Applications of E-textile Pressure Sensors

Akshaya Dinesh ​ Hanna Goldfarb

akshayadinesh19@gmail.com​ ​hgoldfarb@hcrhs.org

​ Diana Sarrico ​Catherine Scanlon ​Sung Hyun (Sunny) Yoo

​diana.sarrico@yahoo.com​ ​ cate.scanlon@aol.com ​ ​sunyoo@bergen.org

Dr. Aaron Mazzeo*

aaron.mazzeo@rutgers.edu

New Jersey’s Governor’s School of Engineering and Technology

July 21, 2017

*Corresponding Authors

ABSTRACT -- In many cases between civilians and law
enforcement officers, there is often a lack of substantial
evidence for the court to make an informed decision. By
creating an electronic T-shirt that records hits to a
policeman’s body, one can determine whether the
officer’s forceful action was instigated and justified.
Tracking pressure changes on a shirt can also help detect
injuries and determine the severity of an attack. The
specific technology used in this project is e-textiles
(electronic textiles), specifically sensors made using
Velostat, a piezoresistive material. Velostat sensors are
constructed using conductive thread in a circuit to send
data to an Lilypad Arduino. Spikes in pressure data are
represented using a graphical interface for other law
enforcement officers to view. The testing and design of
this project show that a system including Velostat sensors
and Arduinos in e-textiles is a viable, effective method of
providing external evidence in police brutality cases.
I. INTRODUCTION
E-textiles incorporate circuitry into wearable
clothing by replacing large wires with conductive
thread, a nylon thread coated in silver to generate
electric properties. This allows for an inconspicuous
and less intrusive way of using sensors to obtain
information such as temperature, motion, pressure,
and air contaminants. E-textiles that monitor cardiac
pulse for arrhythmias, heart attack, or heart failure are
also ideal for analyzing more sensitive areas of the
human skin. There are also wearable muscle sensors,
allowing users to know whether or not their muscle is
strained or overused in daily life. Thus, e-textiles
have potential in recreational clothing, health
analytics, geo-tracking, and now police uniforms​[1]​.
E-textile sensors could further improve law
enforcement efficacy by creating another layer of
transparency and safety.
In cases regarding violent acts between a
police officer and a civilian, it can be difficult to
ascertain the exact events that occurred at the scene.
Often times, the testimonies offered by the police
officer differ from the civilians’.Wearable technology
is an optimal solution to create more transparency in
such cases. Ideally, judges and courts could get a
closer look into the incident and determine whether
or not any force inflicted on a civilian was provoked
and justified. To do so, Velostat textiles can be
incorporated into a policeman’s uniform in order to
measure any force used against the officer. These are
a type of e-textile sensor that can monitor applied
pressure. The pressure data can be time-stamped and
used alongside video footage to provide more
conclusive evidence in trials and more accurate
indictments​[2]​.
An equally important application for these
Velostat sensors involves an alert system to aid law
enforcement agents who are injured in the line of
duty. If pressure exceeds a particular threshold that
would indicate injury, ideally other squadrons could

