Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films
the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and
dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of
computer printer.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL AND MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AND
VOLUNTEERING BEHAVIOR IN A HOSPICE ENVIRONMENT
by
Trudi I. Webb
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
School of Business and Entrepreneurship
Nova Southeastern University
2000
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UMI Number; 9996957
Copyright 2001 by
Webb, Gertrude Use
_ ___ _®
UMI
UMI Microform 9996957
Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 -0 9 -2 0 1 1 2 - 29PM FROM HOSPICE BY THE SEA 4 0 7 + 3 9 4 + 4 5 1 5 P. 2
•V
A Dissertation
Entitled
A S T U D Y O F T H E R E LA TIO N SH IPS
B E T W E E N O R G A N IZ A T IO N A L A N D M O T IV A T IO N A L FA C TO R S A N D
V O L U N T E E R IN G B E H A V IO R IN A HO SPICE E N V IR O N M E N T
By
Trudi I. Webb
W e hereby certify that this Dissertation submitted by Trudi L Webb conforms to acceptable standards
and as such is fu lly adequate in scope and quality. It is therefore approved as the fu lfillm e n t o f the
Dissertation requirement for the Degree o f Doctor o f Business Administration.
Approved:
(A J L s { /L ^ Q V ____________________
W illiam Snow, Ph.D. Date
c fl £ - , 9-000________
David M w ton, D .B .A . s? ^ Date •
______________
Joseph L . Bafloun, Ph.D. / ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the
language of others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate
credit is given where I have used the language, ideas, expressions or writings of
another.
Signed:
Trudi I. Webb
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ABSTRACT
by
Trudi I. Webb
theory is used in this study in which he posits that persons are motivated based
extent to which the affiliation motive influences adults to volunteer for hospice
type work, to be more productive, to influence the number of hours for which they
volunteer, and the extent to which the demographics (age, gender, length of
were surveyed. Of these, 155 of their responses were usable (72%). The data
did not support the need for affiliation as a motivating factor for volunteering.
Volunteers did not have significantly higher needs for affiliation than their needs
for achievement as measured by Pearson correlation. And, the idea that the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
was not supported. There were no significant correlations found in the data
using the affiliation sub-scale of the Personal Values Questionnaire. Further, the
idea that the motivation displayed by the volunteer as measured on the Cnaan
the number of hours that volunteers would dedicate to hospice was not
supported. This was borne out by both correlational and discriminate analysis.
Finally, the notion that certain demographic variables (age, gender, length of
Discriminate analysis revealed that age and future intent were significant.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to the memory of my parents, Use and Erich Schuler.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For the support given to me by my committee members, Dr. Robert Preziosi and
Dr. David Morton.
To Mary Fischer, without whose support, patience, help and incredible computer
skills I would never have accomplished this.
And to my family, my children, Joanna and Eric, who offered support and
understanding, and my husband John who was there for me every step of the
way offering encouragement, motivation and strength and always demonstrating
incredible patience.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
III. METHODOLOGY 44
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Chapter Page
Data Collection............................................................................ 51
Proposed Data Analysis............................................................ 52
Demographic Summary.............................................................. 55
Research Questions and Hypotheses...................................... 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................... 77
REFERENCES........................................................................................ 84
v iii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
LIST OF TABLES
ix
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
made the difference between the survival and failure of the organization. Some
have suggested that the reason people do things such as volunteering is due not
only to a conscious motive, but also as a result of certain external trigger events
David McClelland identified three social motives which are most influential
People who value affiliation prefer doing things with people, but do not
spontaneously spend time chatting with people unless affiliation is called for or
unless the other person starts the conversation. In contrast, people with a strong
affiliation motive will on their own initiative seek out people to spend time with
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a
rights and other issues are all part of a value system that aids in the
Motives and values are related to behavior in different ways. Motives are
1966).
motivated by the need for affiliation. Marlene Wilson (1976) states in her book,
basically want a buddy. Wilson further observed that the motivation of a person
demonstrated that young women with high affiliation needs worked harder
satisfaction was high under leaders with a strong need for affiliation. Further,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
members with a high need for affiliation typically exhibited warmth and regard for
others.
McClelland (1987) indicates that individuals with high affiliation needs will
act in various ways to avoid conflict, competition and negative feedback from
others. In the negative sense, persons that are motivated by the need for
fund raising) in order to be accepted and viewed as good persons by their peers,
select from a list of twelve values the one that corresponded the most with their
status all volunteers tended to give the same reason for volunteering but at
widely disparate rates. The three most frequent answers were “to help others”,
“to help the community”, and “to obtain job training and skills”. The latter two
were a radical change from any previous studies which had always resulted in
147 volunteers. The respondents were asked their initial motive for volunteering.
In the “motive” variable “to learn a new skill” was the most significant reason for
volunteer commitment.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
In a comparison study between paid employees and volunteers it was
found that “work-content” (relating to the work itself and achievement at work)
and lack of stress at work ) were strong volunteer retention factors (Gidron,
1984).
category that predicted differences between the “stayers” and “leavers”. In the
were the positive factors in the retention of volunteers. It was also concluded
that the issues motivating a volunteer to stay with an organization did not
necessarily mean that the opposite was true as to why a volunteer leaves.
altruistic motives as an overall major decision factor, “to practice ideals and
conviction", and “to help others less fortunate” and “to be good neighbors” (Frisch
But among the younger group of volunteers (under age 18) “career
extracurricular activity”, and “learn how to relate to people” were among the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Educational levels of volunteers were also found to play an important role
in determining who would continue with an organization and who would drop out.
Some form of higher education was associated with volunteer retention along
with the positive features of the volunteer experience, task satisfaction and team
with that organization as an adult. The volunteer would also likely provide
Why do people volunteer? Why do people who have retired from a job, or
people who work long hours in a current job consider taking on additional
does a busy person with alternative responsibilities such as job and family
trained volunteer is of great concern to the organization who has invested the
time and money on the training of these individuals, only to possibly lose them to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
This information is vital if an organization is to successfully recruit
individuals into becoming volunteers. But equally important is the ability of the
present study. Of all the scientific investigations that relate to adult volunteers,
1989). This researcher plans to examine McClelland’s need for affiliation theory
as it relates to the adult volunteer. More specifically, this researcher will study
most important reason for volunteering. And the reasons change with the
demographic variables. In today’s society, where salaries and job titles provide
individuals who recruit and maintain a volunteer pool for non-profit and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
human service agencies. If adequate training is conducted with the volunteer
volunteer in the first place, And, it is important to determine the reasons that
the volunteer continues to remain with the organization over a period of time
(Gidron, 1984).
The main focus of this study centers on what motivates the hospice
Affiliation and Power. In this study the researcher will examine McClelland’s
need for affiliation as it relates to the adult volunteer. It is hypothesized that the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Importance of the Study
Society has benefited from volunteer efforts since colonial times. Because
involves the need to identify those factors which may increase the likelihood that
patient with whom the volunteers will work for several reasons. Most volunteers
work side-by-side with paid employees and are placed in sensitive patient-
commitment and after having completed the requisite training, the effects could
Research Questions
1. Does the need for affiliation motivate adults to volunteer for hospice type
work?
