Electrical Substation (GRID)

The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f etc.) of electric
supply is called a sub-station. Sub-stations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a
considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations.

There are four major types of electric substations.

1. switchyard at a generating station

2. customer substation
3. system station
4. distribution station

Generating Station Switchyards

The first type is the switchyard at a generating station. These facilities connect the generators to the utility grid and also
provide off-site power to the plant.

 Generator switchyards tend to be large installations that are typically engineered and constructed by the power plant
designers and are subject to planning, finance, and construction efforts different from those of routine substation
projects.
 Because of their special nature, the creation of power plant switchyards will not be discussed here, but the expansion
and modifications of these facilities generally follow the same processes as system stations.

Customer Substations
The second type of substation, typically known as the customer substation, functions as the main source of electric power
supply for one particular business customer.

 The technical requirements and the business case for this type of facility depend highly on the customer’s
requirements, more so than on utility needs.

System Stations
The third type of substation involves the transfer of bulk power across the network and is referred to as a system station.
Some of these stations provide only switching facilities (no power transformers) whereas others perform voltage conversion
as well.

 These large stations typically serve as the end points for transmission lines originating from generating switchyards and
provide the electrical power for circuits that feed transformer stations.
 They are integral to the long-term reliability and integrity of the electric system and enable large blocks of energy to be
moved from the generators to the load centers.
 These system stations are strategic facilities and usually very expensive to construct and maintain.

Distribution Substation
The fourth type of substation is the distribution station. These are the most common facilities in power electric systems and
provide the distribution circuits that directly supply most electric customers.

 They are typically located close to the load centers, meaning that they are usually located in or near theneighborhoods
that they supply, and are the stations most likely to be encountered by the customers.
 Depending on the type of equipment used, the substations could be
o Outdoor type with air-insulated equipment
o Indoor type with air-insulated equipment
o Outdoor type with gas-insulated equipment
o Indoor type with gas-insulated equipment
o Mixed technology substations
o Mobile substations
Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic
induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces
a voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic
connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are
used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.

Types of Transformer
There are various types of transformer used in the electrical power system for different purposes, like generation,
distribution and transmission and utilization of electrical power. The different types of transformer are Step up and Step down
Transformer, Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer, Instrument transformer comprising current and Potential
Transformer, Single phase and Three phase transformer, Auto transformer, etc.

Contents:

 Step up and Step down Transformer

 Power Transformer
 Distribution Transformer
 Uses of Distribution Transformer
 Instrument Transformer
 Current Transformer
 Potential Transformer
 Single Phase Transformer
 Three Phase Transformer

Various Types of Transformer

The various types of transformer shown in the figure above are explained in the detail below
Step up and Step down Transformer
This type of transformer is categorized on the basis of a number of turns in the primary and secondary windings and the
induced emf.

Step up transformer transforms a low voltage, high current AC into a high voltage, low current AC system In this type of
transformer the number of turns in the secondary winding is greater than the number of turns in the primary winding. If (V 2 >
V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as Step up transformer

Step down transformer converts a high primary voltage associated with the low current into a low voltage, high current. With
this type of transformer, the number of turns in the primary winding is greater than the number of turns in the secondary
winding. If (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side and is known as Step down transformer

Power Transformer
The power transformers are used in the transmission networks of higher voltages. The ratings of the power transformer are
as follows 400 KV, 200 KV, 110 KV, 66 KV, 33 KV. They are mainly rated above 200 MVA. Mainly installed at the generating
stations and transmission substations. They are designed for maximum efficiency of 100%. They are larger in size as
compared to distribution transformer.

At a very high voltage, the power cannot be distributed to the consumer directly, so the power is stepped down to the desired
level with the help of step-down power transformer.

