1.1.1.

Other Important Mathematical Formulations—Rank-Nullity Theorem and

Fredholm Alternative

Two other mathematical formulations that are relevant to our study include the Rank-

nullity theorem and the Fredholm alternative. The rank-nullity theorem states that for an m by n

matrix A, rank A + nullity A = n, where m is the number of rows in matrix A and n is the number

of columns in matrix A. The Fredholm alternative informs us that rank A + nullity AT = m, where

m and n are as defined previously and AT is the transpose of matrix A. We will need these

formulations while applying the Pi theorem to specific examples. Specifically, the nullity of a

matrix A tells us how many dimensionless products we expect from our analysis.

1.1.2. General Procedure for Applying Dimensional Analysis

1. Decide on a set of independent (derived) variables that describes the dependent variable.

This is the most important step in the entire analysis procedure and the choice of

independent variables is always based on domain knowledge and on whether the

independent variables are measurable in an experiment.

2. Decide on the primary or fundamental quantities or units that will be utilized in the study.

In fluid dynamics, we usually use mass, length and time.

3. Write out the derived units in terms of the fundamental units. For example, the dimension

of dynamic viscosity is ML-1T-1.

4. Determine the dimensionless products. The process of accomplishing this objective will be

illustrated using several examples.

5. Using the Pi theorem, find a relationship between the dimensionless products.

5.3. Simple Examples Illustrating the Dimensional Analysis Procedure

 Before we use the dimensional analysis technique to develop a model of fracture

conductivity, we illustrate the power and limitation of this technique with simpler examples.

5.3.1. Reynold’s Number

Step 1—Decide on a set of independent (derived) variables that describes the dependent

variable.

For this problem, the Reynolds number, Re is the dependent variable. We want to find out

if we would arrive at the Reynold’s number formulation if we applied the technique of dimensional

analysis to the variables that define Reynolds number. Accordingly, we will write the following:

   (  , v, d ,  ), where we define dimensionl ess products as  .

Step 2—Decide on the primary or fundamental quantities or units that will be utilized in the

study.

In this work, we will use mass, length and time as our fundamental quantities.

Step 3—Write out the derived units in terms of the fundamental units.

 , density   ML3
v, velocity   LT 1
d , characteri stic length   L
 , viscosity   ML1T 1
Re, Reynolds number   1
Note  means the dimensions of  .

Step 4—Determine the dimensionless products.

We look for f in the form of    a v b d c  d Re e , where the exponents a, b, c, d and e are

real numbers. We can match dimensions in the following manner (note that  has no dimensions

and Re is also dimensionless and so the exponent e disappears from the analysis):
 
1  ML3  LT  L ML
a 1 b c 1
T 1 
d
 M a L3a Lb T b Lc M d L d T  d .

Therefore, 1  M a  d L3a  b  c  d T b  d . Matching exponents, we have the following :

M :a  d  0
L : 3a  b  c  d  0
T : b  d  0

We have 3 equations for 4 unknowns, meaning the solution will not be unique. Therefore,

we write the above system of equations in matrix form and using our knowledge of linear algebra,

we will reduce the system to its row reduced echelon form.

In matrix notation, we have:

a 
 1 0 0 1    0 
  b  
  3 1 1  1    0
 0  1 0  1  c  0
  d   
 

Using the rref command in MATLAB, we reduce the above system to its row reduced

echelon form. We have:

a 
 1 0 0 1   0
  b  
 0 1 0 1    0
 0 0 1 1  c  0
  d   
 

The rank of the above matrix is 3 and the number of columns is 4. Therefore by the rank-

nullity theorem stated in the previous section, the nullity of the matrix is 1. This implies we expect

only 1 dimensionless product to result from this analysis. From the row reduced echelon form of

our matrix, we have the following system of equations:

a  d  0; a  d
b  d  0; b  d
c  d  0; c  d
 To solve for a, b and c, we can assume values for d. If we assume d = 0, a = b = c = 0. This

solution is trivial and it is not interesting. However, if we assume d=1, we have a = b = c = -1. We

remember we defined the dimensionless product    a v b d c  d . Substituting for a, b, c and d in

 1
the definition of  , we have    .
vd Re

5.3.2. Darcy Equation

Step 1—Decide on a set of independent (derived) variables that describes the dependent

variable.

For this problem, the pressure gradient ( dP ) is the dependent variable. We want to
dL

find out if we would arrive at Darcy’s relationship if we applied the technique of dimensional

analysis to the variables that define the relationship. Accordingly, we will write the following:

   (k ,  , v, dP dL), where as in the previous case, we define dimensionl ess products as  .

Step 2—Decide on the primary or fundamental quantities or units that will be utilized in the

study.

Again, in this work, we will use mass, length and time as our fundamental quantities.

Step 3—Write out the derived units in terms of the fundamental units.

k , permeabili ty   L2
 , viscosity   ML1T 1
v, velocity   LT 1
dP dL , pressure gradient   ML 2
T 2

Step 4—Determine the dimensionless products.


We look for f in the form of   k a  b v c dP
dL
 , where the exponents a, b, c and d are
d

real numbers. We can match dimensions in the following manner (note that  has no dimensions):
   ML
1  L2
a 1
T 1  LT  ML
b 1 c 2
T 2 
d
 L2 a M b Lb T b Lc T  c M d L2 d T 2 d .

Therefore, 1  M b  d L2 a b  c  2 d T b  c  2 d . Matching exponents, we have the following :

M :b  d  0
L : 2a  b  c  2d  0
T : b  c  2d  0

We have 3 equations for 4 unknowns, meaning the solution will not be unique. Therefore,

we write the above system of equations in matrix form and using our knowledge of linear algebra,

we will reduce the system to its row reduced echelon form.

