Wireless Communications

by

Dr. Mohamed Elalem

Notes on Wireless Communications

Program of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Khoms - University, Libya, 2017

http://melalem.com/Wireless.php
Contents

1 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss 3

1.1 Free Space Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Relating Power to Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.1 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3.2 Reflection from Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3.3 Brewster Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.3.4 Reflection from Perfect Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.5.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.5.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.5.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.6 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.6.1 Radar Cross Section Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.7 Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.7.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.7.2 Log-normal Shadowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1
 1.7.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.8 Outdoor Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.8.1 Okumura Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.8.2 Hata Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.8.3 PCS Extension to Hata Model (COST-231) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multi path 24

2.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.1 Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.3 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.5 Types of Small Scale Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3 The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals 35

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2 Frequency Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.3 Channel Assignment Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.4 Interference and Sys1em Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.4.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4.2 Adjacent Channel Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.5 Trunking and Grade of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.5.1 Number of Definitions Used in Trunking Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.6 Improving capacity In Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.6.1 Cell Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.6.2 Sectoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Spring 2017, 2
Lecture 1

Mobile Radio Propagation:

Large-Scale Path Loss

1.1 Free Space Propagation Model

It is used to predict the received signal strength when the receiver and the transmitter have a

clear Line Of Sight (LOS) path. Satellite communication and microwave radio link typically

undergo free space propagation. The free space model predicts that received power decays

as a function of the separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law function).

The power received Pr by a receiver antenna having a gain Gr which is separated from a

radiating transmitter antenna having Gr by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space

equation,
Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr (d) = , (1.1)
(4π)2 d2 L

where Pt is the transmitted power, L is the system loss factor not related to propagation

(L ≥ 1 ), and λ = c
f
is the wavelength in meters. The gain of an antenna is related to its

3
effective aperture, Ae , by
4π
G= Ae , (1.2)
λ2

The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical area (A) of the antenna, Ae = ηA; η is

the antenna efficiency. The losses L are usually due to transmission line attenuation, filter

losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. A value of L = 1 indicates no loss

in the system hardware.

The Friis free space Equation(1.1) shows that the received power falls off as the square

of separation distance.

An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in

all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The effective

isotropic radiated power (EIRP ) is defined as

EIRP = Pt Gt (1.3)

and represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of

maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator. In practice, effective radiated

power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP

ERP = EIRP − 2.25 dB. (1.4)

The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB, is

defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received

power. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

Pt G t G r λ2
P L(dB) = 10 log = −10 log . (1.5)
Pr (4π)2 d2

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr , for values of d which are in the

far-field. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the

Spring 2017, 4
region beyond the farfield distance df , which is related to the largest linear dimension of the

transmitter antenna aperture D and the carrier wavelength λ.

2D2
df = (1.6)
λ

To be in the far-field region, df >> D.

It is clear that Equation (1.1) does not hold for d = 0. For this reason, large-scale

propagation models use a close-in distance, d0 , as a known received power reference point.

The received power Pr (d) at any distance d > d0 , may be related to Pr at d0 . The value

Pr (d0 ) may be predicted from Equation (1.1), or may be measured in the radio environment

by taking the average received power at many points located at a close-in radial distance d0

from the transmitter. The reference distance must be chosen such that d0 ≥ df .

Using equation (1.1), the received power in free space at a distance greater than d0 is

given by
( d )2
0
Pr (d) = Pr (d0 ) , df ≤ d0 ≤ d (1.7)
d
The typically reference distance d0 for practical systems is chosen to be 1 m in indoor

environments and 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments.

1.2 Relating Power to Electric Field

In free space, the power flux density Pd (expressed in W/m2 ) is given by

EIRP Pt Gt |E|2
Pd = = = , (1.8)
4πd2 4πd2 η

where η is the intrinsic impedance of free space given by η = 120Ω = 377Ω. Thus, the power

flux density is
|E|2 P t G r G t λ2
Pr (d) = Pd Ae = Ae = Watt, (1.9)
η (4π)2 d2
Equation (1.9) relates electric field to received power.

Spring 2017, 5
1.3 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

Reflection. diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which

impact propagation in a mobile communication system.

• Reflection occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object which has very

large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflec-

tions occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.

• Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is ob-

structed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The refracted waves are

present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of

waves around the obstacle, even when a LOS path does not exist between transmitter

and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction. like reflection. depends on the geometry

of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase. and polarization of the incident wave

at the point of diffraction.

• Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects

with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength. and where the number

of obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces,

small objects, or by other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs,

and lamp posts produce scattering in a mobile communications system.

A mount of energy of the propagating wave which is reflected, refracted or scattering de-

pends on the electric properties of the medium (boundaries), such as (µ: permeability, ϵ:

permittivity, σ: conductivity, f : frequency, P : power, θi : incident angle, polarization, · · · ,

etc) If the medium is dielectric of the medium is lossy, it absorbs power

σ
ϵ = ϵr ϵ0 − jϵ′ where ϵ′ = (1.10)
2πf

Spring 2017, 6
1.3.1 Reflection

When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having

different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. If

the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the

second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there

is no loss of energy in absorption. If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all

incident energy is reflected back into the first medium without loss of energy. When a radio

wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical

properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. If the plane wave is

incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium

and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there is no loss of energy in

absorption. If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected

back into the first medium without loss of energy. The reflected and transmitted waves is

related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the reflection coefficient (Γ).

The reflection coefficient is a function of the material properties, and generally depends on

the wave polarization, angle of incidence. and the frequency.

The reflection coefficient is a function of the material properties, and generally depends

on the wave polarization, angle of incidence. and the frequency of the propagating wave.

1.3.2 Reflection from Dielectrics

Figure 1.1 shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle θi ; with the plane of the

boundary between two dielectric media. Part of the energy is reflected back to the first

media at an angle θr , and part of the energy is transmitted (refracted) into the second

media at an angle θt . The nature of reflection varies with the direction of polarization of the

Spring 2017, 7
E-field. In Figure 1.1, the E-field polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (that

Figure 1.1: E-field normal to the plane of incidence.

is, the incident E-field is pointing out of the page towards the reader, and is perpendicular

to the page and parallel to the reflecting surface). The subscripts i, r, t in the figure refer to

the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields, respectively. Parameters ϵ1 , µ1 , σ1 and ϵ2 , µ2 ,

σ3 represent the permittivity, permeability, and conductance of the two media, respectively.

If a dielectric material is lossy, it will absorb power and may be described by a complex

dielectric constant given by Equation (1.10)

Er η2 sin θt − η1 sin θi
Γ∥ = = (E-field in plane of incidence) (1.11)
Ei η2 sin θt + η1 sin θi
Er η2 sin θi − η1 sin θt
Γ⊥ = = (E-field not in plane o incidence) (1.12)
Ei η2 sin θi + η1 sin θt
√
where ηi ; is the intrinsic impedance of the ith medium (i = 1, 2 ), and is given by µi /ϵi

, the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave in the particular medium.
√
The velocity of an electromagnetic wave is given by 1/ µ/ϵ. The boundary conditions at

the surface of incidence obey Snell’s Law which, referring to Figure 1.1, is given by
√ √
µ1 /ϵ1 sin(90 − θi ) = µ2 /ϵ2 sin(90 − θt ) (1.13)

Since θi = θr , Er = ΓEi , and Et = (1 + Γ)Ei , for both Γ∥ and Γ⊥ , depending on

polarization.

Spring 2017, 8
 For the case when the first medium is free space and µ1 = µ2 , the reflection coefficients

for the two cases of vertical and horizontal polarization can be simplified to
√
−ϵr sin θi + ϵr − cos2 θi
Γ∥ = √ (1.14)
ϵr sin θi + ϵr − cos2 θi
√
sin θi − ϵr − cos2 θi
Γ⊥ = √ (1.15)
sin θi + ϵr − cos2 θi

1.3.3 Brewster Angle

The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It

occurs when the incident angle θB is such that the reflection coefficient Γ is equal to zero.

The Brewster angle is given by

√
−1 ϵ1
θB = sin (1.16)
ϵ1 + ϵ2

For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative

permittivity ϵr , Equation (1.16) can be expressed as

√
−1 ϵ −1
θB = sin √r (1.17)
ϵ2r − 1

1.3.4 Reflection from Perfect Conductors

Since electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave incident

on a conductor has all of its energy reflected. As the electric field at the surface of the

conductor must be equal to zero at all times in order to obey Maxwell’s equations, the

reflected wave must be equal in magnitude to the incident wave. For the case when E-field

polarization is in the plane of incidence, the boundary conditions require that θi = θr , and

Ei = Er , (E-field in plane of incidence), and Ei = −Er , (E-field not in plane of incidence)

So for a perfect conductor, Γ∥ = 1, and Γ⊥ = −1, regardless of incident angle.