1
be alerted and come to the aid of the law enforcement Moreover, for testing purposes, an
agent in question. INSTRON 44-11 machine is test pressure.​[5] The
This study focuses on creating a wearable Instron machine has an anvil that extends down and
garment that can track applied pressure, allowing for applies force. An Impedance Analyzer is also used
a measurement of physical aggression against police during testing to measure changes in resistance as
officers to settle confusion surrounding contradicting more pressure is continually applied to the sensor.
testimonies in court cases and also facilitate a safety Finally, an Arduino Uno and an Lilypad
alert system. Arduino, as seen in Fig. 1 and 2, are both used
during the process to test the viability of the Velostat
II. BACKGROUND sensor​[6]​. The Arduino Uno ​is a microcontroller board
based on the ATmega328, which features high
2.1 Materials and Tools performance and low power. It has 14 digital
The specific material incorporated into the input/output pins, 6 analog inputs, and a USB
e-textiles sensors constructed throughout this study is connector to upload Arduino-C code. Since the
called Velostat. Velostat is the brand name of a black, Arduino Uno is bulky and not suited for sewing into
carbon-impregnated polyolefin foil originally created a shirt, ​a Lilypad is used for its ability to be sewn into
by Custom Materials, of the company 3M. It is e-textiles and incorporated within a wearable
typically used to protect components sensitive to garment. The Lilypad Arduino is smaller and
electrostatic discharge, and its properties are compact, so a breakout board, which distributes
generally not affected by age or humidity. This power and code, is required to connect it to a
piezoresistive material can be used in a wide range of computer.
pressure and bend sensors, resistive sensors, and
position sensors. This is because it changes electrical
resistance in response to pressure. As force is applied,
the resistance in the polyolefin textile decreases
because the material is compressed and the carbon
molecules become closer together, increasing the
conductivity​[3]​. This is due to Ohm’s Law, which
states that current and resistance are inversely
proportional when voltage is constant. Thus, when
placed between two non-conductive cotton layers and
wired using conductive thread, the Velostat becomes
similar to a variable resistor in a traditional circuit.
For the exact cutting of the Velostat
material, a Silhouette Cameo vinyl cutter is used. A Fig. 1: Lilypad Arduino
corresponding program is used to create exact
measurements on a diagram, which the cutter is then
capable of replicating.
Throughout the study, the Model SE-400
Brother sewing machine is used to construct the
Velostat sensor circuit​[4]​. Also, both conductive
thread and non conductive cotton thread are used in
conjunction with cotton fabric to simultaneously
secure the sensor unit and establish contact points on
the Velostat resistor where the current can travel
through. The conductive thread utilized is
silver-coated nylon, which allows it to conduct
electricity. Fig. 2: Arduino UNO

