Chapter 8: Logic, Sets and Functions

BACS 1253 Mathematics for computer science 1(linear algebra)
Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology

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CHAPTER 8: LOGIC, SETS AND FUNCTIONS
1. INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
Propositions and Truth Values
A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or

false, but not both simultaneously. Examples of propositions are:
1. The earth is flat.

2. 29 is a prime number.
3. 3 + 2 = 4.
4. 6 < 24.
5. Tomorrow is my birthday.
Exclamation, questions and demands are not propositions:
6. Keep of the grass.

7. Long live the Queen!
8. Did you go to Aditya’s party?
The truth (T) or falsity (F) of a proposition is called truth value.
Definition 1: Proposition (p): true = T (or 1) or false = F (or 0)

(binary logic)
Definition 2: Negation (¬): ‘not p’
Example 1:
p : I am going to town
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¬p : I am not going to town;

It is not the case that I am going to town.
Truth Table:
p ¬p
T F
F T
Definition 3: Conjunction (∧): ‘and’
Example 2:
p : ‘I am going to town’
q : ‘It is going to rain’
p ∧ q : ‘I am going to town and it is going to rain.’
Truth Table:
p q p∧q
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T
Note: Both p and q must be true!!!!!
Definition 4: Disjunction (∨): ‘or’
Example 3:
p ∨ q : ‘I am going to town or it is going to rain.’
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Truth Table:
p q p∨q
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Note: Only one of p, q need be true.
Definition 5: Exclusive OR (⊕): True when exactly one of p and

q is true.
Example 4:
p ⊕ q : ‘Either I am going to town or it is going to rain.’
Truth Table:
p q p⊕q
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F
Note: Only one of p and q must be true.
Definition 6: Implication (→): ‘If...then...’
Example 5:
p → q : ‘If I am going to town then it is going to rain.’
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Truth Table:
p q p→q
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
Note: The implication is false only when p is true and q is false!
Terminology:
p = premise, hypothesis, antecedent
q = conclusion, consequence
More terminology:
q → p is the CONVERSE of p → q
¬q → ¬p is the CONTRAPOSITIVE of p → q
Example 6:
Find the converse of the following statement:

R: ‘Raining tomorrow is a sufficient condition for me not going to
town.’
Step 1: Assign propositional variables for the above statement.

p : It will rain tomorrow
q : I will not go to town
Step 2: Symbolize the assertion
R: p→q
Step 3: Symbolize the converse
q→p
Step 4: Convert the symbols back into words
‘If I don’t go to town then it will rain tomorrow’
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Definition 7: Biconditional (↔): ‘…if and only if…’
Example 7:
p ↔ q : ‘I am going to town if and only if it is going to rain.’
Truth Table:
p q p↔q
F F T
F T F
T F F
T T T
Note: Both P and Q must have the same truth value.
Breaking assertions into component propositions - look for the

logical operators!
Example 8:
‘If I go to UTeM or go to the hostel then I will not go shopping.’
Solution
p : I go to UTeM
q : I go to the hostel
r : I will go shopping
If......p......or.....q.....then....not.....r
(p ∨ q) → ¬r
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2. PROPOSITIONAL EQUIVALENCES
Definition 1: Tautology: A tautology is a compound proposition

which is always true no matter what the truth value
of its components.
Definition 2: Contradiction: A contradiction is a compound

proposition which is always false no matter what
the truth value of its components.
Definition 3: Contingency: A contingency is a proposition which

neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Definition 4: Logically equivalent (⇔ or ≡): Two compound

propositions are logically equivalent if they have
the same truth values in all cases.
Example 9:
Show that p ∨ ¬p is a tautology.
Solution
Constructing the truth table for p ∨ ¬p, we have:
p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
T F T
F T T
Note that p ∨ ¬p is always true (no matter what proposition is
substituted for p) and is therefore a tautology.
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Example 10:
Show that ¬p ∨ ¬q and ¬(p ∧ q) are logically equivalent, i.e. that

(¬p ∨ ¬q) ≡ ¬(p ∧ q).
Solution
We draw up the truth table for ¬p ∨ ¬q and also for ¬(p ∧ q).
p q ¬p ¬q ¬p ∨ ¬q p∧q ¬(p ∧ q)
T T F F F T F
T F F T T F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T F T
Comparing the columns for ¬p ∨ ¬q and for ¬(p ∧ q) we note that

the truth values are the same. Hence ¬p ∨ ¬q and ¬(p ∧ q) are
logically equivalent propositions.
3. PREDICATES AND QUANTIFIER
A predicate is a sentence containing variables which is either true

or false depending on the values assigned to the variables. For
example, let P( x) be the predicate x is an integer satisfying x = x2 .
It is true for x = 0 and x = 1, and false for all other values of x.
In the previous sections, we studied different types of logical
operations. There are further logical operators, known as
quantifiers, which when applied to a predicate, produce either a
true proposition or a false proposition.
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Definition 1: Universal quantifier: the symbol ∀ is called the