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2. Will the volunteer motivated by affiliation be more productive in the hospice
environment?
this study.
Definition of Terms
In this study, the researcher will use the following terms. The definitions of
these terms are provided in order to help ensure more clarity of meaning and
Affiliation: individuals who most value avoiding conflict and maintaining good
relations with a concern about separation or disruption of relationships, and who
have an overall view of group activities as social events.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Hospice: organization that delivers “quality of life” services to community
members, including but not limited to counseling and medical treatment.
Motives: The natural and unconscious drives which a person gravitates to over
time that are influenced by early emotional experiences and are, perhaps,
genetic. These are difficult to change.
Power: Individuals who most value positions of prestige and influence so that
they can impact what happens, take forceful actions that affect people, provide
unsolicited support or advice, and act in ways that generate strong positive or
negative emotions in others.
Socialized Power: Used by individuals for getting something done for some
larger good.
Summary
explore these areas with the idea that gaining more clarity on what motivates
10
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
important to examine especially in today’s healthcare environment. Further, the
framework for this study is David McClelland’s social motives theory which
they provide rich and robust summaries of relevant data and information. A
11
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER II
popular culture or by sociologists (Sabini, 1996). The most effective view to take
rooted in core religious beliefs— helping those less fortunate, giving to others—
and therefore was an integral part of our founding fathers thinking and actions
(Batson & Ventis, 1982). Over the years, volunteering has become a positive
force in helping serve those in need. To that end, the major staffing needs of
and United W ay are met with volunteers, persons without whom these
12
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Building Volunteer Organizations
Before the turn of the century, volunteerism was still viewed as service
work associated with the same religious groups that established the colonies
providers for the society’s poor, sick and elderly (Salmon, 1985). As our country
continued to emerge, large metropolitan cities came into being. These heavy
population centers all had concerns about such major social issues as crime and
organizations.
are still in existence today. Although religious volunteerism declined during the
first half of the 20th century due to the professionalism of human services,
volunteers were incorporated into public programs (Monk and Cryns, 1974).
Since the 1970s, changes in the society, demographics and the economy
have greatly affected the nature of volunteering (Manser, 1987). Adults are more
educated; they are healthier, thereby living longer; and they are financially more
13
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
numbers of older adults were getting involved in volunteering activities, and new
was expected to rise within the population as the number of people with more
income and education continued to increase. These are the people who typically
variables that influence one’s behaviors. These theories have evolved from
individuals.
Abraham Maslow (1954) suggested that people are needy beings through
14
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4. Esteem—the need to be recognized as a person o f value; to be
rewarded
5. Self-Actualization— self-fulfillment and personal growth.
Needs can be ranked in order of importance, from the most basic level to
the highest. Maslow divided these needs into several categories. The lowest
level need may also be referred to as an efficiency need (i.e., basic need for
survival), while the other levels have been termed growth needs. The highest
level of the hierarchy, self-actualization, is also a growth need but appears later
needs as the lower levels infer an aspect of developmental deficiency versus the
different levels will motivate behavior (Schram, 1985). According to the theory,
when a lower level need is satisfied (e.g., efficiency needs), the next higher need
level is activated and becomes a motivator. As each level is satisfied, the lower
secures a job and steady income (e.g., fulfilling the safety/security need), he or
she may feel the need to join some sort of social group in order to make friends
and gain a feeling of belonging (e.g., social need is the next level in the hierarchy
the more basic need is suddenly not met (Maslow, 1954). This is not to say that
two levels cannot be motivating at the same time, merely that the needs at lower
15
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Maslow argues that as growth needs become satisfied, they do not
motivation— the person will want more. In Maslow’s view, satisfying higher level
growth needs will create a desire for more growth (Maslow, 1954).
also known as the two factor theory, as proposed by Frederick Herzberg (1959).
Herzberg utilizes the factors affecting people and how they work and separates
them into two categories. The first category, called “hygiene factors,” is
security and salary. These factors, Herzberg suggests, do not motivate people to
do better work when the factors are present; instead, they negatively motivate
these are the factors that do motivate and encourage people to perform at their
Herzberg (1966, 1968) later expanded his theory to include two additional
yet unrelated classes of human needs: physical needs which motivate action
16
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
according to tension reduction, and psychological pleasure thorough growth
(Lawler, 1976).
motives theory. McClelland (1956) believes that there are three motivators
associated with work-related activities—the need for achievement, the need for
power, and the need for affiliation. Each motive, whether it is a desire for power,
performance. Individuals with a high need for achievement are focused on tasks,
task completion, and personal improvement. In addition, they have a need for
the desire to know, understand and communicate the goals of the organization.
The person with a need for power seeks to take a leadership role and provide
direction or control the direction that the department or organization will take
(Chusmir, 1985).
17
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
fulfills the need through relationships with others. People with affiliation needs
will make decisions about the work they do based on the people they work with
as opposed to the job requirements. People motivated by the need for affiliation
hope to find themselves with other people and to enjoy companionship (Chusmir,
1985).
his theory postulates that motivation is altered as one progresses from young to
mature adult.
reasons why a particular person acts in a certain way (Moore, 1985). The
behaviors that people engage in will lead to the goals that have been set.
According to McClelland (1956), motives start with thoughts, and one’s thoughts
McClelland asserts that individuals will act, but the intensity of the drive will vary
Values
areas in which they choose to invest energy (Rivers, 1992). Much of what has
been learned about interpersonal work values has been drawn from research
18
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Some of the early research about values relied ►on the work done by
research drew much criticism because the six classifications seemed more
behavior. It was Kluckhom (1951) who provided the firstf systematic definition:
are embedded within the social interaction process (Braithwaite and Scott, 1991).
means to link values with behavior (Braithwaite and Scott, 1991). These value
systems were measured along two continuums: terminal values (end states) and
19
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
From his research, Rokeach (1973) suggested that values are similar to
beliefs in that they both have components of cognition, affect and behavior.
cognitions about what is preferable, and individuals will cognitively know the way
to the degree that an individual will feel a state of emotion. Therefore, values are
differences between motives and values. While values influence the choices
people make, motives reflect the pleasure that people gain through certain kinds
of activities. This pleasure leads people to carry out activities even though there
is no specific prompt or demand for the action. McClelland (1985) notes there is
motives tap ongoing thought patterns that people do not consciously try to shape.
Although they appear similar, the correlation between measures of motives and
20
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Volunteer Motives
Many researchers (Sills, 1957; Anderson & Moore, 1974; Adams,1980; King
1984; Moore, 1985; Fitch, 1987; Stiff, Dillard, Somers, Kim, & Sleight,1988)
studying helping behavior have largely gained information through controlled field
studies. From the results of these studies, psychologists have proposed different
Most studies suggest motives can be divided into three categories (Fitch,
1987):
out with the intent to benefit others without expecting anything in return. The
individuals who performed the dramatic acts of altruism which make headlines
by low personal risk and cost to the altruist. Autonomous altruism, the “heroic”
helping, is not always supported by societal norms such that the impetus for
volunteering is believed to “originate" more from the individual (e.g., helping Jews
21
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
in the midst of Nazi Germany). After intensive interviews, Rosehan found few
backgrounds) between one’s “heroes” and everyday altruists. Those who only
contributed financially to the Civil Rights Movement (i.e., the normative altruist)
had parents who tended to limit their helpful activities to their own sphere of
family and colleagues. The autonomous altruists had relatively few friends or
family members who were sympathetic to their activism, while the financial
supporters (i.e., the normative altruists) tended to have quite a few supporters.