Distribution Transformer
This type of transformer has lower ratings like 11 KV, 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV, 440 V and 230 V. They are rated less than 200 MVA
and used in the distribution network to provide voltage transformation in the power system by stepping down the voltage level
where the electrical energy is distributed and utilized at the consumer end. The primary coil of the distribution transformer is
wound by enamel coated copper or aluminum wire. The oil in the transformer is used for
 Cooling
 Insulating the windings
 Protecting from the moisture

The various types of the distribution transformer are categorized on the following basis and is shown in the figure below

 Mounting location
 Type of insulation
 Nature of supply

The distribution transformer less than 33 KV is used in industries and 440, 220 V is used for the domestic purpose. It is
smaller in size, easy to install and has low magnetic losses and is not always loaded fully. As it does not work for constant
load through out 24 hours as in the daytime its load is at its peak, and during the night hours it is very lightly loaded thus the
efficiency depends on load cycle and is calculated as All Day Efficiency. The distribution transformers are designed for
maximum efficiency of 60 to 70%

Uses of Distribution Transformer

 Used in pumping stations where the voltage level is below 33 KV
 Power supply for the overhead wires railways electrified with AC
 In urban areas, many houses are fed with single phase distribution transformer and in rural areas, it may be possible that
one house requires one single transformer depending upon the loads.
 Multiple distribution transformers are used for Industrial and commercial areas.
 Used in wind farms where the electrical energy is generated by the windmills. There it is used as a power collector to
connect the substations which are away from the wind energy generation system.

Instrument Transformer
 They are generally known as an isolation transformer. Instrument transformer is an electrical device used to transform
current as well as voltage level. The most common use of instrument transformer is to safely isolate the secondary
winding when the primary has high voltage and high current supply so that the measuring instrument, energy meters or
relays which are connected to the secondary side of the transformer will not get damaged.The instrument transformer is
further divided into two types
 Current Transformer (CT)
 Potential Transformer (PT)

The current and potential transformer is explained below in detail

Current Transformer

The current transformer is used for measuring and also for the protection. When the
current in the circuit is high to apply directly to the measuring instrument, the current
transformer is used to transform the high current into the desired value of the current
required in the circuit.
 The primary winding of the current transformer is connected in series to the main supply
and the various measuring instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter or protective
relay coil.

Where,
Ip – primary current
Is – secondary or reversal current
I0 – excitation current
KT – turn ratio

Potential Transformer
The potential transformer is also called as the voltage transformer. The primary winding is
connected across the High voltage line whose voltage is to be measured, and all the measuring
instruments and meters are connected to the secondary side of the transformer. For example
the voltage ratio primary to secondary is given as 500:120, it means the output voltage is of
120 V when the 500 V is applied to the primary. The different types of potential transformer
are shown below in the figure

 Electromagnetic (it is a wire wound transformer)

 Capacitor (capacitor voltage transformer CVT uses capacitor voltage divider)
 Optical (works on the electrical property if optical materials)
The percentage voltage error is given by the equation shown below

Single Phase Transformer

A single phase Transformer is a static device, works on the principle of Faraday’s law of mutual Induction. At
a constant level of frequency and variation of voltage level, the transformer transfers AC power from one
circuit to the other circuit.

There are two types of windings in the transformer.The winding to which AC supply is given is termed as
Primary winding and in the secondary winding, the load is connected.

Three Phase Transformer

If the three single phase transformer is taken and connected together with their all the three primary
winding connected to each other as one and all the three secondary windings to each other, forming as one
secondary winding, the transformer is said to behave as three phase transformer, that means a bank of
three single phase transformer connected together which acts as a three-phase transformer.

Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused
by excess current, typically resulting from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault
is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-
current circuits or individual household appliance, up to large switchgeardesigned to protect high voltage circuits feeding an
entire city
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as automatically for controlling and
protection of electrical power system respectively. As the modern power system deals with huge currents, the special
attention should be given during designing of circuit breaker to safeinterruption of arc produced during the operation of
circuit breaker. This was the basic definition of circuit breaker.

