WATER SUPPLY & ENVIRONMENTAL

SANITATION
CEV 451E
PART II

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ekrem Karpuzcu

Department of Environmental Engineering
Rm: I302
E-mail: karpuzcu@itu.edu.tr
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
AND
COLLECTION OF WASTEWATER
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Sewers are underground conduits for conveying
wastewaters by gravity flow from urban areas to
points of disposal
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Romans knew that drinking water and wastewater
must be kept separate
• The Roman Goddess of the “Sewers” Venus Cloacina”
(Venus of the Sewers) (ca. 1st C BC)
 Cloaca Maxima “Great Drain”
(First known sewer system in history)
Efes, İzmir, 1st century
6
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• After the fall of the Roman Empire (476 CE), city’s
water system failed
• The practice of keeping sewage away from public
drinking water was discarded
• Between 500 and 1400 CE, cities in Europe
remained small with wells and cesspools dug
next to each other
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Roman Heritage Ottomans
• As the Ottoman capital Istanbul grew bigger by immigrations, the
city needed infrastructure for water supply and sewerage
• Architect Sinan (1490-1588) built both water supply and sewage
systems in the city by applying Roman techniques
• He called the sewage systems he built under the buildings as
‘drainage’

Mağlova Aqueduct built by Sinan in 1562 Roman Aqueducts in İstanbul

 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Privies (outdoor toilet) and cesspools (a pit
underground where sewerage flows into and allows
the wastewater to leach through the sides of the pit
leaving the sludge to be taken out regularly) had
been used for thousands of years for disposal of
human excreta, and household wastes were often
thrown on the streets
• Period of waterborne diseases and deaths began as the
European cities grew bigger
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Industrial Revolution brought an influx of people
into the unprepared cities making the situation
worse
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• With the development of industry, the first
marketable flush toilet was made, 1810
• The first carefully engineered sewer system in
Europe was built in Hamburg Germany, 1848
• Cities such as London and Philadelphia
prohibited discharge of household wastes to
storm drains as late as 1850
 HISTORY OF SEWERS
• Emerging need for wastewater treatment
• Land Disposal: Insufficient Pretreatment, Limited
Space, Bad Odor
• Early 1900s: Frankland’s intermittent sand filter
• Aeration of sewage: Invention of Activated
Sludge Process (1914)
• Mechanical Aeration (1920)
• US Water Pollution Control Act (1956): Financial
Support for WWTP construction
 TODAY
• According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), 2.4 billion people lack access to
improved sanitation, which represents 42% of
the world's population
• More than half of those without improved
sanitation-nearly 1.5 billion people- live in China
and India
• In sub-Saharan Africa, sanitation coverage is a
mere 36%
 TODAY
• About 2 million people die every year due to
diarrheal diseases: most of them are children less
than 5 years of age
• The most affected are the populations in
developing countries who are living in extreme
conditions of poverty
• With an understanding of the broad purpose and
composition of wastewater systems and needed
structures and operations as a whole, we can
proceed more fruitfully to a rigorous
consideration of details
 Overview: Sewer Systems
• Seperate System
– Storm sewer
– Sanitary sewer
• Combined System
Separate System
Combined System
 Overview: Sewer Systems
• Combined sewers were constructed in many
cities of the United States prior to 1900 without
recognizing the need for segregation and
treatment of domestic and industrial
wastewaters
• Although these systems still exist in older
municipalities, separate sewers have dominated
construction during the 20th century
 Overview: Sewer Systems
• Domestic or sanitary wastewater refers to liquid
discharge from residences, business buildings,
and institutions
• Industrial wastewater is discharged from
manufacturing plants
• Municipal wastewater is the general term
applied to the liquid waste collected in sanitary
sewers and treated in a municipal WWTP
CURRENT STATUS OF WASTEWATER
COLLECTION IN TURKEY