2
 There are multiple different electrical
components used throughout the construction,
including a breadboard, various resistors, and a
battery. A breadboard is a board used for making an
experimental model of an electric circuit. Resistors
are two-terminal electrical components that are used
to reduce current flow. Finally, a battery is used to
supply voltage through the Velostat circuit and back
to the Arduino.
2.2 Software Used
To process data and display the information in a user
interface, different programming languages and
software was used. Here is the list of all the software
that was used in the creation of the project:
● MATLAB: MATLAB is a numerical
computing environment and programming
language used to process the data from
testing to be used for graphing.
● Arduino IDE: This was where the Arduino
code is written to create a connection
between the Arduino microcontroller and
the software.
● Processing: This software development
environment was used to write Java code
that displayed the sensor values in a
graphical user interface, or GUI.
● giCentre: A Processing library used to create
a graph of the data and update it in real time.
2.3 Equations
The main relationship used in analyzing the
circuitry and designing the product is Ohm’s Law:
V=IR
The variable “V” is voltage, “I” is current,
and “R” is resistance. Ohm’s Law is used to
determine the amount of power required by the
Lilypad Arduino and the Arduino UNO. It is also
used to calculate the optimal resistors used in series
with the Velostat in the voltage divider.
3
Fig. 3: Voltage divider diagram
In Fig. 3, R​1 represents the variable
resistances given by the Velostat. The V​out represents
the Analog input going to the Arduino, which shows
voltage values that are then converted to resistance.
There is an inverse relationship between
pressure applied and resistance from the Velostat,
although it is not predictably quantifiable.
III. DESIGN PROCESS
3.1 Summary of Design/Creation
The prototype of the wearable was designed
in multiple steps. Multiple smaller prototypes were
created to test different configurations of the larger
design. During the process, visual diagrams as well as
electrical schematics were made to map out the
design of the product. The Velostat sensors were
created using a sewing machine and conductive
thread. One side of the sensor was connected to
ground, and the other was connected to the analog pin
that establishes the electric signals as input in the
Arduino hardware. The Arduino is programmed so
the resistance values were translated into a pressure
and force reading.
3.2 First Proof of Concept and General Construction
In order to test the viability of Velostat as a
pressure sensor in electronics, an initial prototype
was created with a large, single Velostat sensor with
only one point of contact between the conductive
thread on both pieces of fabric. The type of silver
coated nylon conductive thread that was used in this
research project was untwisted from 4 ply to produce
a 1 ply product in order to facilitate the sensor array
construction process. Thinning the thread prevented
entanglements in the bobbin of the sewing machine
and allowed the conductive thread to be sewn using
the embroidery machine. Once the thread was
completely untwisted, it was threaded around one
bobbin on the sewing machine. The other bobbin
contained nonconductive cotton thread. Thus, when
each cotton outer layer was sewn with the circuit
design, there was only one conductive thread running
through. In the first model, a single line was sewn
diagonally across a cotton fabric square. These two
squares were then arranged with the Velostat in the
middle so that the lines crossed each other to create
one contact point. One line became the input lead and
one became the output lead, and both lines of
conductive thread were tied onto two test wires,
which were then connected to the Arduino Uno for
testing.
Additionally, several other stitches of
nonconductive thread around the circuit design were
used to further secure the Velostat within the two
cotton layers. This was to ensure that when force was
applied, the cotton layer would not slip and provide
an inaccurate reading. However, the stitches could
not be sewn too close to the circuitry, otherwise the
punctures in the Velostat would decrease the
accuracy of the resistance readings.
This sensor was then placed on one side of a
voltage divider in series with a 10k Ohm resistor. The
center of the voltage divider was then connected to
Analog Input A0 on the Arduino to measure the
voltage across the Velostat sensor. Preliminary tests
were conducted to determine the changes in
resistance in the Velostat sensor as pressure was
applied. Then, once the initial hypothesis was
confirmed, the basic Velostat circuit was redesigned
with more sensors and was connected with
conductive thread rather than physical wires (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Initial sensor set-up with voltage divider
4
3.3 Sensor Design
One major factor of the circuit design to
consider was the number of contact points between
the patches of fabric. Multiple contact points decrease
the base resistance and too many points of contact
can actually reduce the range of resistance values,
which was previously noted during testing of sensors
constructed by Jillian Maling and Mandev Singh.
Therefore, the goal was to create as large of a surface
area for detection without compromising the range of
possible pressure values that could be extrapolated
from the sensor by creating too many points of
contact. For this reason, testing was crucial to ensure
that making a larger Velostat pressure sensor would
still allow for a significant change in resistance
during pressure testing. Two different sensor patterns,
as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, were designed to have
different arrangements of contact points and tested to
evaluate the viability of each design over the other.
The first sensor design featured a boxed grid pattern
when overlapped and each lead was continuous with
no branches along the circuit path. One prediction
with this design was that the resistance would
increase along the circuit because it was a continuous
pathway and thus the pressure values that could be
extrapolated from the sensor would be slightly
different across different locations on the sensor . The
second sensor featured a finger grid pattern with
several branches originating from the source lead. It
was designed in parallel in an attempt to reduce linear
resistance because each branch was individually
shorter than the circuit path in Sensor 1. Testing was
then necessary to validate these predictions and
determine which one would be optimal in the final
design.
Fig. 5: 1st Sensor Design

