Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Useful language
Agreeing
Apologising
I'm sorry.
I apologise.
I'm sorry to say that ....
There seems to have been a mistake. I ....
I can assure you it won't happen again.
Excuse me.
I beg your pardon.
I'm extremely sorry about ....
I hope you will excuse me if I have to ....
Excuse me.
Could you tell me ...?
Could you tell me how to ...?
Would you mind telling me ...?
Do you know ...?
What happens if ...?
Where can I ...?
When can I ...?
How can I ...?
Something else I'd like to know is ....
Can I ...?
May I ...?
Could I ...?
Could I possibly ...?
Do you mind if I ...?
Would it be possible for me to ...?
Would it be all right if I ...?
Challenging
It seems to me ....
I tend to think ....
I don't think I'd say that.
I'm not so sure about that.
You may be right.
But all the evidence suggests that ..
I'm afraid I can't agree with _________ on this matter.
I wouldn't say that.
I don't agree at all.
I can't accept that.
OK
Now
All right
Is that clear?
Is everyone following?
All right?
OK?
All right so far?
Are you with me?
Do you see what I mean?
Classifying / categorising
types : Y and Z.
There are
kinds . These are Y and Z.
classes
two of X
categories
The sorts are Y and Z.
varieties
categories
consists of classes
. These are Y and Z.
X comprises two kinds
: Y and Z.
can be divided into types
varieties
classes
kinds
Y and Z are of X.
types
categories
varieties
according to
We can classify X on the basis of W.
depending on
Comparing
with respect to W.
X is like Y as regards W.
X and Y are similar as far as W is concerned.
X is similar to Y regarding W.
X is the same as Y in that W is the same.
X resembles Y in terms of W.
in W.
Concluding
So ..
We've seen that ..
First we looked at . and we saw that ..
Then we considered . and I argued ..
In short ..
To sum up, ..
In conclusion, I'd like to emphasise that ..
That completes my presentation.
Contrasting
X is ....
X is called ....
X is known as ....
X may be defined as ....
X is a type of Y that/which ....
A type of Y which ... is X.
We call ... ....
We define ... ....
Describing function
chart, ...
As you can see
diagram,
from table,
the
in graph,
We can see figures, that ...
statistics,
As you can see Table 1,
from
Figure 2, .
We can see in
Graph 3,
chart
diagram shows,
table indicates, .
As The graph
figures show,
statistics indicate,
Table 1 see
Figure 2 conclude
can
show
From figures we that ...
estimate
the chart may
calculate
diagram infer
Describing change
increased
shot up
grew
rose
X declined by ...
reduced
decreased
dropped
fell
increased slightly
shot up slowly
grew gradually
rose steadily
X markedly
declined dramatically
reduced steeply
decreased sharply
dropped rapidly
fell suddenly
reached a peak.
X
levelled off
Describing objects
Where is it?
What size is it?
What shape is it?
What colour is it?
What is it made of?
What does it look like?
What is it used for?
How does it work?
Position
adjacent to
alongside
below
beyond
facing (diagonally)
parallel to
underneath
opposite
in the middle of
on the right of
on the left of
near B
A is close to
touching
behind
in front of
under
on top of
above
below
level with
diagonally above
vertically below
between
B and C.
equidistant from
Structure
nailed
X is screwed to Y by Z
fixed
fastened
welded
tied
connected
attached
consists of Y and Z
contains
Colour
dark
green
light
blue
X is pale
red
bright
yellow
dull
Composition
metal.
steel.
alluminium.
an alloy of A and B.
cloth.
X is made of
silk.
china.
wood.
plastic.
glass.
long
X is 6 cm high
wide
length
height
6 cm
X is in width
diameter
6 Kg weight
length
height
6 cm
The width of X is
diameter
weight 6 Kg.
length
width
of 6 cm.
X Has a height
diameter
weight 6 Kg.
X weighs 10 Kg
Shape
square
round
rectangular
X is triangular in shape
semi-circular
conical
spherical
square
circle
X is is shaped like a rectangle
triangle
semi-circle
Describing procedures
When you have to give a series of instructions to make or produce something there are some
common, useful and simple language features you can use to sound fluent and natural. Let’s
use the example of how to cook the perfect omelette to demonstrate this.
The imperative
One common feature when describing a process, such as the instructions for how to make
a particular dish, is the use of the imperative.
The imperative form is made by using the bare infinitive of the verb (the infinitive without
'to'). The imperatives are in bold. Note that in these examples there are no grammatical
subjects
It is possible to use subjects when describing a process like this. The subject most
commonly used is 'you'. For example:
Linking words
When giving a series of instructions it's more natural in speech and writing to join the
different instructions together with linking words.
There are many different linking words that can be used to describe a sequence of
instructions that are part of a process. Two very simple, but commonly used ones are and
and then. Here are some examples from the omelette instructions.
... lightly beat the eggs then pour them into the pan ...