Spring 2017, 9
1.4 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile is sel-

dom the only physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model

of Equation (1.1) is in most cases inaccurate when used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection

model shown in Figure 1.2 is a useful propagation model that is based on geometric optics,

and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path between trans-

mitter and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the

large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems In

Figure 1.2: Two-ray ground reflection model.

most mobile communication systems, the maximum T − R separation distance is at most

only a few tens of kilometers, and the earth may be assumed to be flat. The total received

E-field, ET OT , is then a result of the direct line-of-sight component, ELOS , and the ground

reflected component, Eg . Referring to Figure 1.2, ht is the height of the transmitter and hr

is the height of the receiver. If E0 is the free space E-field at a reference distance d0 from

the transmitter, then for d > d0 , the free space propagating E-field is given by

E0 d0 ( ( d ))
E(d, t) = cos ωc t − , (d > d0 ) (1.18)
d c

Spring 2017, 10
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d′ ; and

the reflected wave that travels a distance d′′ . The E-field due to the line-of-sight component

at the receiver can be expressed as

E0 d0 ( ( d′ ))
ELOS (d′ , t) = cos ω c t − , (1.19)
d′ c
and the E-field for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distance of d”, can

be expressed as
E0 d0 ( ( d′′ ))
′′
Eg (d , t) = ′′ cos ωc t − , (1.20)
d c
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics, θi = θ0 , and Er = ΓEi , and Et = (1 + Γ)Ei .

For small values of θi , (i.e., grazing incidence), the reflected wave is equal in magnitude and

180◦ out of phase with the incident wave. The resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground

reflection (i.e., Γ = −1 and Et = 0) is the vector sum of ELOS and Eg , and the resultant

total E-field envelope is given by

E0 d0 ( ( d′ )) E0 d0 ( ( d′′ ))
ET OT (d, t) = cos ω c t − + (−1) cos ω c t − , (1.21)
d′ c d′′ c
Using the method of images, which is demonstrated by the geometry of Figure 1.3, the path

difference, ∆, between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths can be expressed as
√ √
∆ = d′′ − d′ = (ht + hr )2 + d2 − (ht − hr )2 + d2 (1.22)

When the d is very large compared to (ht + hr ) Equation (1.22) can be simplified using a

Taylor series approximation

2ht hr
∆ = d′′ − d′ ≃
d
Once the path difference is known, the phase difference θ∆ ., between the two E field com-

ponents and the time delay τd between the arrival of the two components can be easily

computed using the following relations

2π∆ ∆ωc ∆ θ∆
θ∆ = = , τd = =
λ c c ωc

Spring 2017, 11
Figure 1.3: The method of images concept to find the path difference between the LOS and

the ground reflected paths.

1.5 Diffraction

Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth, beyond

the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions. Although the received field strength

decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into the obstructed (shadowed) region, the

diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient strength to produce a useful signal.

1.5.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry

Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown in Figure 1.4-a. Let

an obstructing screen of effective height h with infinite width at a distance d1 from the

transmitter and d2 from the receiver. It is apparent that the wave propagating from the

transmitter to the receiver via the top of the screen travels a longer distance than if a direct

LOS path (through the screen) existed. Assuming h << d1 , d2 , and h >> λ, then the

difference between the direct path and the diffracted path, ∆ , can be obtained from the

Spring 2017, 12
 Figure 1.4: Diagrams of knife-edge geometry.

geometry of Figure 1.4-b as

h2 (d1 + d2 )
∆≃ (1.23)
2 d1 d2

and when tan x = x, then α = β + γ from Figure 1.4-c and

(d + d
1 2
α≃h )
d1 d2

Spring 2017, 13
the dimensionless Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter ν is given by
√ √
2(d1 + d2 ) 2(d1 d2 )
ν=h =α (1.24)
λd1 d2 λ(d1 + d2 )

Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length from

the transmitter to receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path length of a LOS path,

forming successive circles. These circles are called Fresnel zones. The successive Fresnel

zones may be constructive and destructive interference to the total received signal. The

radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by rn given by

√
nλd1 d2
rn = , d1 , d 2 ≫ r (1.25)
d1 + d2

1.5.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model

Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and buildings

is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area. Generally, it is impossible

to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses. Over complex and irregular terrain,

calculation of diffraction losses is a mathematically difficult problem. In practice prediction,

a process of theoretical approximation modified by necessary empirical corrections. A knife-

edge model gives good insight into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss.

