value Lines/Cables Capacitance to
calculated in Eq.8: earth, traveling
impedance wave modeling,
2 1
FTRV _ isolated _ Lm ≠ 0 = . (11) distributed
3 2.π . Lp.Cp parameters
Neutral Earthing impedance No particular
Note that the isolated generator neutral is a common
From Table IV, typical short-circuit data is easily
arrangement in MV networks with multiple generators,
accessible. However, parameters for additional data are
where earthing is made up of earthing transformers
often unknown and estimation is needed. IEEE standards
installed on the busbar.
C37.04-1999 (§5.9.2.2 b) and IEEE C37.011 [3], provides
To illustrate the impact of generator earthing the ratio of
information about capacitances of several equipment,
TRV frequencies for solidly and isolated earthing (by
according to rated power and voltage. Also, information
Eq.10 and by Eq.11) as function of the factor k is depicted
and typical capacitance values for generators and other
in Fig. 6:
equipment are also provided in [13].
For conservative approach, the circuit breaker is
assumed as an ideal switch (with no arc voltage
introduced), to give worst case initial conditions.
B. Simulation software
There are two principal methods for TRV investigation:
by analytical equations or by using dedicated transient
simulation software.
The first solution applies relatively easy and correctly
when the analysis does not include generator
applications, or with a single generator modeled as a
round rotor machine. However, when there are multiple
generators in the system, or when the generator is of
salient pole type, and / or there are additional loads
(parallel feeders, motors, reactors, etc…); it is necessary
to conduct a computer simulation study instead. Let’s
recall that salient pole generator can not be correctly
represented by a source-impedance equivalent since this
will eliminate the impact of second harmonic, (refer
section IV-B. ). Therefore, for salient type machines, the
usage of dedicated simulation software is mandatory. It is
recommended that the simulation software is capable of
verifying the proposed generator model as well as
modelling traveling waves in conductors. Among the
reputable software candidates includes EMTP-ATP,
PSCAD, EMTP-RV and others.
In this paper, the authors have used the EMTP-ATP
software, [14], widely known for its capabilities for
transient simulations, and the built-in synchronous
machine model SM59.
Although this machine model is not initially intended for
TRV analysis, it can be easily “updated”. Authors
observed that the SM59 model is capable of correctly
representing the quadrature reactance for a terminal fault.
Care must be taken to include generator tolerances
during the TRV analysis, typically ±15% is retained. The
high frequency of TRV voltage requires reconsideration of
adjusting the machine values – mainly increasing the
generator armature resistance and including self-damping
parameters.
C. Methodology of TRV analysis
The following details the recommended step-by-step
procedure for successful TRV analysis:
1.) Model the power system according to A. and B.
2.) Establish the system fault locations, typically:
a. Bus bar
b. Generator side
c. Downstream to bus bar side
d. Special attention on fault locations when
CB are separated from bus bar with
cables; two fault locations shall be
considered, one at each side of cable
3.) Run the short-circuit analyses – this is to
determine the breaking current in order to select
TRV envelope : T10, T30, T60 or T100
4.) Set up and perform analysis of TRV on CB
opening :
a. 50ms after fault appearance,
b. One pole with zero DC component
c. The above pole shall be the first pole to
cut (clear)
5.) Compare the TRV envelope with the IEC standard
TRV values
6.) If necessary: conduct additional analyses with
appropriate surge protections:
a. Surge arresters
b. Surge capacitors (0.25-1µF)
c. R-C snubber (R=10-80 Ohm, C=0.25-
1µF)
Note: In case of generator with earthed neutral, when
the fault is earthed, the TRV will be lower; there will not
be line side contribution. However with the reduced
voltage oscillation on the generator side, efficiency of
surge arresters, if installed, may be reduced as well.
7.) Analyse tolerances on generator data
Generator impedances are subject to tolerances.
Typically it may be considered a range of ±15% for the
subtransient values, which impact the most the TRV.
8.) Analyse the out of phase switching
Note: Out-of-phase switching will induce a higher TRV,