universal quantifier and
∀x is read as ‘for all x’ or ‘for every x’.
Definition 2: Existential quantifier: the symbol ∃ is called the

existential quantifier and
∃x is read as ‘there exist at least one x’ or ‘for some x’.
Example 11:
Suppose P( x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the truth value

of ∀x P( x) , where the universe for x is:
(a) the three numbers −3,−2,−1.
(b) all real numbers.
Solution
(a) P(−3), P(−2), and P(−1) are all true because the numbers
−3,−2,−1 are negative but their absolute values are positive.
Therefore, ∀x P( x) is true.
(b) The predicate x < |x| is false for every nonnegative number.
For example, P(1) is false because 1 = |1|. Having one value of
x that makes the predicate false is enough to guarantee that
∀x P( x) is false.
Example 12:
Suppose P( x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the truth value

of ∃x P( x) where the universe for x is:
(a) the three numbers 1, 2, 3.
(b) the six numbers −2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
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Solution
(a) P(1), P(2), and P(3) are all false because in each case x = |x|.
Therefore, ∃x P( x) is false for this universe.
(b) If we begin checking the six values of x, we find P(−2) is

true — it states that −2 < −2 , or −2 < 2. We need not check
further; having one case that makes the predicate true is
enough to guarantee that ∃x P( x) is true.
4. SETS AND SET OPERATIONS
A set is a collection of objects and these objects are called the

elements of the set.
• {Liverpool, Arsenal, Blackburn}

• {2, 3, 5, 7 ,11}
• {cheese, eggs, milk, cream}
We usually denote a set by a capital letter for reference purpose.

For instance, V = {a, e, i, o, u} is the set V containing vowels.
Notation:
x is an element of set S: x ∈ S.
x is not an element of set S: x ∉ S.
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For a large set, especially an infinite set, we cannot write down all
the elements and so formally we write
S = {x : P(x)}
to denote the set of objects x for which the predicate P(x) is true.
For example,
S = {x : x is an odd positive integer} describes the set S = {1, 3, 5,

7 , …}
Common Universal Sets

• R = real numbers
• N = natural numbers = {0,1, 2, 3, . . . }, the counting numbers
• Z = all integers = {. . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . .}
• Z+ is the set of positive integers
Subsets
Definition 1: The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted A ⊆ B, iff

∀x[x ∈A→x ∈B]
Definition 2: The empty set or the null set, denoted ∅ or { }, is the

set with no members.
Note: 1. ∅ is a subset of every set and

2. a set B is always a subset of itself.
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Definition 3: The set of all subset of a set A, denoted P(A), is

called the power set of A.
Example 13:
If A = {a, b} then P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
Definition 4: The number of (distinct) elements in A, denoted |A|,

is called the cardinality of A.
Example 14:
A = {a, b},
|{a, b}| = 2 and |P({a, b})| = 4.
Useful Fact: |A|=n implies |P(A)| = 2n
Definition 5: The Cartesian product of A with B, denoted A×B,

is the set of all the ordered pairs {(a, b) | a ∈A ∧ b∈B}
Example 15:
A = {a,b}, B = {1, 2, 3}
AxB = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
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Set Operations
There is always a universal set U. All sets are assumed to be

subsets of U.
Definitions:
• The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all elements
which belong to A or to B or to both. {x | x∈A ∨ x∈B}
• The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all

elements which belong both to A and B. {x | x∈A ∧ x∈B}
Note: If the intersection of set A and B is empty, A and B are

said to be disjoint.
• The complement of A, denoted A , is the set which consist all the

elements in U which do not belong to A. {x | ¬(x∈A)} or
{x|x∉A}.
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• The difference of A and B, denoted A - B, is the set containing

those elements that are in A but not in B. {x | x∈A ∧ x∉B} or
A∩ B
Example 16:
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5,

6, 7, 8}. Then
• A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
• A ∩ B = {4, 5}
• A = {0, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
• B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 10}
• A - B = {1, 2, 3}
• B - A = {6, 7, 8}
5. FUNCTIONS
Let A and B be sets. A function f maps set A to set B, denoted f :

A→ B is a relation in which every element of A is associated with
a uniquely specified element of B. In other words, for each a ∈ A,
there is unique element b given in the form f (a) = b, where b ∈ B.
Note: f associates each a in A with one and only one b in B.
A is called the domain and

B is called the codomain.
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If f (a) = b
• b is called the image of a under f
• a is called a pre-image of b
(note there may be more than one pre-image of b but there is only
one image of a).
The range of f is the set of images of all the elements of A.
Example 17:
• f (a) = Z
• the image of d is Z
• the domain of f is A = {a, b, c, d}
• the codomain is B = {X, Y, Z}
• the range of f is {Y, Z}
• the preimage of Y is b
• the preimages of Z are a, c and d
Injections, Surjections and Bijections
Let f be a function from A to B.
Definition 1: f is one-to-one or injective if f(x) ≠ f(y) when x ≠ y.