The diffraction loss or gain due to the presence of a knife edge as a function of ν given

by Equation (1.24) has the following approximate solutions

Spring 2017, 14
 Gd (dB) = 0 ν ≤ −1

= 20 log(0.5 − 0.62ν) −1 ≤ ν ≤ 0

= 20 log(0.5 exp(−0.95ν)) 0≤ν≤1 (1.26)

( √ )
= 20 log 0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1ν) 2 1 ≤ ν ≤ 2.4
( 0.225 )
= 20 log ν > 2.4
ν
A graphical representation of Gd (dB) as a function of ν is given in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Knife-edge diffraction gain as a function of Fresnel diffraction parameter ν’.

1.5.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of

more than one obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles

Spring 2017, 15
must be computed. It is suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single

equivalent obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction

models. This method, illustrated in Figure 1.6

Figure 1.6: Multiple obstruction diffraction

1.6 Scattering

When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out (diffused)

in all directions due to scattering. Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter

energy in all directions, thereby providing additional radio energy at a receiver. Surface

roughness is often tested using a critical height (hc ) of surface protuberances for a given

angle of incidence θi given by

λ
hc = (1.27)
8 sin θi

A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than hc ,

and is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than hc , For rough surfaces, the flat

Spring 2017, 16
surface reflection coefficient needs to be multiplied by a scattering loss factor, ρs , assuming

that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed random variable with a local mean and

found ρs to be given by
( ( πσh sin θi )2 )
ρs = exp − 8 (1.28)
λ

where σh is the standard deviation of the surface height about the mean surface height. The

reflected E-fields for h > hc can be solved for rough surfaces using a modified reflection

coefficient given as

Γrough = ρs Γ. (1.29)

1.6.1 Radar Cross Section Model

The Radar Cross Section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power

density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the

radio wave incident upon the scattering object, and has units of square meters.

Based on bistatic radar equation which describes the propagation of a wave traveling in

free space

PR (dBm) = PT (dBm)+GT (dBi)+20 log(λ)+RCS(dB m2 )−30 log(4π)−20 log dT −20 log dR

(1.30)

where dT and dR are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and receiver,

respectively, and assumed to be both in far field regions.

For medium and large size buildings located 5 − 10 km away, RCS values were found to be

in the range of 14.l dB m2 to 55.7 dB m2 .

Spring 2017, 17
1.7 Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models

Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical and empirical

methods. Some classical propagation models have emerged, which are now used to predict

large-scale coverage for mobile communication systems design. By using path loss models

to estimate the received signal level as a function of distance. it becomes possible to predict

the SN R for a mobile communication system.

1.7.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model

Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average received

signal power decreases logarithmically with distance

( )n
d
P L(d) ∝ (1.31)
d0

where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases

with distance d0 .
(d)
P L(dB) = P L(d) + 10n log (1.32)
d0

The value of n depends on the specific propagation environment. For example, in free space,

n is equal to 2, and when obstructions are present, n will have a larger value. See Table 1.1.

1.7.2 Log-normal Shadowing

The model in Equation (1.32) does not consider the fact that the surrounding environmental

may be different at two different locations. Measurements have shown that at any value of d,

the path loss P L(d) at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally (normal

Spring 2017, 18
 Table 1.1: Path Loss Exponents for Different Environments

Environment value of n

Free space 2

Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5

Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5

In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8

Obstructed in building 4 to 6

in dB) about the mean distance dependent value, i.e.

(d)
P L(d)[dB] = P L(d) + Xσ = P L(d0 ) + 10n log + Xσ (1.33)
d0

where Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard devi-

ation σ (also in dB).