Circuit breakers have been classified into a number of types, based on different categories they have been subdivided into.

It should be noted here that there is no specific criteria of classifying the circuit breakers, but instead there are a number of
ways in which we can categorize them for our easier understanding and knowledge of the operating conditions of the device.

These different categorizes can be according to the medium in which the circuit breaker operates, the actuating signal on
which its works, the different types of constructing and working principles etc.

Each type of circuit breaker has its own advantages and disadvantages. The construction and working of these circuit
breakers with special emphasis on the way the arc extinction is facilitated are explained in the articles listed in this page.

An overview of all the different types of circuit breakers, mentioning their names and how they have been classified is shown in the first
part. Further ahead, we will discuss some of the widely used types now-a-days.

Types of Circuit Breakers

Firstly we classify the circuit breakers according to the voltage levels they can operate on. So there are three most used types
of circuit breakers in this category. These are:

1. Low Voltage Circuit Breakers (< 1 kV)

2. Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers (1-72 kV)
3. High Voltage Circuit Breakers (> 72 kV)
Another very important category is where to use the circuit breaker. This may seem a bit weird at first, but when installing a
breaker, you must have to take care if it will be used inside your home or any other building or it has to be installed
somewhere outdoors. This is because the outer mechanical body of the breaker has to be designed accordingly for it to be
tough and protective to prevent the internal circuitry from damaging. So two more types can be:

1. Outdoor circuit breaker

2. Indoor circuit breaker

There is another category which is based on the mechanism used to actuate the circuit breaker, which specifies the
mechanism of operation of the breaker, there are three further types:

1. Spring operated circuit breaker

2. Pneumatic circuit breaker
3. Hydraulic circuit breaker

Now considering the medium in which a circuit breaker can operate. Most of us would have the concept that circuit breakers
can only be installed in the circuits present in our homes so that the medium surrounding them is air. But now here is
something for you to ponder over. Not Only air, but circuit breakers can also be installed in water or other mediums. Here are
the basic types according to the medium of installation:

1. Oil circuit breaker.

2. Air Blast circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.
Important Circuit Breaker Types
Here is a brief description of most important types of circuit breakers used in different places.

Air Blast circuit breaker.

Air blast circuit breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc quenching medium.
Under normal condition the contacts are closed. When a fault occurs contacts are opened and an arc is struck between the
them. The opening of contacts are done by a flow of air blast established by the opening of blast valve (located between air
reservoir and arcing chamber ). The air blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arching products in to the atmosphere. Thus
the dielectric strength of the medium is increased, prevents from re-establishing the arc. The arc get extinguished and flow of
current is interrupted.

The circuit breakers are classified on the basis the direction of air blast to the arc. They are classified into :

1. Axial Blast Type - air blast is directed along the arc path.

2. Cross Blast Type - air blast is directed at right angles to the arc path.

3. Radial Blast Type - air blast is directed radially.

SF6 Circuit Breakers

In SF6 Circuit Breakers, sulphur hexaflouride gas (SF6) is used as the arc quenching medium.
The sulphur hexaflouride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the
breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) gas and an arc is struck between them. The gas capture the
conducting free electrons in the arc to form relatively immobile negative ions.

This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc. The sulphur hexaflouride
(SF6) circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high power and high voltage service.

Vacuum Circuit Breaker.

In vacuum circuit breakers, vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium. Vacuum offers the highest insulating strength. So it has far
superior arc quenching properties than any other medium.

For example, when contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric strength
between the contacts building up at a rate thousands of times higher than that obtained with other circuit breakers.

The technology is suitable for mainly medium voltage application. For higher voltage vacuum technology has been developed but not
commercially viable.