In fact, the normative altruists tended to only help at the behest of a friend
active helpers into the partially and fully committed; after making this distinction,
he discovered that the fully committed activist was more likely to have parents
who both preached and practiced helpfulness than the partially committed
activist.
activities (e.g., anything from job related groups to recreational groups) in their
on the basis of both theoretical and empirical information. In doing so, he led the
22
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
way to not only predicting who will volunteer, but also to predicting who will
motives people have may not be clear even to themselves (Moore, 1985). Smith
motivation. “Persons who say they volunteer for altruistic reasons just do not
admit that they have some sort of self-satisfying reason for volunteering”
(Schram, 1985, p.14). Yet this itself is a proposition that is difficult to either
might be.
non-altruistic motives were offered more frequently, and the most frequent
Within the egoistic motivation theory, there are two core models that are
principles that if an individual is in distress, this will cause one to feel badly and
put one in a negative mood (regardless of responsibility), and that helping the
individual in distress will provide one relief from the negative mood (Smith,
Keating & Stotland (1989). The model predicts, according to the researchers,
that any pleasant experience will dissipate the negative feeling caused by seeing
23
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A second theory of egoistic motivation is the joy hypothesis. Smith, et al.
(1989) argued that an important and frequently recognized reason for helping is
the happiness one experiences after another has received assistance. As such,
the person in need is feeling better, and the volunteer helper vicariously picks up
on the joy (relief) of the person in need. The negative-relief model and the joy
egoistic.
individuals with egoistic needs who perceive the benefits of the volunteer
their rating egoistic responses higher than the other responses (Fitch, 1987).
exchange theory suggests that feeling good about one’s self (psychic rewards) is
(1991) in his work with college students. He referred to the benefits derived from
24
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Social Exchange theory is based on utility theory, which says that every
person will allocate his or her resources so that optimum utility is achieved
(Shram, 1985). The idea is that the benefits derived from the resources allocated
will be equal to the costs of expending the resources. Thus, the maximum return
is achieved. However, since benefits and costs will be unique for each individual,
A special form of the utility theory is the human capital theory (p.15). In
this case, the resources (e.g., time .energy, personal skills) allocated to
investments are improved skills, knowledge, or health that will positively influence
explain Fitch’s (1987) finding that one of the major motives for college students
sense of social and moral responsibility (Fitch, 1987). Social exchange theory
argues that, as long as the benefits outweigh the costs, the behavior which
brings about those benefits will continue (Fitch, 1987; Stiff et al. 1988). The
social reasons for volunteering focus on being with other people, making new
25
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
time previously given to interaction with family members (Morrow-Howell & Mui,
work (Stiff et al. 1988). They learn that it is part of their role in society or part
volunteer work, and this serves as a model for their children. Therefore,
role model these activities. More specifically, a working class parent may provide
an adult role model that is different from the middle- or upper-class example.
With respect to gender, boys and girls learn from their parent’s what their roles
as men and women should include, and which may result in their being socially
way that the benefits derived will exceed the costs (Rubin & Thorelli, 1984). This
Brothers and Big Sisters volunteers. They found that such a setting
provides little in the way of egoistic rewards and that the more strongly a
volunteer was motivated by egoistic benefits, the shorter was his or her length of
about duty and obligation, need fulfillment theory and all the utility theories
26
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Volunteering will continue as long as the rewards are greater than what the
volunteer gives (Rubin & Thorelli, 1984). The above example perhaps points to
perspective which posits that both person and situation factors, as well as their
This implies that both the characteristics of the person and the characteristics of
behavior, and that the interaction of these characteristics will provide a better
predictor than one or the other alone (Chatman, 1989; Ekehammar, 1974;
theory in 1949 with the publication of Personal Adjustment in Old Age . They
suggest the reason many elderly are motivated to do volunteer work is tied to
their desire to compensate for the loss of roles, primarily associated with work
and family. In retirement many older people need the structure and status of
27
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
pictured as a good substitute for the losses mature adults sustain in the family,
well-being and compensates for role losses in other areas (Chambre, 1984).
reasoned that if the above theory was correct and volunteerism was a good
substitute for work and family role loss in the elderly, then volunteer work should
analysis of the national ACTION, 1975, survey. The results of her study
indicated that older adults who were married and who were still employed were
more likely to volunteer than were the widowed and retired. Thus she rejected
the Activity Theory as the primary rationale for why older adults are motivated to
When all ages are being considered, volunteers give three types of
reasons—altruistic, social and material. Older adult volunteers list altruism, social
reasons, and personal enjoyment as the primary reasons for helping others.
Thus, while the reasons they give for volunteering are similar, there are some
differences. Besides altruistic and social reasons, volunteers from all age groups
look to volunteer activities to give them some sort of material, generally financial,
advancement in their job. On the other hand, older volunteers are not looking for
material gain, but they like the enjoyment of the volunteer work experience itself.
28
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
An error appears to have been made by those who did the empirical
Mui, 1989). When each of these researchers talk about “reasons given
discuss motivation, they are talking about causation; that is, the intrinsic and
extrinsic factors that help explain why persons behave the way they do in
on the central tendency of distribution of data and the spread of the distribution of
the data. (Kidder and Judd, 1986). Thus, descriptive statistics provide little, if
1975) was a joint project of the Labor Department and ACTION, the federal
agency responsible for volunteer programs. They reported the following data
Reasons 1974
29
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
(more than one response was possible; thus,
total percentage exceeds 100%.)
After reviewing the results of the 1974 survey, McLaughlin (1984) concluded an
1001 adults age 55 and older. Of that number, 304 stated that they were
volunteers. While not stated specifically in the document available, the sample
appears to have been a random sample, since application was applied to older
They doubled the sample size, but lowered the age of the respondents to 45 and
above. Of this group, nearly 25% (n= 491) stated they were volunteers who, like
the first survey, were 55+ years old. With this adjustment, one can make a
comparison with the earlier survey. The sample was randomly selected and has
interval. The reasons given for volunteering in the two surveys are listed below:
30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The final category of reasons for volunteering are the material motives,
i.e., reasons that would in some way bring benefit to the individual.
study, they proposed that volunteers are motivated by either altruistic, material or
social reasons. They note that in response to surveys people generally give
Volunteer Characteristics
Manser (1987) states that the typical volunteer in the United States in
1974 was “a married white woman between 25 and 44 who held a college degree
and was in an upper income bracket” (p.843). He went on to say that since
1974, greater proportions of men and older adults are involved in volunteerism.
those who were most likely to volunteer were church members, people who were
college educated, and those who were 50+ years of age. The Gallup
31
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
organization started to collect a series of data on volunteers in 1988. Their
research indicated that 54% of adults volunteered in 1989; 51% in 1991 and 54%
in 1993 (Giving and Volunteering, 1994). In 1965, less than one in five
Gender studies have shown that volunteers are usually female (Clary &
Orenstein, 1991; Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen, 1991; Lammers, 1991; Hettman &
Jenkins, 1990; Morrow-Howell & Mui, 1989; Williams, 1986; Drummond, 1980).