Fig. 6: 2nd Sensor Design
3.4 Sensor Testing
For sensing, both Velostat pressure sensor
designs were analyzed using an impedance analyzer
and an INSTRON pressure machine. First, the
sensors were attached to the impedance analyzer
machine to track the changes in the resistance of the
sensor over time. The sensors were also placed under
the top compressive plate of the Instron machine,
which recorded the extension and force over time.
The Instron machine was set to a maximum
load around 100 Newtons, and the max extension
value was recorded. The two machines
simultaneously recorded the values every 0.02 mm
for time, force, extension, and resistance. The values
for each measurement were then inputted into a
MATLAB script that coordinated the time values of
both sets of data. The outputted data was inputted
into another MATLAB script that interpolated the
force data and outputted the final set of data. The last
step of the testing process was to input data into
OriginLab and produce graphs. Then, using the
Instron pressure sensor and an impedance analyzer, a
graph was generated for each sensor showing the
inverse relationship between pressure applied and
resistance for up to 100 N of force, shown in Fig. 7
and 8. Testing data was gathered for five locations on
each sensor, including the centers and all four
corners. This was done to determine if the sensors
were consistent and if the resistance drops were
independent of the location on the sensor where
pressure was applied.
5
Fig. 7: 1st Sensor Graph
Fig. 8: 2nd Sensor Graph
3.5 Analysis of Sensors
As shown in the testing, both sensors
produce an inverse relationship between applied force
and resistance. Figures 7 and 8 demonstrate that this
inverse relationship was consistent across 3 different
trials for Sensor 1, but it was also consistent for
Sensor 2. As a result, both can be used to measure
pressure. Once this was established, the graphs were
then visually compared to determine the differences
in force and resistance ranges in order to choose the
optimal design to include in the shirt. In Sensor 1,
which corresponds to Fig. 7, resistance and force are
more closely related to one another; the relationship
was more linear than that of Sensor 2. For Sensor 2
there is no discernable peak in the resistance to
correspond with the peak in the force, making it so
that it is unclear as to when the low point of the
resistance is reached. Also, in Sensor 2, the force that
the Instron machine applied to the sensor was
unsteady as the force graph rises quickly, plateaus,
and then shows a steep peak again. Similarly, when
no force is applied, the peaks in resistance gradually
increases with each cycle. This is most likely caused
by the Velostat material being misshaped by the
heavy force and exhibiting a spring-like effect when
compressed.
Once a specific design was chosen, the test
sensors were replicated to scale. The measurements
of each larger sensor were 4.5 inches by 5 inches,
with 6 sensors on both the front and back, as shown
in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9: Shirt Diagram
3.6 Circuit System Design
Designing the circuit was initially a
challenge, because the Lilypad Arduino only has 6
analog inputs and there were 12 sensors in the T-shirt
final design. Furthermore, there aren’t enough 5V
and GND pins on the Lilypad Arduino or Uno to
connect each sensor to power and ground. The first
problem was solved by using two Lilypad Arduinos
in the final design. Half of the front sensors and half
the back sensors were connected to one Lilypad, and
the rest were connected to the other Lilypad. The
second problem was solved by placing six voltage
dividers in parallel with each other. Each voltage
divider has a 10k Ohm resistor in series with a
Velostat sensor to separate the voltage between both
components. Wires were used to detect Analog input
voltage at the points between the resistors and sensors
in the circuit. Fig. 10 shows the complete design of
the circuit used in the final product​[7]​.
6
Fig. 10: Circuit Design
3.7 Arduino Programming
The sensor system was connected to an
Arduino Uno, which needed to be programmed to
receive sensor values and process them. The code
that read the sensor values through Analog input was
written in Arduino-C. These values were then printed
to a Serial port that transmitted the data through a
USB port to a computer. The next part of the coding
process took place in Processing. Processing is a
visual style-based programming language that is
derived from Java. In this project, Processing was
used to display the values from the sensors in a
graphical user interface (GUI) for easier viewing. In
the code, the values from 6 sensors were first
collected from the Serial port. The Serial Monitor