Isolator:

In electrical engineering, a disconnector, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is
completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or
repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. The disconnector is usually not intended for normal control
of the circuit, but only for safety isolation. Disconnectors can be operated either manually or automatically.
 Bus Bars:

In electric power distribution, a busbar (also bus bar, buss bar or bussbar) is a metallic strip or bar, typically
housed inside switchgear, panel boards, and busway enclosures for local high current power distribution. They
are also used to connect high voltage equipment at electrical switchyards, and low voltage equipment in battery
banks.

Design:

 Busbars are produced in a variety of shapes such as flat strips, solid bars and rods
typically copper, brass or aluminium in solid or hollow tubes. Some of these shapes allow heat to dissipate
more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio.
 The skin effect makes 50–60 Hz AC busbars more than about 8 millimetres (0.31 in) thickness inefficient,
so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications.
 A hollow section also has higher stiffnessthan a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which
allows a greater span between busbar supports in outdoor electrical switchyards.
 A busbar must be sufficiently rigid to support its own weight, and forces imposed by
mechanical vibration and possibly earthquakes, as well as accumulated precipitation in outdoor
exposures.
 Insulators:

A material or an object that does not easily allow heat, electricity, light, or sound to pass through it. Air,
cloth and rubber are good electrical insulators; feathers and wool make good thermal insulators.
Compare conductor.

There are mainly three types of insulator used as overhead insulator likewise
1. Pin Insulator 2. Suspension Insulator 3. Strain Insulator In addition to that there are other two types of electrical
insulator available mainly for low voltage application, e.i. Stay Insulator and Shackle Insulator.

Pin Insulator

Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in power network up to 33KV system. Pin type

insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type, depending upon application voltage. In 11KV system we generally

use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage path

of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of the insulator surface area for lengthening

leakage path. In order to obtain lengthy leakage path, one, tow or more rain sheds or petticoats are provided on the insulator

body.
Suspension Insulator

In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size, weight of the insulator become

more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties,

suspension insulator was developed. In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string

and the line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string is called disc insulator

because of their disc like shape.

Advantages of Suspension Insulator

1. Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV(Higher voltagerating 15KV), so by using different

numbers of discs, a suspension string can be made suitable for any voltage level.

2. If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged, it can be replaced much easily.

3. Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the line hanged on a flexible suspension string.

4. As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting structure by suspension string, the height of the

conductor position is always less than the total height of the supporting structure. Therefore, the conductors may be safe from

lightening.

Disadvantages Of Suspension Insulator

1. Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator.

2. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for pin or post insulator to maintain same ground

clearance
of current conductor.

3. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator system, hence, more spacing between

conductors should be provided.

Strain Insulator

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred as string insulator. When there

is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain.

A strain insulator must have considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties.

Stay Insulator

For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used in the stay wire is called as the

stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed that in case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire will not fall

to the ground.

Shackle Insulator or Spool Insulator

The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It can be used both in horizontal

and vertical position. The use of such insulator has decreased recently after increasing the using of underground cable for

distribution purpose. The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more evenly and minimizes the possibility of

breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed with the help of soft binding wire.

Relays, The Electromechanical amplifier

A relay can be compared to a vacuum tube and solid state transistor amplifier because both can use a small voltage and
current in one circuit to control a large voltage and current in another circuit. However, unlike tubes and transistors, a relay
cannot produce a variable output; It can only switch on and off similar to a logic circuit in a computer. But the relay has the
advantage of being able to completely isolate its input circuit from its output.

Below is a drawing of a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) relay. A single contact called the Common contact switches
between a Normally Closed contact and a Normally Open contact. The Common contact is attached to an armature which is
a strip of metal that is hinged at one end and has electrical contacts, usually made of silver, at the other end. A spring pulls
the armature up so its contact connects to the Normally Closed contact. An electromagnet below the armature attracts the
armature when it is energized and pulls it down so its contact disconnects from the Normally Closed contact and connects to
the Normally Open contact instead.