The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a large

number of measurement locations which have the same T-R separation, but have different

levels of clutter on the propagation path. This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal

shadowing. The reference distance d0 , the path loss exponent , and the standard deviation

σ, statistically describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R

separation. In practice, the values of n and σ are computed from measured data, using

linear regression such that the difference between the measured and estimated path losses

is minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide range of measurement locations and

T-R separations.

Spring 2017, 19
1.7.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area

Due to random effects of shadowing, some locations within a coverage area will be below a

particular threshold. It is often useful to compute how the boundary coverage relates to the

percent of area covered within the boundary. For a circular coverage area having radius R

from a base station, let there be some desired received signal threshold γ. We are interested

in computing U (γ), the percentage of useful service area (i.e., the percentage of area with a

received signal that is equal or greater than γ ).

Letting d = r represent the radial distance from the transmitter, then

∫ 2π ∫ R
1 (d)
U (γ) = P r{P r (r) > γ}rdrdθP L(d)+X σ = P L(d 0 )+10n log +Xσ (1.34)
πR2 0 0 d0

where
( γ − P (d) )
r
P r[Pr (r) > γ] = Q (1.35)
σ
Using Equation (1.32), and with some mathematical manipulations and assumptions Equa-

tion (1.34) can be written as

[ ( )]
1 (1) (1)
U (γ) = 1 + exp 2 1 − erf (1.36)
2 b b
√
where b = (10n log e)/(σ 2).

1.8 Outdoor Propagation Models

Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes place over irregular ter-

rain. The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account for estimating

the path loss. The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly

mountainous profile. The presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacles also must be taken

into account. A number of propagation models are available to predict path loss over irreg-

ular terrain. While all these models aim to predict signal strength at a particular receiving

Spring 2017, 20
point or in a specific local area (called a sector), the methods vary widely in their approach,

complexity, and accuracy. Most of these models are based on a systematic interpretation

of measurement data obtained in the service area. Some of the commonly used outdoor

propagation models are now discussed.

1.8.1 Okumura Model

Okumura’s model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas.

• Frequency range : 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (typically extrapolated up to 3000 MHz)

• Distances : of 1 km to 100 km

• Base station antenna heights : from 30 m to 1000 m

• Effective receiver antenna heights : from 1 m to 3 m

• curves were developed from extensive measurements using vertical onmi-directional

antennas

• Mare valid for urban and suburban environments. Not as good in rural areas.

L50 (dB) = LF + Amu (f, d) − G(ht ) − G(hr ) − GAREA (1.37)

where L50 is the median value of propagation path loss, LF is the free space propagation

loss, Mmu is the median attenuation relative to free space, G(hr ) is the base station antenna

height gain factor, G(ht ) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and GAREA is the gain

due to the type of environment.

ht
G(ht ) = 20 log( ) 30 m < ht < 1000 m
200
hr
G(rr ) = 10 log( ) hr ≤ 3 m (1.38)
3
hr
G(hr ) = 20 log( ) 3 m < hr > 10 m
3
Spring 2017, 21
Other corrections may also be applied to Okumura’s model.

1.8.2 Hata Model

The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by

Okumura, and is valid

• Frequency range : 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

• Distances : of 1 km to 100 km

• Base station antenna heights : from 30 m to 200 m

• Effective receiver antenna heights : from 1 m to 10 m

• Valid for urban, suburban and rural environments.

L50 (urban)(dB) = 69.55+26.16 log fc −13.82 log ht −a(hr )+(44.9−6.55 log ht ) log d) (1.39)

where a(hr ) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a function

of the size of the coverage area.

a(hr ) = (1.1 log f )c − 0.7)hr − (1.56 log fc − 0.8) dB small to medium sized city

a(hr ) = 8.29(log 1.54hr )2 − 1.1 dB large cities,fc ≤ 300 M Hz (1.40)

a(hr ) = 3.2(log 11.75hr )2 − 4.97 dB large cities,fc ≥ 300 M Hz

To obtain the path loss in a suburban area the standard Hata formula in Equation (1.43) is

modified as
[ ]2
fc
L50 (suburban)(dB) = L50 (urban) − 2 log( ) − 5.4 (1.41)
28
and for path loss in open rural areas, the formula is modified as
( )2
L50 (dB) = L50 (urban) − 4.782 log fc − 18.33 log fc − 40.98 (1.42)

Spring 2017, 22
1.8.3 PCS Extension to Hata Model (COST-231)

The European Co-operative for Scientific and-Technical research (COST) developed an ex-

tended version of the Rata model to 2 GHz.