Gillespie and King (1985), after reviewing national survey data, found that the
shown that males and females tend to volunteer for different types of
assignments. While men seemed to enjoy the recreational and work related
activities, women prefer education and health-related work (Fischer, Mueller &
Cooper, 1991). These same researchers indicate that there is little difference
between the two genders and the amount of volunteering that they do. This was
not always the case, however. Older women used to volunteer more than older
men, however, that does not appear to be the case any longer.
Older men and women also volunteered for different reasons. Morrow-
Howell and Mui (1 9 8 9 ) learned from their studies that elderly women
volunteered for an altruistic reason and a social reason, but men only
32
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
volunteered for altruistic reasons. They explained the difference exists because
men have a better social support system than women. A weakness in this
finding is seen in the fact that 90% of the volunteers were women
Several researchers have found that younger, mature adults were more
likely to volunteer than those who were older (Fisher etal, 1991; Chambre, 1987;
suggest that as adults grow older, the numbers of volunteers decreases (Fisher
et al. 1991). Monk and Cryns (1974) suggest that the decline in volunteering
members involved in different studies. Chambre, (1987) found that this decline in
volunteering does not occur until the age of 77. Her research suggests that there
is a correlated decline in social activity at the same age. However, one in ten
Much like the findings when volunteering among all ages is considered,
who are Protestants and Jews volunteer more than Catholics. (Chambre, 1987)
found that married people are more likely to volunteer that the unmarried. They
offer several possible reasons for this. It may be that married people have more
time to volunteer than those who are single because in a marriage, there are two
33
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
people to manage the work. Another possibility is that married couples have a
wider social network around them, and therefore have more opportunities to
money than single individuals which again makes it easier for married people to
volunteer time.
Ozawa and Morrow-Howell (1988) learned from their research that adult
volunteers with high levels o f good health spent more time volunteering. Fisher,
Mueller & Cooper (1991) staled that their data revealed elderly people with
functional deficits are less likely to volunteer. Chambre (1987) disagrees and
volunteering. Although she does point out that volunteering is a part of a more
active lifestyle for some older adults, Chambre (1987) concludes that this is a
reflection of the volunteers’ Icfestyles. The volunteers in her study were involved
in a variety of social and leisure activities, whereas the non-volunteers tended not
reported altruistic and social reasons for serving others. Their help was not given
given for volunteering mentioned earlier does not fit these data. “Thus,
34
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Sixty-five percent of the respondents stated that they began
participation in the volunteer program because they had been asked, not
because they themselves took the initiative to learn about the program and got
involved. Therefore, the reason many of the volunteers were working in the
program was not just in response to internal motives, but also to an external
A third finding from this study is that older men seem to give different
reasons for volunteering than elderly women. The men in the study primarily
gave altruistic reasons, while the women gave both an altruistic and a social
reason. A weakness in this finding is seen in the fact that 90% of the volunteers
Socio-economic status
*
States, and included these three indicators in their study. They indicate other
researchers have tried to find a relationship between the reason given for
of success.
volunteerism (Fisher, Mueller & Cooper, 1991; Ozawa & Morrow-Howell, 1988;
Nelein & Straw, 1988; Chambre, 1987; Monk & Cryns, 1974).
35
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fisher, Mueller and Cooper (1991) found that people with higher levels of
education and with greater income are more likely to volunteer, and to volunteer
more time than those with less education. The primary reason for the
on monetary worth. These individuals have the time to volunteer because the
income or other monies they have permit them to provide their own
in a self-help volunteer group of older adults in St. Louis. The average age was
65. Similar to the neighborhood in which they served, the racial mix of the
volunteers was 26% white and 74% black. Ninety percent of them were women.
Fifty-four percent lived alone, 13% lived with their spouses, the remainder lived
with other people. The average income was $400.00 a month. Over half of them
(53%) had completed less than the eighth grade; only 9% received any formal
selected elderly aged 65 and over who lived in a four-county area of Vermont.
His survey indicated that they were interested in other things. He mentioned
36
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
various motives the respondents gave as reasons for their volunteering: 1)
“meeting and making friends,” 90%; 2) “helping others,” 90%; 3) making “use of
abilities and talents," 50%; 4) “getting out and being active," 50%; 5) “passing
time,” about 33%; 6) “learning things,” about 33%; 7) “flexible hours,” about 33%;
The quality of the occupation, and the rewards of the experience probably
differ according to social position. The more educated and more affluent will
more than likely receive volunteer assignments that may stroke their egos, while
those with less training and less money often receive more menial tasks
(Chambre, 1987).
Volunteer Locations
actually work. Fisher, Mueller, and Cooper (1991) point out that a large
They cite a 1989 Gallup poll where active church members, who attend religious
services at least once a week, are the most likely to volunteer their time. The
volunteer was probably due to three reasons. First, volunteering is part of normal
members to help care for the needs of others. Third, churches have a structure
within the local organization that can serve as a network for recruiting, directing,
37
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A 1983 Gallup poll found that 23% of volunteers worked in an informal
setting, 19% served in association with a church, and 16% worked in some form
of education. The survey also discovered that 13% worked in health care, 11%
illustrate the various activities in which volunteers participate. They are listed as
follows:
5. Fund raising efforts—for programs like the United Way, for a university, or
some special program; and
38
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Summary
it concludes that there are many reasons that may explain why different people
volunteer (Grieshop, 1985; Morrow-Howell & Mui, 1989; Van Til, 1985). More
recently, Chambre,(1987) suggests that there is still a need for research in this
and Mui (1989) learned a large percentage (80%) of the volunteers who quit did
Several studies indicate that the number of people who are participating in
voluntary activities is rising, especially over the last two decades. How much a
rise depends upon one’s definition of volunteerism (Manser, 1987). This study
examined the costs and benefits of volunteering using gender, age, educational
than the use of percentages and frequencies were mentioned in the article.
Indeed, in light of most of the above theories, it does seem that volunteers
expect something in return for their efforts. Clark and Wilson (1961) provide a
39
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
framework for distinguishing among volunteers’ expectations from participation
The first is material incentives which are tangible rewards such as money,
goods, or services. The second is intrinsic incentives which are intangible. They
derive in the main from the act of associating and include such rewards as
status resulting from membership, fun and conviviality, the maintenance of social
Finally, the third is purposive incentives which are intangible but derive
from the specific ends of the organization rather than just associating with other
legislation passed as a result of lobbying and public education efforts. The idea
volunteers.
& Harris, 1991). Schiebe (1970) suggests that values must be examined within
the context of social behavior, and it is within the role theory that researchers
40
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
This would appear to be the key to understanding superior ad subordinate
managers and supervisors) has had on the worker in an organization has been
minimal (Hunt, 1991). Meglino, Ravlin and Adkins (1992) found significant
commitment.