displayed information relayed between the Arduino
and the computer, such as the input voltages from
Analog pins. Then, the maximum of the values was
taken. This maximum was compared against a
pre-defined pressure threshold to determine if the
force applied was significant enough to be measured.
The threshold was chosen by testing pressure and
voltage values and choosing a significant pressure.
Finally, a short algorithm determines the “spikes,” or
relative maxima, of sensor values. These relative
maxima are recorded into the interface and are added
as points in a graph, as shown in Fig. 11. Since the
values are recorded every second, the graph and
interface are dynamically changing as more data
flows through. This allows for live, real-time data.
 Fig. 11: Graphical User Interface
IV. RESULTS
4.1 Key Findings & Final Testing
It was reaffirmed that force and resistance
are inversely proportional on the Velostat pressure
sensor. Data from Fig. 7 and 8 indicates that as force
is applied to the shirt, resistance decreases
consistently, producing visible change. This allows
for reliable, repeatable data, which makes it easy to
extrapolate information about how much force was
applied to the wearer of the shirt. However, the
results of the final shirt testing showed slightly
different results. The sensor values coming from the
Lilypad Arduino had randomized starting values, and
the pressure did not have a strong correlation to
resistance. The Arduino Uno, however, had much
more consistent values that confirmed the initial
hypothesis and testing. This is likely due to bad
connections with conductive thread and resistors on
the Lilypad.
Overall, the shirt sensor system confirmed
the initial hypothesis that Velostat pressure sensors
could be used to detect pressure applied to one’s
body. With the Lilypad Arduino, the sensor values
coming through Analog inputs were consistent and
therefore were able to be used to monitor the pressure
applied to the garment.
7
Fig. 12: Final Shirt
4.2 Discussion of Results
Some possible improvements in the sensors
include using a better conductive thread for the shirt.
Since the thread came as 4-ply, it had to be unraveled
into four separate threads, so 1-ply would be used on
the shirt. This process was difficult, and often
resulted in knotting or fraying of the thread. This
could lead to an inaccurate measure of
voltage/resistance in the material, because the thread
was not uniform throughout the sensors. Fortunately,
such effects were mitigated by placing the conductive
thread on the bottom bobbin of the sewing machine.
In this study, the final shirt prototype
consisted of twelve sensors, six in the front and six
in the back. However, a future improvement would
feature a broader array of much smaller sensors. Not
only would this create a greater detection surface
area, but less points of contact per sensor would
create more precise pressure readings.
Finally, by utilizing a sewing software such
as Embrilliance to create a computer-generated stitch
pattern, the stitch pattern could be made more precise
throughout the sensors. Embrilliance is capable of
directly sewing a computer pattern without additional
human measurements. This would reduce human
error in manually sewing the product and would
make the testing results more consistent.
 V. RESULTS
5.1 Summary of Findings
The final shirt design consists of twelve
sensors on the shirt - six on the back and six on the
front, connected to an Lilypad Arduino on either side
of the shirt. After testing two possible sensors, a final
sensor was chosen. In particular, the one with the
most points of contact would ensure greater accuracy
on where the police officer was hit. This final sensor
was chosen through tests done with an Instron
machine, that exerted pressure on this sensor. Next,
the sensor was also connected to an Impedance
Analyzer machine which received the values of
resistance from the sensor to be interpreted.
This project demonstrated that a Velostat
pressure sensor is a simple, cost-effective way of
measuring pressure. However, these sensors have
some drawbacks, such as being too sensitive to
pressure and recording inessential changes in
resistance. In addition, the tests were unable to apply
over 120 N to the Velostat, so there is no data to
indicate what would occur if this force was exceeded.
However, with more improvement in Velostat
sensors, they can be revolutionary in providing
evidence for law enforcement cases.
For each sensor, the force applied to it is
inversely proportional to the resistance. However,
when the data from the Instron machine and
Impedance Analyzer machine is graphed, it is not
perfectly proportional (See Fig. 7 and 8). This shows
that there could be some sources of error in the