• Frequency range : 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz

• Distances : of 1 km to 20 km

• Base station antenna heights : from 30 m to 200 m

• Effective receiver antenna heights : from 1 m to 10 m

L50 (urban)(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9 log fc − 13.82 log ht − a(hr ) + (44.9 − 6.55 log ht ) log d + CM

(1.43)

where a(hr ) is defined in Equation (1.40) and



 0 dB, for medium sized city and suburban areas;
CM =

 3 dB, for metropolitan centers.

Spring 2017, 23
Lecture 2

Mobile Radio Propagation:

Small-Scale Fading and Multi path

Small-scale fading(simply fading) is the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal

over a short period of time or travel distance, so that large-scale path loss effects may be

ignored. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted

signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves, called multipath

waves

2.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading effects. The three most important

effects are:

• Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval

• Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multi path

signals

24
 • Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays.

 Multipath could have constructive or destructive affects.

Due to the relative motion between the mobile and the base station, each multi path wave

experiences an apparent shift in frequency. The shift in received signal frequency due to

motion is called the Doppler shift, and is directly proportional to the velocity and direction

of motion of the mobile with respect to the direction of arrival of the received multi path

wave.

2.2 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading

• Multi path propagation: The random phase and amplitudes of the different multi

path components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby inducing fading, sig-

nal distortion, or both. Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for

the baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which can cause intersymbol

interference.

• Speed of the mobile: - The relative motion between the base station and the mobile

results in random frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of

the multipath components. Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on

whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or away from the base station.

• Speed of surrounding objects: If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they

induce a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding

objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates the small-

scale fading. Otherwise, motion of surrounding objects may be ignored, and only the

speed of the mobile need be considered.

Spring 2017, 25
 • The transmission bandwidth of the signal: If the transmitted signal bandwidth

is greater than the channel bandwidth, the received signal will be distorted. The co-

herence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum frequency difference for which signals

are still strongly correlated in amplitude.

2.2.1 Doppler Shift

Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment having length d

between points X and Y , while it receives signals from a remote source S, as illustrated in

Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Illustration of Doppler effect.

The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave from source S to the mobile at points

X and Y is

∆l = d cos θ = v∆t cos θ,

θ is assumed to be the same at points X and Y since the source is assumed to be very far

away.
2π∆l 2πv∆t 1 ∆ϕ v
∆ϕ = = θ, fd = = · cos θ (2.1)
λ λ 2π ∆t λ

where fd is the Doppler shift. If the mobile is moving toward the direction of arrival of

Spring 2017, 26
the wave, the Doppler shift is positive (i.e., the Doppler is increased), and if the mobile is

moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler shift is negative.

2.3 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel

The small-scale variations of a mobile radio signal can be directly related to the impulse

response of the mobile radio channel. The impulse response is a wideband channel charac-

terization and contains all information necessary to simulate or analyze any type of radio

transmission through the channel.

Since the received signal in a multipath channel consists of a series of attenuated, time-

delayed, phase shifted replicas of the transmitted signal, the baseband impulse respense of

a multipath channel can be expressed as

∑
N −1 [ ( )]
hb (t, τ ) = ai (t, τ ) exp j 2πfc τi (t) + ϕi (t, τ ) δ(τ − τi (t)) (2.2)
i=0

where a(t, τ ) and τi (t) are the real amplitudes and excess delays, respectively, of ith multi

path component at time t. The phase term 2πfc τi (t) + ϕi (t, τ ) represents the phase shift

due to free space propagation of the ith multi path component, plus any additional phase

shifts which are encountered in the channel. N is the total possible number of multipath

components. Figure 2.2 illustrates an example of different snapshots of hb (t, τ ).

2.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels

Time Dispersion Parameters The mean excess delay(τ ), rms delay spread (στ ), and ex-

cess delay spread (X dB) are multipath channel parameters that can be determined

from a power delay profile.

∑ 2 ∑
ak τk P (τk )τk
τ = ∑ 2 = ∑k
k
(2.3)
k ak k P (τk )

Spring 2017, 27
Figure 2.2: Time varying discrete-time impulse response model for a multi path radio chan-

nel.