Smith et al. (1989) agreed with those who would argue whether empathic
concern is an issue.
Morrow-Howell and Mui (1989) found that the volunteers gave an average
of 2.3 reasons each for why they were participating in the volunteer program.
Generally, this answer had two facets-an altruistic part and a social
part. In other words, the volunteers gave of their time and energy so that they
might help others and also meet some of their own needs.
theory claims that volunteerism is a result of the status, honor, and recognition
perspective claims that the degree to which an individual perceives that he or she
41
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
egoistic theories—i.e., the individual is believed to participate in church activities
survey resulted in two sub-scales that are important to this discussion: the
church membership (the group dynamics items). The results of the study
commitment, while results were notably more consistent with the cohesion/group
volunteer’s relationship with an organization will have much to do with how long
that individual decides to stay. More specifically, “quality” includes the person/job
interaction.
organization will likely be more effective in ascertaining the individual needs of its
volunteers and be able to respond to them more completely. This in turn, has the
42
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
potential to motivate the volunteers and enhance their remaining with the
43
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 111
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the researcher describes the procedures that will be used
to conduct the research study. The sections in this chapter include the a)
There are four research questions which are the genesis of this study
1. Does the need for affiliation motivate adults to volunteer for hospice type
work?
The resulting hypotheses that will be used to test this research question include
the following:
44
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The first research question seeks to establish the relationship between the
volunteer respondent and the affiliation scores from the Personal Values
2. Will the volunteer motivated by the affiliation social motive be more productive
than they might otherwise be in the hospice environment?
The resulting hypotheses that will be used to test this research question include
the following:
(McClelland, 1990) and the hours of work invested on a monthly basis. To test
The resulting hypotheses that will be used to test this research question include
the following:
45
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The research question seeks to explore if there are any relationships between
the respondents’ motivation scores from the Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen Motivation
analysis will be used to determine if there is any relationship between the sub
populations identified through the participants’ demographic data and any of the
The resulting hypotheses that will be used to test this research question include
the following:
The research question seeks to explore if there are any relationships between
(McClelland, 1990) or the hours of work invested on a monthly basis and any
analysis will be used to determine if there is any relationship between the sub
46
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
populations identified through the participants’ demographic data as described in
the questionnaires.
Research Design
the type of descriptive research that can be used to help determine the extent of
technique in making predictions (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 1990). Borg and Gall
(1989) have found that the correlational method has two purposes:
explore cause and effect relationships, the researcher cannot infer cause and
used in the analysis. Descriptive research can be used to determine the nature
of the group as it exists at the time the study is being conducted (Ary, Jacobs &
Razavieh, 1990).
Sample Population
The population for the study will be 200 volunteers selected from a not-for-
47
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Instrumentation
The instruments that will be used in this study is the Personal Values
(McBer & Company, 1993). The PVQ was originally developed in the late 1980s
by David McClelland, and was called the Personal Motives and Values
The values of achievement, affiliation and power that individuals have are
affiliation and power. Each question is rated using a six point scale from a low
score of “0” corresponding to “not important to me; ” to a high score of “5” which
questions divided into the three subscales which are similar to the three scales
within the PVQ: altruistic, social and material. Each question is rated using a 5
48
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
point scale from a low score of “1” corresponding to “very little” to a high score
measures the variables the researcher wants to measure. The extent to which
Hay-McBer Publishing has been collecting data on the PVQ since 1990.
There is a high level of discriminant validity between motives and values, in that
correlation (p= .01) between the climate index and the sub-scale of achievement
(Rivers, 1992). In this study, climate referred to the results of work efforts
significant construct validity with Affiliation and Style index ( p=.05) (Rivers, 1992)
correlating the scores obtained from the same subjects on different occasions, a
to as test-retest reliability (Ary et al, 1990).The test-retest reliability for the PVQ is
49
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
highly, positively correlated with measured correlation coefficient (r) scores
ranging between .80 and .845 across the three subscales (Affiliation = .80;
Volunteer Questionnaire (1991) indicates the validity and reliability are adequate.
Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991) used orthogonal factor analysis with varimax
analysis, 22 of the 28 motives were loaded on one factor, with the remaining 6
loaded onto two other factors. All loading scores were between .31 and .65
Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the scaling of the 22
motives loaded on the first factor (Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen, 1991, pg. 280).
correlation of the items composing the scale and the number of items. Generally,
although it has been suggested that in field studies like this one, alphas of .6 or
greater are adequate (Ary et al.,1990). The research indicated a high level
of reliability (alpha = .86). The reliability of the motives loaded on the second
factor was only alpha = .47. For the two items loaded on the third factor, the
Pearson moment coefficient correlation was significant but very low (r = .11, p <
50
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
These findings, together with their inability to justify the theoretical base of
phenomenon (Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen, 1991, pg. 281). Further analysis revealed
that is, number of hours per month devoted to volunteer work (r= .25, p < .001).
In addition, volunteers scored significantly higher on the 22-motives from the first
loading factor than did non-volunteers (3.01 vs. 2.50; t = 3.01, p < .001). In sum,
other contexts for new survey instruments is standard procedure (Wilkerson and
Kellogg, 1994). While the use of questions from one survey for another does not
wholly substitute for direct reliability and validity checking of the instrument, it at
Data Collection
questionnaire will be collated for the purposes of collecting data. These data
organization.
51
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Dillman (1978) suggests that all aspects of the mailing can have an affect
on the return rate, and therefore, one must pay attention to all details. Fowler
non-respondents ten days after the initial mailing of the data collection packages.
related to volunteering and motivation for same. The statistic to be used will be a
assumes that both variables are normally distributed in the population ( Schefler,
relationship between two variables: .01 and .09 indicate a negligible relationship;
52
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
In addition to the question of relationship between the variables,
between the sub populations within the total sample population and any
The independent variables will include gender, age, and length of service
whether the volunteers have had family members who were Hospice patients.
53
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER IV
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the study results in which four
chapter. First, the chapter begins with a description of the sample. Second, the
social motive would impact the degree to which people volunteer in a hospice
instructions describing the procedures for completing the survey instruments and
from the participants and returned them to the researcher for her analysis and
interpretation.
The sample size was 215 volunteers from Hospice. More than 72 % of
this total (155) provided usable surveys. Insufficient responses to the survey
54
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
questions were the key source of incomplete data which required the rejection of
60 surveys.
Demographic Summary
females (79%). These demographics are further portrayed using frequency and
descriptive analyses.