The electromagnet is made of a coil of fine enameled copper wire wound on a plastic bobbin that has an iron core in its
center. A magnetic field is created in the iron core when current flows through the coil. The number of turns in the coil and
the wire size determine the voltage that must applied to it. Relays are available for operation at almost any voltage but the
most common are 5, 6, 9, 12, 24 and 48 volts DC. The coil current also depends on the number of turns and wire size and
usually ranges from 30 to 200 milliamperes.

Different Types of Relays

Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different types such as electromagnetic relays,
thermal relays, power varied relays, multi-dimensional relays, and so on, with varied ratings, sizes and applications.
1. Electromagnetic Relays
These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and have operating coil and mechanical
contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by a supply system, these mechanical contacts gets opened or closed. The
type of supply can be AC or DC.
DC vs AC Relays
Both AC and DC relays work on the same principle as electromagnetic induction, but the construction is somewhat
differentiated and also depends on the application for which these relays are selected. DC relays are employed with a
freewheeling diode to de-energize the coil, and the AC relays uses laminated cores to prevent eddy current losses.

The very interesting aspect of an AC is that for every half cycle, the direction of the current supply changes; therefore, for
every cycle the coil loses its magnetism since the zero current in every half cycle makes the relay continuously make and
break the circuit. So, to prevent this – additionally one shaded coil or another electronic circuit is placed in the AC relay to
provide magnetism in the zero current position.

Attraction Type Electromagnetic Relays

Attraction Type Relays

These relays can work with both AC and DC supply and attract a metal bar or a piece of metal when power is supplied to the
coil. This can be a plunger being drawn towards the solenoid or an armature being attracted towards the poles of an
electromagnet as shown in the figure. These relays don’t have any time delays so these are used for instantaneous
operation.
Induction Type Relays
These are used as protective relays in AC systems alone and are usable with DC systems. The actuating force for contacts
movement is developed by a moving conductor that may be a disc or a cup, through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes
due to fault currents.

Induction Type Relays

These are of several types like shaded pole, watt-hour and induction cup structures and are mostly used as directional relays
in power-system protection and also for high-speed switching operation applications.

Magnetic Latching Relays

These relays use permanent magnet or parts with a high remittance to remain the armature at the same point as the coil is
electrified when the coil power source is taken away.

2. Solid State Relays

Solid State uses solid state components to perform the switching operation without moving any parts. Since the control
energy required is much lower compared with the output power to be controlled by this relay that results the power gain
higher when compared to the electromagnetic relays. These are of different types: reed relay coupled SSR, transformer
coupled SSR, photo-coupled SSR, and so on.

Solid State Relays

The above figure shows a photo coupled SSR where the control signal is applied by LED and it is detected by a photo-
sensitive semiconductor device. The output form this photo detector is used to trigger the gate of TRIAC or SCR that
switches the load.

3. Hybrid Relay
These relays are composed of electromagnetic relays and electronic components. Usually, the input part contains the
electronic circuitry that performs rectification and the other control functions, and the output part include electromagnetic
relay.
4. Thermal Relay
These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means – the rise in the ambient temperature from the limit, directs the
contacts to switch from one position to other. These are mainly used in motor protection and consist of bimetallic elements
like temperature sensors as well as control elements. Thermal overload relays are the best examples of these relays.
5. Reed Relay

Reed Relay

Reed Relays consist of a pair of magnetic strips (also called as reed) that is sealed within a glass tube. This reed acts as
both an armature and a contact blade. The magnetic field applied to the coil is wrapped around this tube that makes these
reeds move so that switching operation is performed.

Based on dimensions, relays are differentiated as micro miniature, subminiature and miniature relays. Also, based on the
construction, these relays are classified as hermetic, sealed and open type relays. Furthermore, depending on the load
operating range, relays are of micro, low, intermediate and high power types.