In matrix notation, we have:

a 
0 1 0 1    0 
  b  
 2  1 1  2     0 
 0  1  1  2   c  0 
  d   
 

Using the rref command in MATLAB, we reduce the above matrix to its row reduced

echelon form. We have:

a 
 1 0 0  1   0
  b  
 0 1 0 1     0 
 0 0 1 1   c  0 
  d   
 

The rank of the above matrix is 3 and the number of columns is 4. Therefore by the rank-

nullity theorem stated in the previous section, the nullity of the matrix is 1. This implies we expect

only 1 dimensionless product to result from analysis. From the row reduced echelon form of our

matrix, we have the following system of equations:

a  d  0; a  d
b  d  0; b   d
c  d  0; c   d
 To solve for a, b and c, we can assume values for d. If we assume d = 0, a = b = c = 0. This

solution is trivial and it is not interesting. However, if we assume d=1, we have a = 1 and b = c =

-1. We remember we defined the dimensionless product   k a  b v c dP  dL

 . Substituting for a,
d

k dP
b, c and d in the definition of  , we have   . This is essentially a dimensionless way of
v dL

stating Darcy’s law in a linear system.

5.3.3. Forchheimer Equation

Step 1—Decide on a set of independent (derived) variables that describes the dependent

variable.

For this problem, the pressure gradient ( dP ) is the dependent variable. We want to find
dL

out we would arrive at Forchheimer’s relationship if we applied the technique of dimensional

analysis to the variables that define the relationship. Accordingly, we will write the following:

   (k ,  , v,  ,  , dP dL), where as in the previous case, we define dimensionl ess products

as  .

Step 2—Decide on the primary or fundamental quantities or units that will be utilized in the

study.

Again, in this work, we will use mass, length and time as our fundamental quantities.

Step 3—Write out the derived units in terms of the fundamental units.

k , permeabili ty   L2
 , viscosity   ML1T 1
v, velocity   LT 1
 , density   ML3
 , inertial co - efficient   L1
dP dL , pressure gradient   ML 2
T 2
Step 4—Determine the dimensionless products.

We look for f in the form of   k a  b v c  d  e dP  dL

 , where the exponents a, b, c , d, e
f

and f are real numbers. We can match dimensions in the following manner (note that  has no

dimensions):

1  M b  d  f L2 a b  c 3d  e  2 f T b  c  2 f . Matching exponents, we have the following :

M :b  d  f  0
L : 2a  b  c  3d  e  2 f  0
T : b  c  2 f  0

We have 3 equations for 6 unknowns, meaning the solution will not be unique. Therefore,

we write the above system of equations in matrix form and using our knowledge of linear algebra,

we will reduce the system to its row reduced echelon form.

In matrix notation, we have:

a
b 
0 1 0 1 0 1    0 
  c   
 2  1 1  3  1  2     0 
 0 1 1 0 d
 0  2    0
e
 
 f 

Using the rref command in MATLAB, we reduce the above matrix to its row reduced

echelon form. We have:

a
b 
 1 0 0  0.5  0.5  1   0
  c 
0 1 1 1 0 1     0
 0 0 1 1 d
 0 1    0
e
 
 f 
 The rank of the above matrix is 3 and the number of columns is 6. Therefore by the rank-

nullity theorem stated in the previous section, the nullity of the matrix is 3. This implies we expect

3 dimensionless products to result from analysis. From the row reduced echelon form of our

matrix, we have the following system of equations:

a  0.5d  0.5e  f
b  d  f
cd f

To solve for a, b and c, we can assume values for d, e and f. We are going to solve for each

of the dimensionless variables separately.

Computation of the first dimensionless variable

For the first dimensionless variable,  1 we assume f = 0; e = 0 and d = 1. We assume f = 0

because we do not want the dependent variable to be in the expression for  1 . We assumed e = 0

because we wanted a simple solution and d = 1 because assuming d = 0 would lead to a trivial

v k
solution. Hence, a = 0.5, b = -1 and c = 1. Therefore, the first dimensionless product  1 = .


Computation of the second dimensionless variable

For the second dimensionless variable,  2 we assume f = 0; d = 0 and e = 1. We assume f

= 0 because we do not want the dependent variable to be in the expression for  2 . We assumed d

= 0 because we wanted a simple solution and e = 1 because assuming e = 0 would lead to a trivial

solution. Hence, a = 0.5, b = c = 0. Therefore, the second dimensionless product  2 =  k .

Computation of the third dimensionless variable

For the third dimensionless variable,  3 we assume f = 1; d = 0 and e = 0. We assume f =

1 because we want the dependent variable to be in the expression for  3 . We assumed d = e = 0

because we wanted the simplest solution. Hence, a = 1, b = c = -1. Therefore, the third

dimensionless product  3 =

k dP 
dL .
v

In summary,

v k
1=


2= k

3=
k dP dL

v

If we take a cursory look at these dimensionless products, it is not obvious that they are

related to the Forcheimer equation. However we note that Forchheimer’s equation is written as

follows:

dP 
  v  v 2 ,
dL k
dP  dP
Also,  v  v 2  0, and dividing through by , we have,
dL k dL
1 1
  dP   dP 
1  v   v   2
0
k  dL   dL 

Finally, after some algebraic manipulation, we can write Forchheimer’s equation in terms of  1 ,

 2 and  3 as follows:

1  1 2
1   0 . After further algebraic simplification, we have:
3 3

 3  (1   1 2 ) .
 The purpose of going through these three examples is to show that the dimensionless

products derived from dimensional analysis are not arbitrary. The challenge is finding techniques

to be able to find the relationships between them in an a priori fashion.