In the survey instruments, the participants’ ages were classified into five
categories between 26 years to over 65 years of age. The largest age group was
over 65 years, equivalent to 59% of the total sample. Of the total population
participating in the study, only one individual did not provide age information. In
Table 1
Age
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
I otai kb to 30 years 6 3.5 3.5 "s ir
36 to 45 years 11 7.1 7.1 11.0
46 to 55 years 13 8.4 8.4 19.5
56 to 65 years 32 20.6 20.8 40.3
more than 65 years 92 59.4 59.7 100.0
Total 154 99.4 100.0
Missing System Missing 1 .6
Total 1 .6
Total 155 100.0
55
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The participants’ length of service was classified into four categories
ranging from less than 3 years to over 9 years. The majority of the participants
have less than three years of service (45.8%). Two participants failed to provide
their length of time with Hospice. Table 2 provides the frequency and
Table 2
Length of service
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
valid less tnan three years ----- 7IT 45.2 45.8 45.8
3 to 6 years 39 25.2 25.5 71.2
6 to 9 years 25 16.1 16.3 87.6
more than 9 years 19 12.3 12.4 100.0
Total 153 98.7 100.0
Missing System Missing 2 1.3
Total 2 1.3
Total 155 100.0
classified into four categories ranging from less than 4 hours to over 12 hours
per month. The majority of the participants contribute more than 12 hours each
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 3
The participants’ intent for continuing service was divided into three
change to the current level of commitment. Four participants chose not to reply
to the question. The majority of the participants indicated no plans to alter their
57
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 4
Closer Inspection of the data indicate that males and females are very
and females have more than 9 years of service at hospice. More importantly,
level of 12 hours per month or greater. However, 39% of the females volunteer
were reviewed for each age group. Overall, it appears that all three values of
affiliation, achievement and power decline overtime. The chart below reflects
58
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
AGE group AFF ACH PWR
(PVQ). The PVQ has a five point anchored scale which rates the perceived
The first research question analyzed was: Does the need for affiliation
motivate adults to volunteer for hospice type work? This researcher used the
analysis.
adults to volunteer for hospice type work that includes the affiliation motive.
While the affiliation motive was found to provide a trend in the stated direction,
this hypothesis was not supported. The affiliation and achievement subscales
each had mean ratings of 3.0 or greater, and were shown to be strongly
59
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
correlated, with no significant differences between the two mean scores. The
overall mean score for the power motive was also correlated, but not as strongly
cannot be rejected.
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics
Std.
Mean Deviation
acn 3.4064 1.6071
AFF 3.4404 .6372
pwr 1 .9952 .9541
Correlations
ach AFF pwr
Hearson acn 1.000 .470* .298*
Correlati AFF .470* 1.000 .316*
on pwr .298* .316* 1.000
Sig. ach .000 .000
(1-tailed) AFF .000 .000
pwr .000 .000 -
The mean scores for the three PVQ sub-scales of achievement, affiliation
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 6
Statistics
N Std.
Valid Missing Mean Deviation
u i - uiose menaiy cooperative relations w/otners 153 2 4.0458 1.0472
Q6 - Freedom to talk; socialize 152 3 3.2763 1.1051
Q9 - Having time w/ my family 151 4 3.8940 1.1784
Q12 - Not separated from people 1care about 149 6 3.9463 1.0892
Q19 - To work w/others who are close friends 152 3 2.3816 1.4645
Q23 - Maintaining close relationships w/those I
152 3 4.1447 .9994
care about
Q26 - To spend a great deal of time w/others 152 3 3.2039 1.2729
Q31 - Opportunity to be on a team 151 4 2.9603 1.1655
Q33 - Having plenty of free time w/ friends 151 4 3.0397 1.1482
Q35 - Being well liked 152 3 3.4079 1.1060
Statistics
N Std.
Valid Missing Mean Deviation
u z - Continual opportunities tor
150 5 3.4933 1.3449
growth/development
Q5 - Opportunities for difficult, more challenging
151 4 3.1788 1.2005
work
Q7 - Continuously new.exciting, goals; projects 151 4 3.2053 1.2183
Q10 - Feedback about how I am doing 152 3 3.1842 1.2203
Q13 - Opportunities to create new things 150 5 2.9533 1.2114
Q18 - Concrete ways to measure my performance 150 5 2.6267 1.1789
Q22 - Doing things better than done before 148 7 3.1757 1.1648
Q27 - Maintaining high quality work standards 152 3 4.5066 4.2113
Q32 - Challenging projects that stretch my limits 151 4 3.1656 1.0981
Q34 - Personally producing high quality work 151 4 4.1258 .8664
61
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Mean Scores for all questions within Power Subscale
Statistics
N Std.
Valid Missing Mean Deviation
U3 - Possessions tnat are impressive to otners 152 3 .9934 1.H28
Q8 - Important positions which give me
recognition 151 4 1.6291 1.3297
Q14 - Opportunities to influence others 151 4 2.5695 1.2356
Q16 - Doing things w/strong effect on others 151 4 2.9470 2.6902
Q17 - Position w/prestige 151 4 1.5762 1.2829
Q21 - Taking forceful action 150 5 2.1000 1.4130
Q24 - To be in a lead position supervising others 150 5 1.8933 1.3958
028 - Opportunities to influence my group's
decisions 150 5 3.0267 1.1812
Q30 - Opportunities to become well known 150 5 1.6533 2.8141
Q36 - To exercise control in the org 149 6 1.5973 1.2888
The second research question this researcher explored was: Will the
volunteer motivated by the affiliation social motive be more productive than they
the number of hours the volunteer participants indicated they dedicated to the
determine if there were any relationships between the affiliation social motive sub
scale and the number of volunteer hours the participants contributed each month.
62
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
As with hypothesis #1, no significant correlations were found. Further, a
between affiliation and the participant’s intentions to increase the number of hours
found in Tables 7 and 8. This research found that there are no significant
rejected.
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics
Std.
Mean Deviation
a FF 3 .4 4 0 4 .6 3 7 2
monthly volunteer
2.6993 1.2359
hours
Correlations
monthly
volunteer
AFF hours
F’earson ai-i- 1.O00 .040
Correlati monthly volunteer
.040 1.000
on hours
Sig. AFF .318
(1 -tailed) monthly volunteer
.318
hours
63
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics
Std.
Mean Deviation
Al-h 3.4404 .6372
Future volunteer plans 2.1921 .9779
Correlations
Future
volunteer
AFF plans
Hearson A i-h 1.bo0 .013
Correlati Future volunteer
.013 1.000
on plans
Sig. AFF .441
(1-tailed) Future volunteer
.441
plans
The third research question which this researcher investigated was: Does
elements comprising the affiliation social motive from within the Cnaan Goldberg-
affiliation motive in the questionnaire, 7 of the 28 questions were all loaded on one
64
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the scaling of the 7
questions loaded on the single factor. The results indicate a high level of
stepwise method was used because of the exploratory nature of the question.
The groups were based on the participants’ hours of volunteering (less than 4
4.075 with 3 degrees of freedom which was not significant at the .05 level, (p <
level of volunteering (number of hours volunteered) and the affiliation score on the
sub-scale of the CGGMVQ. (F (3, 141) = 1.71; p <_.287). Therefore the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected. The mean scores for the affiliation sub-scales of
Table 9
65
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Variable Wilks' Lambda F Significance
Table 10
Statistics
N Std.