since there is no fault which could damp the impact
from downstream network. However, since modern
synchronising relays are very accurate, the probability
of out-of-phase switching may not be required and
requires verification, depending upon the network and
network operating mode.
When necessary this analysis shall be conducted for
90° phase difference/ shift as stated in IEEE C37.0 13-
1997.
9.) Derive final conclusions for applicability of the IEC
CB.
VI. TRV ANALYSIS OF SUITABILITY OF IEC
BREAKERS IN TYPICAL GENERATOR
APPLICATIONS
In order to demonstrate the applicability of IEC
breakers in generator applications, two test cases will be
considered- generators in industrial plant and utility
generation plant. The prospective TRV of each case will
be analyzed and results presented here.
A. Industrial plant generator application
GT1 GT2
(A)
CB
n°1
CB (B)
n°2
(C)
LOAD LOAD
Fig. 7 Basic overview of the studied system
Analysis will be presented in the order given in §V. -C.
1) Data
Two identical gas turbine generators with following
characteristics are connected to the main busbar:
 TABLE V I b × 1 + 2 × (%dc) 2
NETWORK DATA I sym _ 20% =
1 + 2 × (20%)2
Data Value (12)
Generator data 8,5 × 1 + 2 × (95%) 2
= = 13,7 kA
Sr (MVA) 40 1 + 2 × ( 20%) 2
Ur (kV) 11
Pole Pairs 2 The test duty is chosen according to the ratio of the
Xd” (pu) 0.23 above calculated current to its rated short-circuit value.
Xq” (pu) 0.29 Test duty T60 will be chosen for a value in the range 30%
Cables to busbar - 60%, T30 for ration between 10-30%, etc... Results are
Cross-section (mm²) 300 summarized in TABLE VI:
Positive resistance (Ohm/km) 0.06274 TABLE VI
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT ANALYSIS, (KA)
Zero sequence resistance (Ohm/km) 0.10196
Fault CB Ib %dc Isym_20% Test IEC IEC
Positive reactance (Ohm/km) 0.105 location to (Idc/Ib√2) duty Peak RRRV
Zero-sequence reactance (Ohm/km) 0.220 open TRV (kV) (kV/µs)
Capacitance to earth (nF/km) 524 A CB1 8.5 95 13.7 T30 29.4 1.96
Length (km) 0.225 B CB1 8.5 95 13.7 T30 29.4 1.96
C CB2 17 95 27.4 T60 27.6 0.95
Cables per phase 5
Average Cables to transformers (loads) 4) Set up analysis of TRV
Positive resistance (Ohm/km) 0.1537
Zero sequence resistance (Ohm/km) 0.24313 In order to obtain the maximum TRV it is necessary to
Positive reactance (Ohm/km) 0.118 define the critical fault conditions:
Zero-sequence reactance (Ohm/km) 0.353 - Fault: Isolated three phase fault, allowing the voltages
Capacitance to earth (nF/km) 366 at both circuit breaker sides oscillating. An earthed fault
Length (km) 0.100 will expose the breaker to the oscillation of the feeding
side only
-Fault Inception angle: defined to get symmetrical
Generator reactance values are subject to a +/-15%
current on one phase, this angle is defined by the power
tolerance.
factor before the fault. The phase with symmetrical
Generator capacitance is estimated as 500nF, [13].
current shall be the first to clear the current.
Several loads are connected to the main busbar.
- CB Opening time: The circuit breaker opens at least at
The main substation is equipped with 50kA vacuum circuit
50ms after fault appearance.
breakers certified up to 15kV with IEC 62271 test duty.
-Load: the presence of loads can reduce TRV by
In the TRV analysis, the minimum clearing time, by [2],
adding damping factor. But the presence of loads can
is equal to 50ms, which consists of 10ms for protection
also maximize the TRV by increasing the generator
relay functioning and 40ms for circuit breaker opening.
excitation that leads to a higher fault current that
maximizes the TRV. For the fault location B and C, the
2) Fault locations
presence of loads increases the TRV, but for the fault
located in A, the presence of loads reduces the TRV.
Three fault locations have to be analyzed:
- Generator parameters variation: Generator datasheet
a. The fault takes place between the generator and
gives reactance value with a +/-15% tolerance. The
the incomer circuit breaker (loc. A).
parameter variation has a major impact on TRV.
CB n°1 sees the contribution of GT2 alone.
The worst case is with +15% on X”q and -15% on X”d.
b. The fault takes place on the main busbar.
5) Comparison of simulated TRV with standard
CB n°1 sees current from GT1, (loc. B).
defined (generator tolerances not applied)
c. The fault takes place on the outgoing feeder circuit
Example curves will be given for fault at C, test duty T60:
breaker (loc. C). 50.0