Similarly if f(x) = f(y) then x = y. In other words,
different inputs give different output.
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Definition 2: f is onto or surjective if for every b ∈ B, there exists

an element a ∈ A. This means that for every b in B
there must be an a in A such that f(a) = b.
Definition 3: f is bijective if it is surjective and injective (one-to-

one and onto).
Example 18:
Surjection but not an injection
Injection but not a surjection
Surjection and an injection, hence a bijection
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Example 19:
Consider f : R → R defined by f ( x) = 3x − 7 . Show that f is

injective.
Solution
To show that f is an injection, we prove that for all real numbers x

and y, f (x) = f (y) implies x = y.
Let
f ( x) = f ( y )
3x − 7 = 3 y − 7
3x = 3 y
x= y
so f is injective.
Inverse Functions
Let f be a function from A to B. Then the inverse of f, denoted

f −1, is the function from B to A defined as
f −1 (y) = x iff f(x) = y
Example 20:
Let f be defined by the diagram:
Note: No inverse exists unless f is a bijection.
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Composition Functions
Let f: B→C, g: A→B. The composition of f with g, denoted f o g ,

is the function from A to C defined by f o g ( x) = f ( g ( x) ) .
Example 21:
If f ( x) = x2 and g ( x) = 2 x +1, then find f o g ( x) and g o f ( x) .
Solution
f o g ( x) = f ( g ( x) ) g o f ( x) = g ( f ( x) )
2
= ( g ( x) ) and = 2 ( f ( x) ) + 1
= (2 x +1)2 = 2 x2 +1
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Chapter 8: Logic, Sets and Functions

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BACS 1253 Mathematics for computer science 1(linear algebra)

Faculty of Information and Communications & Technology

CHAPTER 8: LOGIC, SETS AND FUNCTIONS

Propositions and Truth Values

A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or

1. The earth is flat.

Exclamation, questions and demands are not propositions:

6. Keep of the grass.

The truth (T) or falsity (F) of a proposition is called truth value.

Definition 1: Proposition (p): true = T (or 1) or false = F (or 0)

Definition 2: Negation (¬): ‘not p’

¬p : I am not going to town;

Definition 3: Conjunction (∧): ‘and’

Definition 4: Disjunction (∨): ‘or’

Definition 5: Exclusive OR (⊕): True when exactly one of p and

Definition 6: Implication (→): ‘If...then...’

Find the converse of the following statement:

Step 1: Assign propositional variables for the above statement.

Definition 7: Biconditional (↔): ‘…if and only if…’

Breaking assertions into component propositions - look for the

‘If I go to UTeM or go to the hostel then I will not go shopping.’

Definition 1: Tautology: A tautology is a compound proposition

Definition 2: Contradiction: A contradiction is a compound

Definition 3: Contingency: A contingency is a proposition which

Definition 4: Logically equivalent (⇔ or ≡): Two compound

Show that p ∨ ¬p is a tautology.

Constructing the truth table for p ∨ ¬p, we have:

Show that ¬p ∨ ¬q and ¬(p ∧ q) are logically equivalent, i.e. that

Comparing the columns for ¬p ∨ ¬q and for ¬(p ∧ q) we note that

3. PREDICATES AND QUANTIFIER

A predicate is a sentence containing variables which is either true

Definition 1: Universal quantifier: the symbol ∀ is called the

Definition 2: Existential quantifier: the symbol ∃ is called the

Suppose P( x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the truth value

Suppose P( x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the truth value

(b) If we begin checking the six values of x, we find P(−2) is

4. SETS AND SET OPERATIONS

A set is a collection of objects and these objects are called the

• {Liverpool, Arsenal, Blackburn}

We usually denote a set by a capital letter for reference purpose.

S = {x : x is an odd positive integer} describes the set S = {1, 3, 5,

Common Universal Sets

Definition 1: The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted A ⊆ B, iff

Definition 2: The empty set or the null set, denoted ∅ or { }, is the

Note: 1. ∅ is a subset of every set and

Definition 3: The set of all subset of a set A, denoted P(A), is

If A = {a, b} then P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}

Definition 4: The number of (distinct) elements in A, denoted |A|,

Useful Fact: |A|=n implies |P(A)| = 2n

Definition 5: The Cartesian product of A with B, denoted A×B,

There is always a universal set U. All sets are assumed to be

• The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all

Note: If the intersection of set A and B is empty, A and B are

• The complement of A, denoted A , is the set which consist all the

• The difference of A and B, denoted A - B, is the set containing

U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5,

Let A and B be sets. A function f maps set A to set B, denoted f :

Note: f associates each a in A with one and only one b in B.

A is called the domain and

The range of f is the set of images of all the elements of A.

Injections, Surjections and Bijections

Let f be a function from A to B.