... Turn the heat down and then use your fork ...
... And then just put a knife underneath and flip the omelette over ...
The Passive to Describe Process
Examples:
Before filming
___ To complete the script, it has to ________________ (divide) into scenes, and
________________ (hire).
___ The final film you see on the screen ________________ (create) by the
___ Soon after the film has been edited, music ________________ (compose)
Disagreeing
Encouraging
Emphasising a point
Evaluating
For example, ..
For instance, ..
And as proof of that, ..
Remember .
You only have to think of ..
To illustrate my/our point ....
Expressing certainty
Emphasising cause.
because
The death rate from cancer is people are smoking
owing to the fact
increasing more.
that
is due to
The fact the death rate from cancer is people smoking
may be due
that increasing more.
to
reason is that
The the death rate from cancer people are smoking
for could be
One increasing more.
cause of that
one effect of
one result of
is one consequence
may of
An increase in the death rate from be caused by people smoking
cancer due to more.
because of
results from
arises from
Emphasising effect.
As
Because people are smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.
Since
Therefore,
So,
Thus,
Hence,
People are smoking
Consequently,
more.
Because of this,
For this reason, the death rate from cancer is
As a consequence, increasing.
As a result,
as a result of which
People are smoking as a consequence of
more, which
with the result that
Owing to people smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.
results in
leads to
produces
People smoking more causes an increase in the death rate from cancer.
is the cause of
gives rise to
brings about
resulting in
(so) leading to
People smoke an increase in the death rate from
(thus) producing
more, cancer.
(thereby) causing
giving rise to
bringing
about
If people smoke more the death rate from cancer will increase.
Following up a question
Expressing frequency
Verbs
Percentage Frequency
100% always will
is/are
must
usual(ly) have to
normal(ly)
general(ly) should
as a rule ought to
on the whole
often can
frequent(ly) could
sometimes may
occasional(ly) might
rare(ly)
seldom
hardly ever could not
scarcely ever will not
0% cannot
never is/are not
Generalising
Verbs
Percentage Quantity Frequency Certainty
100% all/every/each always certain(ly) will
most definite(ly) is/are
a majority (of) undoubtedly must
many/much usual(ly) clearly have to
normal(ly) presumably
general(ly) probably/probable should
as a rule likely ought to
some on the whole
a number (of)
several often conceivably can
frequent(ly) possibly/possible could
a minority (of) sometimes perhaps may
a few/a little occasional(ly) maybe might
few/little rare(ly) uncertain
seldom unlikely
hardly ever could not
scarcely ever will not
0% cannot
no/none/not any never is/are not
Giving instructions
... so as to .
... so as not to .
... so that .
... in order to .
... in order not to .
Furthermore, ....
An additional point is ....
Another point is ....
A further point is ....
A similar point is ....
In addition, ....
Moreover, ....
Similarly, ....
Apart from ..., ....
Not only ., but ....
We can add ....
I could add that ....
Further, ....
As well as...,....
Besides, ....
..., as well.
..., too.
..., also.
As we know, ....
As we have already seen, ....
As we have all read, ....
It's clear that, ....
It goes without saying, ....
We all understand, ....
It is understood, ....
You'll remember, ....
Giving opinions.
May I ...?
Could I possibly ...?
Do you mind if I ...?
Would it be possible for me to ...?
I'm sorry to bother you, but ...
Would it be all right if I ...?
OK
Yes, go ahead.
Certainly
Please do,
Yes, I suppose so.
Oh well. All right.
Hypothesising
If ...
What if ...
What you have done if ...?
What might have happened if ...?
Interrupting politely
Inviting
That covers the main points. If you have any comments or questions, we'll be happy
to hear them.
So that explains our main point. Does anyone have any comments or questions?
We'd be glad to try and answer any questions.
Listing
Firstly
Secondly
Next
Then
Thirdly
Lastly
Finally
First of all
.
In the first place
For one thing
To begin with
In the second place
For another thing
first
second
The point I'd like to make is
next
last
Narrating
Time
In 1942, ...
During the 20th century, ...
Yesterday, ...
Twenty five years ago, ...
Sequence
Before this, .
For the previous X years, .
Prior to this, .
Previously, .
X years previously, .
Before.
. before which .
. prior to which .
When
As soon as he had finished his research, he was offered a job as a lecturer.
After
Obliging
Offering
Predicting
Verbs
Percentage Certainty
100% certain(ly) Of course, it'll ....
will
definite(ly) It's sure to ....
is/are
undoubtedly There's no doubt that it'll ...
must
clearly It's bound to ....
have to
presumably I expect it'll ....
should
probably/probable I wouldn't be surprised if it ...ed.
ought to
likely I bet it'll ....
can
conceivably There's a chance it'll ....
could
possibly/possible It's possible that it'll ....
may
perhaps It might possibly ....
might
maybe I suppose it might ....
uncertain I doubt if it'll ...
unlikely I don't think it'll ...