CB n.2 sees the contribution of GT1 and GT2. kA

37.5

25.0
3) Calculation of short-circuit currents
12.5

For each fault location the short circuit currents are 0.0

calculated according to IEC 60909. The corresponding -12.5

TRV test duty is determined for current with less than -25.0

20% of DC component. According to the IEC 62271-100, -37.5

if the percentage of DC component at contact separation
-50.0
does not exceed 20%, the short circuit breaking current is 0 10 20 30
(f ile QC_LNG_article_PS.pl4; x-v ar t) c:B_BARA-CB_2A
40 50
c:B_BARB-CB_2B
60
c:B_BARC-CB_2C
70 ms 80

characterised only by the r.m.s value of its alternating Fig. 8 Fault currents through CB n°1, fault at A
component. When the DC component is higher, which is
often the case with generators; it is necessary to put in
form the fault current with 20% of DC component. The
ANSI C37.09 defines a formula to calculate the
symmetrical current with a DC component wanted. The
formula is also analysed in [4]:
 40 50
*103
kV
TRV envelope T60 [kV]
30
40

30
20

20
10
10

0
0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1
-10
64.2 64.4 64.6
(f ile QC_LNG_article_PS.pl4; x-v ar t) v :B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1
64.8 65.0 ms 65.2 Fig. 10 TRV in case of maximum tolerances on gen.
Fig. 9 TRV and T60 TRV envelope from IEC standard, data, fault at C
fault at C
It can be observed that the peak value is above any
In addition to the analysis for the fault locations, the withstand rating of a 15kV circuit breaker, but in the range
impact of load has also been studied. It was found that in of 24kV CB. This means that even IEEE C37.013 certified
case of fault at A the maximum TRV was obtained without breakers would need to be oversized in order to withstand
load. The presence of load at the same side with a that overvoltage. It also underlines the importance of
generator did reduce the transient on that side. However, consideration of the asymmetry of the rotor of the
when the fault location has been moved to busbar, B, or generator, which is actually often neglected. TABLE VIII
on the outcoming feeder, C, the presence of load below summarises the results with tolerances:
increases the TRV peak on CB2. The load in this case
was on the other side of the circuit breaker; hence TABLE VIII
generator TRV has not been damped. TRV CALCULATIONS WITH TOLERANCES
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
TABLE VII summarizes the maximum TRV results for open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
the different fault locations: (kV) (kV/µs)
TABLE VII A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 42.9 0.21
TRV CALCULATIONS WITHOUT TOLERANCES B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 47.1 0.23
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 44.4 0.22
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV 7) Recommendation of protection equipment
(kV) (kV/µs)
A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 30.5 0.16
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 34.6 0.17 The preferred way to limit the TRV peak is by using surge
C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 32 0.19 arrester protection, connected phase-to-earth or phase-
to-phase.
Note the load damping impact to the TRV results, The most appropriate connections are at the generator
where the TRV peak on B is higher than that on A, even side of each generator CB and on the busbar side of CB2.
though it is almost the same current passing through the
breaker. For the fault cases at A and B, a 12kV rated phase-to-
Finally, the most critical situation is with fault on C. In all earth surge arresters will limit the TRV peak under the
the tests, the TRV peak values are over the withstand envelope given in the standard IEC 62271-100. However
levels defined by standard. It is thus required to review for fault located at C, phase-to-earth surge arresters will
the size of the overvoltage protection equipment. not be sufficient to protect the circuit-breaker, therefore
However this may not be necessary if the manufacturer of surge arresters connected phase to phase were used.
the circuit breaker can prove the capability of his CB to Since the application involves generators, the surge
withstand the values without protection, i.e. if there are arrester shall account for higher voltage fluctuations,
tests with similar values. It may also be possible that the hence a voltage rating of 15kV is recommended.
required overvoltage protection gets “lightened” because Therefore, for this example, a 15kV rated phase-to-phase
of known capabilities of the CB. installed surge arrester will result in the TRV peak within
the envelope of the IEC 62271-100 values, even if the
6) Analysis of tolerances on generator data maximum tolerance on generator reactances is taken into
account. Fig. 11 and
The calculation results presented in Table VII does not TABLE IX summarise the TRV analysis with surge
include the impact of generator impedance tolerance. In protection considered:
30
practice, there is always a variation to the quoted *10 3
[kV]
generator data and hence tolerances should always be 25