Relays are also available with different pin configurations like 3 pin, 4 pin and 5 pin relays. The ways in which these relays
are operated is shown in the below figure. Switching contacts can be SPST, SPDT, DPST and DPDT types. Some of the
relays are normally open (NO) type and the other are normally closed (NC) types.
These are some of the different types of relays that are employed in most of the electronic as well as electrical circuits. The
information about the different types of relays serves readers’ purpose and we hope that they will find this basic information
very useful. Considering the huge significance of relays with zvs in circuits, this particular article on them deserves its readers’
feedback, queries, suggestions and comments. Therefore, readers can post their comments here.

Differential Relay:
The relays used in power system protection are of different types. Among them differential relay is very
commonly used relay for protecting transformers and generators from localised faults.
Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of protection but they are least
sensitive to the faults that occur outside the protected zone. Most of the relays operate when any quantity
exceeds beyond a predetermined value for example over current relayoperates when current through it
exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of differential relay is somewhat different. It operates
depending upon the difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.

Distance Relay:
There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in the line. More specifically,
the relay operates depending upon the impedance between the point of fault and the point where relay is
installed. These relays are known as distance relay or impedance relay.

Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay

The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. There is
one voltage element from potential transformer and an current element fed from current transformerof the
system. The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by
voltage of potential transformer.
Over Current Relay:
In an over current relay or o/c relay the actuating quantity is only current. There is only one current
operated element in the relay, no voltage coil etc. are required to construct this protective relay.

Working Principle of Over Current Relay

In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows through this
coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as in
this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the current through the coil
increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by
the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result, the moving element starts moving
to change the contact position in the relay.

Protective relay:
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a relay device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is detected. The
first protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils operating on moving parts to provide detection of
abnormal operating conditions such as over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over-frequency, and under-frequency

Auxilliary Relay:
An auxiliary relay is a relay that assists another relay or device in performing an action. It does this when its operating circuit
is opened or closed. These relays are used in nearly all electronic devices to assist them in functioning correctly. Essentially,
it is as simple as an action done to the relay causing a circuit to be opened — completed — or closed and not allow power to
travel through it.

One example of an auxiliary relay in action can be seen when a light is turned on in a home. The auxiliary relay is the switch
on the wall. Once the relay is opened by flipping the switch to turn the light on, a signal is sent to tell the light to turn on.
When the relay is closed, or the light switch is turned in the opposite direction, a separate signal is sent to kill the power to
the light.
Buchholz relay:
In the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled
power transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a "conservator". The Buchholz relay
is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment. A generic designation for this
type of device is "gas detector relay".

Applications:
Buchholz relays have been applied on oil-filled power transformers at least since the 1940s. The relay is
connected to the oil piping between the conservator and oil tank of a transformer. The piping between the main
tank and conservator is arranged so that any gas evolved in the main tank tends to flow upward toward the
conservator and gas detector relay. [1]

Transformer Cooling System and Methods

The main source of heat generation in transformer is its copper loss or I 2R loss. Although there are other factors contribute
heat in transformer such as hysteresis and eddy current losses but contribution of I2R loss dominate them. If this heat is not
dissipated properly, the temperature of the transformer will rise continually which may cause damages in paper insulation
and liquid insulation medium of transformer. So it is essential to control the temperature with in permissible limit to ensure the
long life of transformer by reducing thermal degradation of its insulation system. In electrical power transformer we use
external transformer cooling system to accelerate the dissipation rate of heat of transformer. There are
different transformer cooling methods available for trans former, we will now explain one by one.
Different Transformer Cooling Methods
For accelerating cooling different transformer cooling methods are used depending upon their size and ratings. We will

discuss these one by one below,

ONAN Cooling of Transformer
This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The full form of ONAN is "Oil Natural Air Natural". Here natural
convectional flow of hot oil is utilized for cooling. In convectional circulation of oil, the hot oil flows to the upper portion of the
transformer tank and the vacant place is occupied by cold oil. This hot oil which comes to upper side, will dissipate heat in
the atmosphere by natural conduction, convection and radiation in air and will become cold. In this way the oil in the
transformer tank continually circulate when the transformer put into load. As the rate of dissipation of heat in air depends
upon dissipating surface of the oil tank, it is essential to increase the effective surface area of the tank. So additional
dissipating surface in the form of tubes or radiators connected to the transformer tank. This is known as radiator of
transformer or radiator bank of transformer. We have shown below a simplest form on natural cooling or ONAN cooling

arrangement of an earthing transformer below.