22
Ratio of the population connected to municipal sewer
systems to the total population within municipalities

23
 COLLECTION OF WASTEWATER
Drainage of Buildings
• The water, distributed to basins, sinks, tubs,
and other fixtures in dwellings and other
buildings, and to tanks and other equipment
in industrial establishments, is collected by the
drainage system of the building if the spent
water is run to waste
Building drainage system
 Drainage of Buildings
• If there is a separate system of sanitary sewers,
the storm water that falls upon roofs and paved
areas is carried away through separate storm
drains into the public storm-drainage system or
into the public gutter
• Where the combined system of sewerage is used,
roof and yard drains may be led into the building
drain or building sewer through a Y -fitting at
least 3 m downstream from any primary branch
• Separation of the two systems, however, is
preferable
Connecting building drainage system to sewer
 Collection of Sanitary Sewage
• About 70-100% of the water led into a community
must be removed by its sewers
• In order to prevent fouling of sanitary sewers by the
deposition of waste matters, self-cleaning velocities
(0.6 to 0.75 m/s) are necessary
• Except in unusually flat terrains, sewer grades are
chosen so as to secure these velocities when the
sewers are running reasonably full
• Some deposition of solids will occur, however, and
sewers must be made accessible for inspection and
cleaning
• In sewers that are not large enough to be entered,
this is done by providing manholes at all junctions of
sewers, changes in direction, and changes in grade
• The straight runs between manholes are limited
in length to 90 or 120 m for sewers less than 60
cm in diameter
• For larger sewers, they are up to 180 m
• The minimum diameter for sewers is 20 cm
• Smaller sewers clog too quickly and are harder to
clean
• The savings in cost are not sufficient to offset
operating troubles
• Vitrified-clay pipes are commonly used for small
sewers, and prefabricated concrete pipes for larger
ones
 Types of Manholes
Regular manholes
• Mainly for inspection purposes
• Manholes are channeled so as to cause as little
disturbance to flow as is possible in the circumstances.
• Regular manholes can be designed as circular or square
type.
Drop manholes
• These are used for connection with the entrance of high-
lying laterals
• Otherwise these laterals would have to be lowered over
the length of their last run - a wasteful arrangement.
 Types of Manholes
Flushing manholes
• The upper reaches of lateral sewers ordinarily receive
so little sewage that self-cleaning velocities cannot
be attained in 20 cm sewers.

• Such runs must be flushed out from time to time.

• This can be done by providing at the end of the line a

flushing manhole that can be filled with water
through a fire hose attached to a nearby fire hydrant
before a flap valve, shear gate, or similar quick-
opening device
Plan, profile, and constructional details of sanitary sewers
45’
Figure 2.6. Drop manhole (constructed where incoming canals have a
diameter smaller than 40 cm)
(The diameter of vertical pipe is 15 cm for sewers with a diameter
smaller than 30 cm. When incoming sewer diameter ≥ 40 cm, the
diameter of the vertical pipe ≥ 20 cm)
Figure 2.7. Drop manhole (used in places where the incoming sewers
have a diameter larger than 40 cm)
Figure 2.8. Flushing manhole
 Depth Considerations
Sewers are commonly laid at sufficient depth:
• (1) to protect them against breakage or traffic
shock,
• (2) to keep them from freezing,
• (3) to permit them to drain the lowest fixture on
the premises served by them.

• In fixing the depth of street sewers, due

allowance must be made for the slope of the
building sewer
• For building sewers, slopes of 1:50 = 2% or more
are common. In colder countries, cellar depths
generally range from 1.8 to 2.4 m and frost
depths from 1.2 to 1.8 m
• Turkish Bank of Provinces requires 3-6 m depths
for sanitary sewers and 2-6 m depths for storm
water sewers
• ISKI requires 3-6 m depths for both sanitary
storm water sewers
• An earth cover of 0.6 m will cushion most shocks
• Sewage from deep basements may have to be
pumped into the street sewer
Constructional details of sanitary sewers
(a. Pipe should have a bedding inside the trench to prevent breakage b. Pipes in poor soil with low bearing capacity are
protected by means of concrete cradles c. Pipes specially vitrified clay-pipes in rock trench should be laid on a gravel
filling d. Sewers below groundwater level should be equipped with an underdrain to lower the groundwater table and to
prevent the groundwater entrance)
 Collection of Storm Water
• In separate sewerage systems, much of the
suspended load of solids carried by storm sewers
or drains is heavy mineral matter that will settle
out unless the velocity of flow is kept sufficiently
high.
• Fine sand is ordinarily transported by water at
velocities of 0.3 m/s or more and gravel at 0.6
m/s or more.
• Recommended minimum velocities, therefore,
are 0.75 to 0.9 m/s, or about 0.15 m/s more than
for sanitary sewers.
• Although storm sewers are occasionally
surcharged and subjected to pressures equal to
their depth below street level, they are designed
for open-channel flow and equipped with
manholes in much the same manner as sanitary
sewers.
• The minimum diameter of storm sewers
commonly employed is 30 cm
• The greater sizes will help prevent clogging of the
drains
• The minimum depth is determined by
structural requirements rather than the
elevation of basement floors
• Surface runoff is led into storm drains from
street gutters through street inlets or catch
basins and through property drains
Types of inlets to storm water sewer
• There are two main types of inlets, with many
commercial patterns available in each type.
- Grated inlets are openings in the gutter
bottom protected by grates
- A curb-opening inlet or side inlet is an
opening in the face of the curb which operates
much like a side-channel spillway
Figure 2·9. Street inlets and their connection to a manhole.
• The location of the street inlets is determined largely by the
judgement of the designer