included in the analysis. The calculation will be repeated 20

for the fault is located at C; Test duty T60 (worst case), 15

with tolerances applied. Fig. 10 illustrates the TRV
10
analysis result:
5

0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1 m:PMAX1

Fig. 11 Example TRV with phase-to-phase installed

surge arresters, fault at C
 TABLE IX TABLE X
TRV CALCULATIONS WITH PROTECTIONS UTILITY DATA
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation Data Value
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise Utility transmission grid
open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
(kV) (kV/µs) Rated short-circuit power at 110 kV
2000
A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 25.8 0.19 (MVA)
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 27 0.2 Ur (kV) 110
C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 26.2 0.2 Earth Capacitance (at 110 kV) 5.8nF
Series Resistance to the earth
2000
8) Out of phase switching capacitance (Ohm)

A synchrophasor is used for coupling of the generators, Step-down transformer

therefore out of phase switching is not considered. Rated voltage on primary (kV) 110
Rated voltage on secondary (kV) 11
9) Final conclusions on the TRV analysis
Rated power (MVA) 90
The following Fig. 12 summarizes the Coupling Ynd 11
recommendations of overvoltage protection for the Short-circuit voltage (% of rated) 10
studied case: Copper losses (kW) 201
Core losses (kW) 30
GT1 GT2 No-load current (% of rated) 0.2
Capacitances Primary–earth / Sec-
MOV MOV 2.4/4.8/2.1
earth / Prim-Sec (nF)
Short-circuit power at 11kV (MVA) 620
CB Cables to busbar
n°1
Cross-section (mm²) 500
CB
Positive resistance (Ohm/km) 0.0371
n°2 Zero sequence resistance (Ohm/km) 1.018
MOV
Positive reactance (Ohm/km) 0.0865
Zero-sequence reactance (Ohm/km) 1.2746
Capacitance to earth (nF/km) 438
LOAD LOAD Length (km) 0.02
Fig. 12 Case study with location of the recommended Cables per phase 6
protections (phase-to-phase surge arretesters)
Note that utility short-circuit power is almost 350%
Note that the conclusion and recommendation derived higher than that of a single generator.
remains valid for systems with rapid current interruption The topology of the utility plant is presented on Fig. 13:
protection installed (i.e. fault current limiters). The
configuration in Fig. 12 could also represent the one half
of a section rapidly disconnected by such protection
scheme.

B. Utility generation plant

A utility generation plant has the same topology as the

industrial plant, except that there are fewer loads
connected to the busbar and that a connection to the
transmission / sub-transmission grid exists. The presence
of the high short-circuit power source will influence the
overvoltage levels and TRV steepness and requires a
different protection scheme, compared to the islanded Fig. 13 Electrical diagram of the utility plant
industrial plant. For illustration purposes, the impact of the
grid connection will be considered by providing the The utility is equipped with the same 50kA vacuum
previously considered industrial case with additional breaker as the generators.
connection to the transmission grid (110kV). This will limit
the modifications to the already presented case and will 2) Fault locations
facilitate the analysis and explanations.
The fault locations considered is maintained as per in the
1) Data previous case, with one additional location added, on the
substation side (D).
The utility will be modeled according to the following
data: 3) Calculation of short-circuit currents