There's not much chance of it ...ing.
could not
Of course, it won't ... will not
0% certain(ly) not There's no chance of it ...ing. cannot
definite(ly) not I'm absolutely sure it won't ... is/are not
Referring to research
If you do not want to give your opinion about what the writer says.
According to X...
It is the view of X that ...
The opinion of X is that ...
In an article by X, ...
Research by X suggests that ...
X has expressed a similar view.
X reports that ...
X notes that ...
X states that ...
X observes that ...
X concludes that ...
X argues that ...
X found that ...
X discovered that ...
Quoting
Requesting
May I ...?
Could I ...?
Would you ...?
Can I ...?
Can you ...?
Will you ...?
I'd like to ..., please.
I'm interested in ....
Would you mind ...ing.
I wonder if you'd mind ...ing.
Rephrasing
In other words,
Or rather,
That is to say,
Basically
To put it another way,
If we put that another way,
I mean
By which I mean
Or you could say
The point I'm making is .
That is to say,
That is,
Namely,
i.e.
That means
'm suggesting
'm trying to say
What I is
meant to say
should have said
Let me put it another way
Sequencing
Eventually, . until .
Lastly . finishes with .
Finally, concludes with
In the last stage, The last step is .
Speeding up things
Suggesting
Summarising
Using visuals
On this graph, ..
Take a look at this.
Let's have a look at this.
I'd like you to look at this.
I'd like to draw your attention to ..
Here we can see ..
The . represents ..
The graph illustrates ..
As you can see, ..
If you look closely, you'll see ..
Warning
Look out.
Be careful.
I warn you it's going to be difficult.
If you're not careful, there might be an accident.
Reaction or response papers are usually requested by teachers so that you'll consider
carefully what you think or feel about something you've read. The following guidelines are
intended to be used for reacting to a reading although they could easily be used for reactions
to films too. Read whatever you've been asked to respond to, and while reading, think about
the following questions.
Keeping your responses to these questions in mind, follow the following prewriting steps.
I think that
I see that
I feel that
It seems that
In my opinion,
Because
A good quote is
In addition,
For example,
Moreover,
However,
Consequently,
Finally,
In conclusion,
What you've done in completing these statements is written a very rough reaction/response
paper. Now it needs to be organized. Move ahead to the next section.
The introduction should contain all the basic information in one or two paragraphs.
Your introduction should include a concise, one sentence, focused thesis. This is the
focused statement of your reaction/response. More information on thesis statements
is available.
The body should contain paragraphs that provide support for your thesis. Each
paragraph should contain one idea. Topic sentences should support the thesis, and
the final sentence of each paragraph should lead into the next paragraph.
Topic Sentence
Summary Sentence
You can structure your paragraphs in two ways:
Author
You
OR
Author
in contrast to
You
The conclusion can be a restatement of what you said in your paper. It also be a
comment which focuses your overall reaction. Finally, it can be a prediction of the
effects of what you're reacting to. Note: your conclusion should include no new
information.
Summary
In summary, this handout has covered prewriting and organizing strategies for
reaction/response papers.
Prewriting
o Read the article and jot down ideas.
o How do you feel about what was said?
o Do you agree or disagree with the author?
o Have you had any applicable experience?
o Have you read or heard anything that applies to this what the writer said in
the article or book?
o Does the evidence in the article support the statements the writer made?
Organizing
o Write the thesis statement first.
o Decide on the key points that will focus your ideas. These will be your topic
sentences.
o Develop your ideas by adding examples, quotations, and details to your
paragraphs.
o Make sure the last sentence of each paragraph leads into the next paragraph.
o Check your thesis and make sure the topic sentence of each paragraph
supports it
English Vocabulary
Expressing Opinions
Below are some phrases that you can use to help express opinions. Some of
these phrases are more appropriate for written English such as giving your
opinion in an essay whereas some can also be used in spoken English.
In my experience…
As far as I'm concerned…
Speaking for myself…
In my opinion…
Personally, I think…
I'd say that…
I'd suggest that…
I'd like to point out that…
I believe that…
What I mean is…
We use these words and phrases to express a point of view that is generally
thought by people:
It is thought that...
Some people say that...
It is considered...
It is generally accepted that...
We use these words and phrases to agree with someone else's point of view:
Of course.
You're absolutely right.
Yes, I agree.
I think so too.
That's a good point.
Exactly.
I don't think so either.
So do I.
I'd go along with that.
That's true.
Neither do I.
I agree with you entirely.
That's just what I was thinking.
I couldn't agree more.
We use these words and phrases to disagree with someone else's point of
view:
That's different.
I don't agree with you.
However…
That's not entirely true.
On the contrary…
I'm sorry to disagree with you, but…
Yes, but don't you think…
That's not the same thing at all.
I'm afraid I have to disagree.
I'm not so sure about that.
I must take issue with you on that.
It's unjustifiable to say that...