• A maximum width of gutter flow of 1.80 m has been

suggested as a suitable criterion for important highways

• Under this rule an inlet is necessary whenever the gutter

flow exceeds the gutter capacity within the limiting 1.80 m
width

• In dense residential sections inlet spacing provides four

inlets at each intersection (see Figure)

• With this arrangement flow travels in gutter only one block

before interception
• A less expensive arrangement provides only two inlets at
the uphill corner of the intersection and water is allowed to
flow around two sides of the block

• A much more economical design might place inlets at

several blocks intervals

• This arrangement does not only eliminate a considerable

number of inlets, but also considerably reduces the length
of sewer lines to be constructed
• In small residential sections, an arrangement such as shown
in Fig. 2.11c may be quite adequate as long as the inlets can
handle gutter flow (if not, flooding of sidewalks, lawns, and
even houses may occur)
• In commercial areas with heavy pedestrian and vehicle
traffic, the arrangement in Fig.2.11b would be more
appropriate.
Figure 2.11. Some possible arrangements of storm-drain inlets
 Collection of Combined Sewage
• In combined sewerage systems, a single set of
sewers collects both surface runoff and sanitary
sewage
• The quantity of storm water is often 50 to 100
times that of the sanitary sewage
• The accuracy with which rates of surface runoff can
be estimated is generally less than the difference
between rates of stormwater and combined
wastewater flows
• Accordingly, most combined sewers are designed to
serve principally as storm drains
 In large streets

In residential areas

Street cross-section in combined system

• However, they are laid as deep as sanitary
sewers since they must carry away the flows
from building drains as well as street inlets or
catch basins
• Obviously, surcharge and overflow of
combined sewers is more objectionable than
the backing-up of drains that carry only storm
water
 In large streets

Storm sewer

Sanitary sewer

In residential areas

Storm sewer

Sanitary sewer
Storm sewer

Street cross-section in separate system

 Comparison of Collecting Systems
• In the life of growing communities, economies that
are initially affected by the use of combined sewers
will generally be offset in the long run:
• (1) by undesirable pollution of natural water courses
as a result of stormwater spills and consequent
nuisance or, at least, the debased aesthetic and
recreational values of the receiving bodies of water
• (2) by increased cost of eventual sewage treatment
or pumping associated with the disposal of
intercepted sewage;
• (3) by more obnoxious conditions when streets and
basements are flooded by combined wastewater
instead of storm water
 Channel Sections
• Departures from circular cross-sections are generally
prompted by structural or economic rather than
hydraulic considerations
• To secure reasonably good hydraulic performance at
dry weather flows, however, some combined sewers
have been given special shapes
Figure 8·6. Sections of storm and combined sewers.
 Channel Sections
• The egg-shaped section is, in essence, an integration of
two circular sewers: an underlying sanitary sewer and an
overlying storm drain. The resulting hydraulic radius is
nearly constant at all depths.
• If flowrate is high, egg-shaped section may not be
economically feasible
• The cunette section is economically more feasible in
that case
• If there are even more space constraints:
• The rectangular section is easy to construct and makes
for an economical trench with low head-room
requirements. However, it cannot carry high structural
loads
• The horseshoe section is a versatile section (structurally
in between cunette and rectangular sections and
combines the advantages of both)
 Inverted Siphons
• An inverted siphon is a section of sewer which is dropped
below the hydraulic line
• I. Purpose
• When an obstacle such as railway or a river obstructs the
sewer line, the sewers can be lowered below these obstacles
• Such sewers will flow full and will be under some pressure

II. Main Parts

• Inlet chamber
• Outlet chamber
• Pressure pipes:
– For dry weather flow
– For wet weather flow
– Emergency bypass pipe
 Inverted Siphons
For the inverted siphon: Minimum velocity = 0.9 m/s
• The first pipe is used to carry the minimum dry weather flow
• The second carries the maximum dry weather flow in excess of the
minimum
• The third carries the storm flow in excess of the maximum dry weather flow
 Inverted Siphons

The spread between dry-weather flows and storm flows through inverted
siphons, or depressed sewers, is cared for by installing a sufficient number of
pipes to carry characteristic flows through the siphon at self-cleaning
velocities.