TABLE XI summarises the results of the fault

calculation of the utility plant configuration:
 TABLE XI TABLE XIII
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT CALCULATION TRV CALCULATIONS WITH UTILITY AND
Fault CB Ib %dc Isym_20% Test IEC IEC TOLERANCES ON THE GENERATORS
location to (Idc/Ib√2) duty Peak RRRV Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
open TRV (kV) (kV/µs location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
) open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
A CB1 40.87 25 41.6 T100 25.7 0.39 (kV) (kV/µs)
B CB1 9.57 93 15.2 T30 29.4 1.96 A CB1 T100 25.7 0.39 24.15 0.32
B CB3 32.54 21 32.6 T100 25.7 0.39 B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 50.7 0.28
C CB2 49 2 47.2 T100 25.7 0.39 B CB3 T100 25.7 0.39 18.96 1.07
D CB3 19.14 93 30 T60 27.6 0.95 C CB2 T100 25.7 0.39 22.68 0.27
D CB3 T60 27.6 0.95 42.22 0.28
The current in case of fault at C is very high in the first
50ms and is above the breaking capability limit of the CB. As observed in the previous case, the additional
Therefore, it is recommended that the minimum opening generator tolerances give rise to an increased peak TRV
time on CB2 is increased to 200ms after the fault results.
appearance.
7) Recommendations for overvoltage protection
4) Set up analysis of TRV
Different protection solutions have been tested. The
The method of analysis adopted is the same as in the addition of a surge capacitor can reduce the slope of the
previous case. Note that the system initial conditions is TRV, however its peak value is increased above the
set up by load flow analysis in which the substation is withstand level. Hence it is recommended that a series
designated as a P, Q node in order to set up the system resistance is added to reduce the peak value. Based on
in generation mode. The generators are assumed to the results of the TRV calculation, the following
operate at full rated power. recommended solutions are proposed:
- the most suitable protection equipment for the
5) Comparison of simulated TRV curves with utility is an RC snubber, composed of 10 Ohm
standard defined resistance and 0.75µF phase-to-earth capacitors
- phase-to-phase surge arresters are the most
TABLE XII summarizes the results of the TRV analysis appropriate solution to reduce peak TRV values
of the utility plant configuration: on the generators

TABLE XII The diagram in Fig. 14 summarizes the protection

TRV CALCULATIONS WITH UTILITY (WITHOUT installation with the utility:
TOLERANCES)
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
(kV) (kV/µs)
A CB1 T100 25.7 0.39 23.3 0.31
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 36.4 0.21
B CB3 T100 25.7 0.39 18.96 1.06
C CB2 T100 25.7 0.39 22.95 0.27
D CB3 T60 27.6 0.95 27.2 0.19