Valid Missing Mean Median Deviation
q iza - Most people in my community volunteer Ttil 4 1.?616 .9914
_i
o
c
c
c
q17a- Opportunity to develop relationships
153 2 3.2941 3.0000 1.2348
w/others
q18a- Opportunity to work w/different ages 153 2 3.0588 3.0000 1.3824
q21a- Relative/friend a Hospice patient 148 7 3.1216 3.0000 1.8104
q22a - Similar previous experience 151 4 2.5762 2.0000 1.6266
q23a- Similar experience; better able to relate 150 5 2.6533 2.5000 1.5927
q25a- Previous contact w/ Hospice pros 149 6 2.1946 1.0000 1.5452
(age, gender, length of service) and the hours dedicated weekly to volunteering
reflect the volunteer’s commitment to the volunteer work? The research question
seeks to explore if there are any demographic predictors which relate to the
function. All four variable yielded a Wilk’s lambda, but only age and future intent
66
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
These same two variables were found to contribute the most to the overall
the variable, age, accounted for most of the variance in the volunteerism
The standardized coefficients and Wilk’s lambda for each of the independent
variables entered into the function are shown below in Table 11. The estimate of
predictive capability, however, was not strong as only 24.8% hit ratio was
supported.
Table 11
67
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Pooled within-groups correlation matrix
AGE 1.00000
68
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER V
In this chapter, the researcher discusses the results of the study and the
explanation of the findings of each hypothesis and its related variables. The
research questions posed in Chapter 1 are addressed and the supporting data is
evaluated. Next, the limitations and general implications of the research findings
are discussed. Finally, the chapter concludes with suggestions for further
One question that this research attempted to answer was what type of
expected that the volunteer would be motivated to spend time due to a desire to
greater than other motives, values or needs such as achievement or power. The
69
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
hypotheses were assessed using Pearson-product moment correlations and/or
discriminant analysis.
volunteer for hospice type work. However, the data did not support this
hypothesis. The volunteers did not have significantly higher needs for affiliation
were significant differences for achievement and power, as well as affiliation and
power, but because affiliation was not deemed to be the primary motivation, this
The lack of support for a volunteer’s need for affiliation is surprising to this
One naturally begins to generate a myriad of questions such as what are the
in the hospice environment each month. Using the affiliation sub-scale of the
PVQ, there were no significant correlations found in the data with this question
either. However, this is not wholly surprising, as the affiliation mean score was
not found to be significantly different from that of achievement mean score in the
70
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
suggests that there may be other variables to consider when looking at what
Volunteer Questionnaire (1991) will positively impact the number of hours that
written based on altruistic, social and egoistical motivating factors. But this
this researcher, the hypothesis was not supported either through correlation or
questions yielded 10 different factors, none loaded strongly on any single factor.
This, of course, suggests there are underlying variables which may be impacting
variables (age, gender, length of service, and future intent to increase volunteer
work. As with the previous research question, discriminant analysis was used
variables, age and future intent, were found to be significant. However, the
estimate of predictive capability was weak with only a 24.8% hit ratio obtained.
71
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Thus this hypothesis is partially supported, but not necessarily with an ability to
selection/staffing. This assumption has driven the design of the study, choice of
research. The design was chosen due to the difficulty of conducting true
people who have volunteered at hospice environment but left. This would
analyzed. This sample population represents only half of the total volunteer
population in this facility. A larger sample size might have been more
and their relationships to volunteerism. The survey results would have been
72
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
more informative and powerful if more participants had been included. The
If volunteers from more than one hospice had been available, a larger
number of persons could have been evaluated. This would have increased the
Further, the participants who were tested may not have been indicative of
the total population. The subjects were chosen because they were available and
on-site on given days and willing to complete the survey instruments at that time.
As with the study completed by Morrow-Howell and Mui (1989), the majority of
the study participants were women, and in general were people over 65 years
Finally, this study is limited given the specific focus of the research. The
related conditions, or specific individual needs which may or may not contribute
to motivation.
There are many variables which may have had an impact on results.
Michel (1981) identify several threats that may have influenced this study in ways
events occurring within the individuals that would allow the volunteers to be
73
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
available to participate. For instance, an individual may have moved into the
area and sought to replicate volunteering in this new location because s/he is
obtained in the study. Isaac and Michel (1990) state that there are some
are different from those accepted by common social norms. Thus, participants
might answer in a “socially desirable” way that is in keeping with those accepted
norms.
This researcher’s championing of this process and being present when the
surveys were completed may have added reactive effects of testing. This
participate in this study and to remind them of its importance. The majority of the
perhaps others less obvious) may have influenced the participants to complete
of them, implied or real. This may have resulted in the participants altering their
74
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Some of the key explanations for the results obtained are summarized
above. Many of the limitations of this study could have been resolved by a
presented.
Implications
If employees with high affiliation needs are more suited for volunteering in
to the field of the hospice volunteerism selection process for the individual as well
as for management.
While this researcher used only hospice volunteers as subjects the study
75
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The methodology used in this study may be extended to other geographic
areas. The first logical extension of the research is to repeat this study in other
hospice environments, in areas of the United States other than southern Florida.
generalization of motivation to volunteer. The data from both studies could then
motivations over time. However the high percentage of volunteers over 65 does
76
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
________ (1984). Is volunteering a substitute for the role loss in old age?
An empirical test of the activity theory. The Gerontologist, 24 (3), 2929-297.
77
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Clary, E.G. & Orenstein, L (1991). The amount and effectiveness of
helping: The relationship of motives and abilities to helping behavior. Personality
and Social Psychology, 17 - 58 - 64.
Dillman, D.A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design
method. New York: John Wiley Publishers.
Ellis, S.J. & Noyes, K.H. (1990). By the people: A history of Americans as
volunteers. Revised ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Fischer, L.R.; Mueller, D.P. & Cooper, P.W. (1991) Older volunteers: A
discussion of the Minnesota Senior Study. The Gerontologist, 31 (2) 183 - 194.
Fisher, J.C. (1988). Impact of anomia and life satisfaction on older adult
learners. Educational Gerontology, 14, 137-146.
78
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fishman, D.B. (1966). Need expectancy as determinants of affiliative
behavior in small groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 4 , 155 -
164.
Gallup, G. Jr. (1987). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion. Wilmington, DE:
Scholarly Resources, Inc.
Green, S.K.; Arons, A. & Cross, R. (1984). Volunteer Motivation and its
relationship to satisfaction and future volunteering. Paper submitted to APA,
Toronto Canada.
Hair, J.F.; Anderson, R.E.; Tatham, R.L. & Black, W.C. (1992).
Multivariate data analysis with readings. (3rd edition). New York: MacMillan
Publishers.
79
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Herzberg, Frederick._______ (1981). Motivation people. In P. Mali (
ed.) Management Handbook. New York: Wiley and Sons.
80
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
_______ (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American
Psychologist, 20, 321-333
_______ & Atkinson, J.W.; Clark, R.A. & Lowell, E.L. (1961J. The
achieving society. Princeton, N .J .: D. Van Nosstrand.
81
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Pinder, Craig (1977). Concerning the application of human motivation
theories in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, (21) 384 -
397.
Quigley, Barbara; Gaes, Gerald & Tedeschi, James (1989). Does asking
make a difference? Effects of initiator, possible gain, and risk on attributed
altruism. Journal of Social Psychology, 129 (2), 259 - 267.