resistance values from the sensors. The correlation
between force and resistance is repeatable, as seen by
the graph in Figure 13.
Fig. 13: Force and Resistance Vs. Extension
8
5.2 Future of E-Textiles in Law Enforcement
E-textiles can further enhance an officer’s
uniform for more complete evidence in court cases.
However, while effective, a t-shirt that only detects
the presence of force may not be completely reliable.
This can be rectified with additional equipment, such
as a heart rate monitor that can determine if the time
of impact was consistent with a sudden change in
heart rate. Also, such a monitor could be
implemented as a safety device to identify if an
officer suddenly becomes unconscious in the line of
duty. To measure this, a pulse sensor or
electrocardiogram (ECG) sensor could be
incorporated into e-textiles in a manner similar to the
Velostat pressure sensor. Moreover, such a uniform
can be made more effective with garments that detect
changes in motion. In particular, changes in the
flexion and extension of muscles can be analyzed to
determine the wearer’s precise movements, which
can be important for injury and physical therapy
applications. Also, an accelerometer could be
incorporated to track distance traveled.
Moreover, current technology can be
improved upon through adding a web interface and
wireless control. While the research detects impact on
an officer, it requires connection with a computer. A
wireless module could be used to present the results
continuously, and a web interface can keep a running
tab on changes of pressure on an officer. Such a web
interface can also include running video footage,
which can be monitored at all times. Combined with
an alert system, a sudden change in impact can be
used to contact other officers to report to the site,
which can decrease feedback time in serious
situations.
5.3 Future of E-Textiles Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensitive e-textiles can also be used
to approach issues in other fields also, simply by
connecting already existing sensors into a wearable
garment and an Lilypad Arduino, which is capable of
analyzing results through a web interface. For
instance, pressure sensitive e-textiles can be
incorporated into sports equipment, such as football
helmets, in order to measure the force of an impact.
Doctors can utilize this data in order to better assess
injuries, especially in patients who may be [3] M. Satomi and H. Perner-Wilson, “Velostat,” in ​How To Get
What You Want​, 2009.
concussed. This can be incredibly valuable in
[4] “SE400,” in ​Brother​.
dangerous occupations, such as working with heavy [5] “Instron Machine 44-11,” in ​Instron​.
machinery. Another possible application of this [6] ​Lilypad Arduino Main Board​. Proc. of Arduino. 2017 Arduino,
technology is as a discrete locking mechanism, which n.d. Web.
can utilize hidden buttons in fabric to unlock [7] “How to Make a Basic E-Textile LED Circuit,” in ​Kitronik​.
backpacks and prevent pickpocketing. There are
countless other recreational applications, such as
incorporating buttons into clothing for remote control
of smartphones and other devices.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A great thanks is in order to the many
mentors who gave help and aid throughout this
project, and to the extremely generous supporters
who allowed this project and program to be possible.
In particular, special gratitude towards Dean Ilene
Rosen, Director of the New Jersey Governor’s School
of Engineering and Technology (GSET) and Dean
Jean Patrick Antoine, Associate Director of the New
Jersey Governor’s School of Engineering and
Technology (GSET), who made it possible for
research to be conducted at such a high level.
Moreover, thanks to Dr. Aaron Mazzeo, Professor of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering along with
Jillian Maling, a Rutgers Class of 2020 Mechanical
Engineering Major, and Mandev Singh, a Rutgers
Class of 2019 Aerospace Engineering Major. They
were extremely important to the research and creation
of this project, and gave up countless hours to ensure
any aid needed would be received. Another special
thanks to the Governor’s School Residential
Teaching Assistants, in particular, Jacob Battipaglia,
who oversaw the progress of the project, and our
research coordinator Jamie Swartz. Finally, there is
much gratitude to the many sponsors of Governor’s
School: Rutgers University, Rutgers School of
Engineering, The State of New Jersey, Silverline
Windows, Lockheed Martin, and the Alumni of the
NJ Governor’s School of Engineering and
Technology.

REFERENCES
[1] “Electronic Textile (E-Textile),” in ​Techopedia.​
[2] Feeney, Matthew. ​PoliceMisconduct.net​. Proc. of Police Body
Cameras. CATO Institute, 2015. Web.