The results indicate a very important trend in the

evolution of the overvoltage values: the peak values are
reduced within the overvoltage withstand levels of the CB.
This is due to the presence of the utility in parallel to the Fig. 14 Protective scheme for utility plant
generators. The total short-circuit power is increased with
the utility, which is equivalent to a reduction of the TABLE XIV summarizes results of TRV calculation with
equivalent short-circuit impedance; and impacts the the proposed recommended solutions:
voltage variation on that impedance when the current is
interrupted. It can be observed that the voltage on the TABLE XIV
“source” side remains close to its fundamental value. TRV CALCULATIONS WITH UTILITY AND
However, at the utility CB3 very steep overvoltages is TOLERANCES ON THE GENERATORS AND
observed in case of downstream faults. The CB1 also OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
sees very high TRV peak. It is then necessary that Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
additional protection equipment is used to mitigate the location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
overvoltage constraints. open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
(kV) (kV/µs)
6) Analysis of tolerances in generator data A CB1 T100 25.7 0.39 23.0 0.26
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 26.87 0.23
B CB3 T100 25.7 0.39 21.08 0.32
The calculation in TABLE XII is repeated with generator
C CB2 T100 25.7 0.39 21.87 0.23
reactance tolerances considered for worst case D CB3 T60 27.6 0.95 26.47 0.24
conditions. The results in TABLE XIII summarises the
findings: 8) Out of phase switching
As previously out of phase switching is not considered
because of the installed synchrophasor.
9) Final conclusions of TRV analysis with utility
The addition of a new power source in the system
played a significant role in the TRV evolution. Although
the TRV peak value is reduced, the reduction is not
sufficient to avoid installation of protection equipment. It
was also necessary to add an RC snubber at the source
side of the utility CB in order to reduce the slope of the
overvoltage without increasing its peak value.
However, the most important finding of the TRV
analysis is that in both the islanded and utility connected
generator plant cases, the possibility of applying an IEC
certified circuit breaker can be validated. The applicability
of IEC CB in generator applications can be made possible
by adding appropriate protection solutions. Note that with
tolerances in generator impedances, an IEEE C37.013
certified breaker would also experience difficulties to
interrupt fault currents.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
The presented paper deals with the overvoltage (TRV)
analysis necessary to validate the application of an IEC
circuit breaker in generator application. The main
conclusions of the presented work are:
• it is necessary to perform TRV analysis
systematically in order to check the need of
additional protection in generator applications
• Special attention shall be taken with salient
generators: saliency can substantially increase
the TRV peak and render even IEEE C37.013
certified breaker out of its limits to withstand the
overvoltage
• Tolerances of ±15% in generator reactances
may increase TRV peak to substantially higher
values
• The following mitigation methods are
recommended to control the TRV within the CB
withstand limits:
− Surge arresters will reduce peak
− Surge capacitors will reduce slope, but
may increase peak of TRV
− An RC snubber will act both on peak
and slope of the overvoltage, however
this is also the most expensive solution
• A “natural” solution to reduce the overvoltage is
to delay the opening time of the circuit breaker to
ensure the TRV is within the CB capability. This
is especially recommended if salient pole
machines are the main generation system.
VIII. NOMENCLATURE
Vmax Peak of TRV (V).
Vm Phase to earth voltage amplitude (V).
Ur Rated system voltage, Ur = 3 Vm (V).
2 [12]
e Phase to earth voltage magnitude,
(V).
e=Ur
3 Systems”, New York, Ed. Wiley-Interscience, 1971
RRRV Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage.
F Frequency of TRV (Hz).
Lp Self inductance per phase (H).
Lm Mutual inductance between two phases
(H).
k Ratio of mutual and self inductances.
Xd, Xd’, Xd” Synchronous, transient and
subtransient direct axis reactances of a
generator (Ohm).
Xq” Subtransient q-axis reactance (Ohm).
Td’, Td” Transient and subtransient time
constants, d-axis (s).
Ta Armature time constant (s).
w Rated electrical angular speed (rad/s).
t Time (s).
Isym_20% Symmetrical fault current with 20% DC
component (A).
IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to M.-
Q. Nguyen (Schneider Electric France), A. Windhorn
(Leroy Somer USA), and particularly P. Novak (Schneider
Electric Germany) for their valuable contribution during
the work progress of this paper.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] ANSI/IEEE C37.013, IEEE Standard for AC High
Voltage Generator Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis
[2] IEC 62271-100:2008, High Voltage Switchgear and
Controlgear-Part 100: Alternating Current Circuit-
Breakers
[3] IEEE std C37.011 -2005, IEEE Application Guide for
Transient Recovery Voltage for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers
[4] R. Cossé, T. Hazel, G. Thomasset, “IEC medium-
voltage circuit-breaker interrupting ratings-unstated
short-circuit considerations “, IEEE Trans. On
Industry Applications, Vol.36, No.3, May/June 2000
[5] R. W. Alexander, D. Dufournet, “Transient Recovery
Voltage (TRV) For High-Voltage Circuit Breakers”
[6] E. P. Dick, R. W. Cheung, J. W. Porter, “Generator
Models for Overvoltage Simulations”, IEEE Trans.
On Power Delvery, Vol.6, No.2, April 1991
[7] Questionnaire 73(secretariat)29
[8] E. L. White, “Surge-Transference characteristics of
generator-transformer installations”, Proc. IEE,
Vol.116, No.4, April 1969, pp.575-587
[9] A. P. Hayward, J. K. Dillard, A. R. Hileman,
“Lightning Protection of Unit-connected Turbine
Generators – Field and Laboratory Studies”, AIEE
Trans., Vol.75, Part III, pp.1370-1381,1956
[10] T. Funabashi, N. Takeuchi, T. Sugimoto, T. Ueda, L.
Dube, A. Ametani, “Generator Modeling for
Transformer Transfer Voltage Study”, IEEE Trans on
Energy Conversion, Vol.14, No.4, Dec. 1999
[11] T. Funabashi, T. Ito, T. Sugimoto, K. Miyagi, T.
Sano, T. Ueda, J. Martinez, A. Ametani,
“Generalized Generator Model for Transformer
Transfer Voltage Studies”, IEEE Trans on Energy
Conversion, Vol. 19, No. 3, Sept. 2004
P. Barret, “Régimes Transitoires des Machines
Tournantes Electriques”, Paris, Ed. Eyrolles, 1987
[13] A. Greenwood, “Electrical Transients in Power
[14] EMTP-ATP Software RuleBook
X. APPENDIX
A. Formula for frequency with mutual impedances,
earthed neutral and earthed three phase fault:
 Consider the system on Fig. 3, with the following
indications: Caroline Vollet received her Electrical Engineering
CB
Va Ia degree from the National Polytechnic Institute of Grenoble
Xc
in 1988. She joined Merlin Gerin (now Schneider Electric)
Vb Ib
in 1989. She is currently working on electrical network
Xm Xc
analyses such as stability, harmonic and overvoltages
studies. She has been personally involved in several
Vc
Ic Xp
instances of equipment failure or malfunctioning in
Xc different kind of industrial plants.
The voltage can be expressed as: Christophe Durand received his MSc degree in
Va = Ia.( Xp − Xc) + ( Ib + Ic). Xm electrical engineering from the Joseph Fourier University
Vb = Ib. Xp + Ia. Xm + Ic. Xm of Grenoble, in 2009. He is currently working for
(13) Schneider Electric as Power Systems Engineer. He is
Vb = Ic. Xp + Ia. Xm + Ib. Xm
working on electrical network analyses such as stability,
Va + Vb + Vc = 0 protection coordination and overvoltages.