ONAF Cooling of Transformer

Heat dissipation can obviously be increased, if dissipating surface is increased but it can be make further faster by applying
forced air flow on that dissipating surface. Fans blowing air on cooling surface is employed. Forced air takes away the heat
from the surface of radiator and provides better cooling than natural air. The full form of ONAF is "Oil Natural Air Forced". As
the heat dissipation rate is faster and more in ONAF transformer cooling method than ONAN cooling system, electrical power
transformer can be put into more load without crossing the permissible temperature limits.

OFAF Cooling of Transformer

In oil forced air natural cooling system of transformer, the heat dissipation is accelerated by using forced air on the
dissipating surface but circulation of the hot oil in transformer tank is natural convectional flow.
 The heat dissipation rate can be still increased further if this oil circulation is
accelerated by applying some force. In OFAF cooling system the oil is forced to circulate within the closed loop of
transformer tank by means of oil pumps. OFAF means "Oil Forced Air Forced" cooling methods of transformer. The main
advantage of this system is that it is compact system and for same cooling capacity OFAF occupies much less space than
farmer two systems of transformer cooling. Actually in oil natural cooling system, the heat comes out from conducting part
of the transformer is displaced from its position, in slower rate due to convectional flow of oil but in forced oil cooling s ystem
the heat is displaced from its origin as soon as it comes out in the oil, hence rate of cooling becomes faster.

OFWF Cooling of Transformer

We know that ambient temperature of water is much less than the atmospheric air in same weather condition. So water may
be used as better heat exchanger media than air. In OFWF cooling system of transformer, the hot oil is sent to a oil to
water heat exchanger by means of oil pump and there the oil is cooled by applying sowers of cold water on the heat
exchanger's oil pipes. OFWF means "Oil Forced Water Forced" cooling in transformer.

ODAF Cooling of Transformer

ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer can be considered as the improved version of OFAF. Here forced
circulation of oil directed to flow through predetermined paths in transformer winding. The cool oil entering the transformer
tank from cooler or radiator is passed through the winding where gaps for oil flow or pre-decided oil flowing paths between
insulated conductor are provided for ensuring faster rate of heat transfer. ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of
transformer is generally used in very high rating transformer.

ODWF Cooling of Transformer

ODAF or oil directed water forced cooling of transformer is just like ODAF only difference is that here the hot oil is cooled in
cooler by means of forced water instead of air. Both of these transformer cooling methods are called forced directed oil
cooling of transformer.

Conservator.
The oil should not be allowed to come in contact with atmospheric air as it may take up moisture which may spoil its
insulating properties. Also air may cause acidity and sludging of oil. To prevent this, many transformers are provided with
conservators. The function of a conservator (Fig. 14) is to take up contraction and expansion of oil without allowing it to come
in contact with outside air. The conservator consists of an air tight metal-drum fixed above the level of the top of the tank and
connected with it by a pipe. The main tank is completely filled with oil when cold. The conservator is partially filled with oil. So
the oil surface in con tact with air is greatly reduced. The sludge thus formed remains in the conservator itself and does not
go to the main tank.

Breather.
When the temperature changes, the oil expands or contracts and there is a
displacement of air. When the transformer cools, the oil level goes down, and air is drawn in. This is known as breathing. The
air, coming in, is passed through an apparatus called breather for the purpose of extracting moisture. The breather consists
of a small vessel which contains a drying agent like silica get crystal impregnated with cobalt crystal.