Rokeach, M. (1973). The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free
Press.
______ (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: McGraw - Hill
Publishers.
82
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Simon, Edwin. (1991). Volunteerism revisited: A renewed value in social
welfare and Jewish communal services. The Jewish Social Work Forum, 27, 31
-4 5 .
Smith, K.D.; Keating, J.P. & Stotland, E. (1989). Altruism recovered: The
effect of denying feedback on a victim’s status to empathic witness. Journal o f
Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 641 - 650.
Stiff, J.B.; Dillard, J.P.; Somers, L.; Kim, H. & Slight, C. (1988). Empathy,
communication and pro social behavior. Communication Monographs, 55 (2),
1 9 8 -2 1 3 .
Zischka, Pauline & Jones, Irene (1987). Special skills and challenges in
supervising volunteers. The Clinical Supervisor, 5 (4), 19 - 30.
83
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
REFERENCES
________ (1984). Is volunteering a substitute for the role loss in old age?
An empirical test of the activity theory. The Gerontologist, 24 (3), 2929-297.
84
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Clary, E.G. & Orenstein, L (1991). The amount and effectiveness of
helping: The relationship of motives and abilities to helping behavior. Personality
and Social Psychology, 17 - 58 - 64.
Dillman, D.A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design
method. New York: John Wiley Publishers.
Ellis, S.J. & Noyes, K.H. (1990). By the people: A history of Americans as
volunteers. Revised ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Fischer, L.R.; Mueller, D.P. & Cooper, P.W. (1991) Older volunteers: A
discussion of the Minnesota Senior Study. The Gerontologist, 31 (2) 183 - 194.
Fisher, J.C. (1988). Impact of anomia and life satisfaction on older adult
learners. Educational Gerontology, 1 4 ,137-146.
85
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fishman, D.B. (1966). Need expectancy as determinants of affiliative
behavior in small groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 4, 155 -
164.
Gallup, G. Jr. (1987). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion. Wilmington, DE:
Scholarly Resources, Inc.
Green, S.K.; Arons, A. & Cross, R. (1984). Volunteer Motivation and its
relationship to satisfaction and future volunteering. Paper submitted to APA,
Toronto Canada.
Hair, J.F.; Anderson, R.E.; Tatham, R.L. & Black, W.C. (1992).
Multivariate data analysis with readings. (3rd edition). New York: MacMillan
Publishers.
86
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Herzberg, Frederick._______ (1981). Motivation people. In P. Mali (
ed.) Management Handbook. New York: Wiley and Sons.
87
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
_______ (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American
Psychologist, 20, 321-333
_______ & Atkinson, J.W.; Clark, R.A. & Lowell, E.L. (1961). The
achieving society. Princeton, N .J .: D. Van Nosstrand.
88
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Quigley, Barbara; Gaes, Gerald & Tedeschi, James (1989). Does asking
make a difference? Effects of initiator, possible gain, and risk on attributed
altruism. Journal of Social Psychology, 129 (2), 259 - 267.
Rokeach, M. (1973). The Nature o f Human Values. New York: The Free
Press.
______ (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: McGraw - Hill
Publishers.
89
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Simon, Edwin. (1991). Volunteerism revisited: A renewed value in social
welfare and Jewish communal services. The Jewish Social Work Forum, 27, 31
-45.
Smith, K.D.; Keating, J.P. & Stotland, E. (1989). Altruism recovered: The
effect of denying feedback on a victim’s status to empathic witness. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 641 - 650.
Stiff, J.B.; Dillard, J.P.; Somers, L.; Kim, H. & Slight, C. (1988). Empathy,
communication and pro social behavior. Communication Monographs, 55 (2),
19 8-2 13 .
Zischka, Pauline & Jones, Irene (1987). Special skills and challenges in
supervising volunteers. The Clinical Supervisor, 5 (4), 19 - 30.
90
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PVQ
PERSONAL
VALUES
QUESTIONNAIRE
Name: _____
Position: ___
Organization:
Date:
Q u estio n n a ire
M c B e r & C om pany
T ra in in g Resources G rou p
116 H u n tin g to n Avenue
Boston, M assachusetts 02116
(6 1 7 ) 4 3 7 -7 0 8 0
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PERSONAL VALUES QUESTIONNAIRE
In str u c tio n s
0 = N o t im p o rta n t to m e
1 = O f little im p o rta n c e to m e
2 = O f som e im p o rta n c e to m e
3 = Im p o rta n t to m e
4 = V e ry im p o rta n t to m e
5 = E x tre m e ly im p o rta n t to m e
Your Item
R ating
______ 5. O pportunities to take on m ore d ifficu lt and challenging goals and responsibilities.
______ 6. The freedom and opportunity to talk and socialize w ith others a t work.
92
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
0 = N o t im p o rta n t to m e
1 = O f lit t le im p o rta n c e to m e
2 = O f som e im p o rta n c e to m e
3 = Im p o rta n t to m e
4 = V e ry im p o rta n t to m e
5 = E x tre m e ly im p o rta n t to m e
Your Item
R ating
______ 12. N o t being separated from the people I really care about.
______ 21. Feedback on how w ell I am doing or progressing tow ard m y objectives.
22. Personally doing things better than they have been done before.
23. M aintaining close relationships w ith the people I really care about.
26. To be able to spend a great deal o f tim e in contact w ith other people.
28. Opportunities to influence the decisions that are made in any group I am part of.
93
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
0 = N o t im p o rta n t to m e
1 = O f lit t le im p o rta n c e to m e
2 = O f som e im p o rta n c e to m e
3 = Im p o rta n t to me
4 = V e ry im p o rta n t to m e
5 = E x tre m e ly im p o rta n t to m e
Your Item
R ating
94
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Volunteering Study
Please take a few minutes to complete this Survey. This information is being gathered as p a rt o f a study to look at the reasons why
people volunteer. The results w ill be used to develop programs to recruit volunteers. Please use the follow ing scale when answering
the questions; and, please mark one answer fo r each question only.
5 = Very much
4 = Much
3 = A fair amount
\o 2 = A little
L/1
1 = Very little
To what extent did each o f the fo llo w in g items contribute to yo u r decision to volunteer?
Volunteering Study
To what extent did each o f the fo llo w in g items contribute to yo u r decision to volunteer?
Volunteering Study
To what extent did each o f the fo llo w in g items contribute to yo u r decision to volunteer?
Volunteering Study
Background Information (Optional). This information is being requested in order f o r us to create a profile o f the typical volunteer
at Only summary data w ill be used; thus, please do not sign this Suiwey,
29. 1 presently volunteer: ____ less than 4 hours/month 30. I am: Male
4 to 8 hours/month Female
8 to 12 hours/month
more than 12 hours/month
vo
00
31. M y age is: ____ under 25 years o f age 32. I have been volunteering:_____ less than 3 years
26 to 35 years o f age 3 to 6 years
36 to 45 years o f age 6 to 9 years
46 to 55 years o f age more than 9 years
56 to 65 years o f age
over 65 years o f age
Again, please do not sign this Survey, And, thank you fo r your helpI