After some operations one can obtain: st

Adita Husin received a 1 class Honors in Electrical &
− Va − 2 .Ia . Xm Electronic Engineering from the University of Surrey, UK
Ib + Ic =
Xp + Xm in 2000 and completed her MSc in Electrical Power
(14) System from the University of Manchester in 2007. She is
( Xp 2 + Xm . Xp − 2 . Xm 2 − Xc ( Xp + Xm ))
Va = Ia . now a Chartered Electrical Engineer with KBR and is
Xp + 2 . Xm
responsible for power system studies for various oil & gas
onshore plants and offshore platforms and FPSO.
The equivalent inductance of the system at the natural
frequency can be obtained by posing the right hand part Kate Edey received her BEng (Hons) in Electrical &
of the equation to zero. It follows: Electronics Engineering from University of Leicester, UK
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 − Xc ( Xp + Xm) = 0 in 1990. She is a Chartered Engineer and has been
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 heavily involved in generator excitation controls design
= Xc and later in power distribution design with various
( Xp + Xm)
companies. She is now with KBR and is responsible for
Xp 2 + Xm. Xp − 2. Xm 2 1 + k − 2.k 2 (15) power system studies for onshore, offshore and
Xeq = = Xp.
( Xp + Xm) 1+ k renewable projects. She is currently the Lead Electrical
1 + k − 2.k 2 Engineer for an LNG project in Western Australia.
Leq = Lp.
1+ k

B. Explanation of the negative value of mutual

inductance in generator at current interruption

In ref. [12], the mutual inductance between two phases

spaced geometrically at 120° (i.e. b and a) of the stator of
a generator is given as:

Mba = M a 0 . cos(120°) + M a 2 . cos( 2.θ − 120°) (16)

In Eq.10 θ is the angle between phase a, which is the

phase without DC component during the fault, and an
arbitrary reference frame.
In the case of rotating reference frame, the mutual
inductance will oscillate at twice the electrical frequency. If
the fault has been incepted at maximum of the voltage on
phase a, i.e. when θ was equal to 0° or 180° then θ at the
moment of current interruption will also take values of 0°
or 180° (the current zero happens approximately at
maximum of the voltage). As a consequence both terms
of the mutual inductance will have negative values and
the value of that mutual inductance will also be negative,
corresponding to a negative k.

XI. VITA

Delcho Penkov was born in Haskovo, Bulgaria. He

graduated from Technical University of Sofia in 2002. In
2006 he received his PhD degree in Electrical
Engineering from the Institut National Polytechnique de
Grenoble (INPG). He is currently working for Schneider
Electric as Power Systems Engineer. Member of IEEE.

View publication stats