∑ 2 2 ∑
ak τk P (τk )τk2
τ2 = ∑ 2 = ∑k
k
(2.4)
k ak k P (τk )
√
στ = τ 2 − (τ )2 (2.5)

Coherence Bandwidth The coherence bandwidth, Bc , is a statistical measure of the range

of frequencies over which the channel can be considered ”flat” (i.e., a channel which

passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase). The

coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation

function is above 0.9:

1
Bc ≃ (2.6)
50στ

If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency correlation function is above 0.5, then

the coherence bandwidth is approximately

1
Bc ≃ (2.7)
5στ

Spring 2017, 28
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time Note that delay spread and coherence bandwidth

do not offer information about the time varying nature of the channel caused by either

relative motion between the mobile and base station, or by movement of objects in the

channel. Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the time

varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.

Doppler spread BD is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate

of change of the mobile radio channel and is defined as the range of frequencies over

which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero. If the baseband signal

bandwidth is much greater than BD , the effects of Doppler spread are negligible at the

receiver. This is a slow fading channel.

Coherence time Tc , is the time domain dual of Doppler spread. The Doppler spread

and coherence time are inversely proportional to one another

1
TC ≃ , (2.8)
fm

where fm is is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm = vλ. Coherence time is a

statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is

essentially invariant. It is the time duration over which two received signals have a

strong potential for amplitude correlation.

If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time correlation function is

above 0.5, then the coherence time is approximately

9
TC ≃ (2.9)
16πfm

A popular rule of thumb for modern digital communications is to define the coherence

time as the geometric mean of equation (2.9)

√
9
TC ≃ 2
(2.10)
16πfm

Spring 2017, 29
 The definition of coherence time implies that two signals arriving with a time separa-

tion greater than Tc are affected differently by the channel For example, for a vehicle

traveling 60 mph using a 900 MHz carrier, a conservative value of Tc can be shown to

be 2.22 ms from Equation (2.8). If a digital transmission system is used, then as long

as the symbol rate is greater than 1/Tc = 454 bps, the channel will not cause distor-

tion due to motion. Using the practical formula of Equation (2.9), Tc = 6.77 ms and

the symbol rate must exceed 150 bits/s in order to avoid distortion due to frequency

dispersion.

2.5 Types of Small Scale Fading

Depending on the relation between the signal parameters (such as bandwidth, symbol period,

etc.) and the channel parameters (such as rms delay spread and Doppler spread), different

transmitted signals will undergo different types of fading. The time dispersion and frequency

dispersion mechanisms lead to four possible distinct effects. Mu1tipath delay spread leads to

time dispersion and frequency selective fading. Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion

and time selective fading. The two propagation mechanisms are independent of one another.

Figure 2.3 shows a tree of the four different types of fading.

[1 ] Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

(a) Flat fading If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase

response over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted

signal, then the received signal will undergo flat fading. The characteristics of a

flat fading channel are illustrated in Figure 2.4. A signal undergoes flat fading if

BS << BC and TS >> στ ,

Spring 2017, 30
 Figure 2.3: Types of small-scale fading.

where TS is the reciprocal bandwidth (i.e., symbol period) and BS is the band-

width, respectively, of the transmitted modulation.

(b) Frequency Selective Fading If the channel possesses a constant-gain and lin-

ear phase response over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of trans-

mitted signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading on the received

signal. Under such conditions the channel impulse response has a multipath delay

spread which is greater than the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted mes-

sage waveform. In the frequency domain, certain frequency components in the

Spring 2017, 31
 Figure 2.4: Flat fading channel characteristics.

received signal spectrum have greater gains than others. Refer to Figure 2.5 the

spectrum S(f ) of the transmitted signal has a bandwidth which is greater than

the coherence bandwidth BC of the channel. Viewed in the frequency domain,

the channel becomes frequency selective, where the gain is different for different

frequency components. Frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delays

which approach or exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol. Fre-

quency selective fading channels are also known as wideband channels since the

bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the bandwidth of the channel impulse

response. As time varies, the channel varies in gain and phase across the spectrum

of s(t), resulting in time varying distortion in the received signal r(t).

A signal undergoes frequency selective fading if

BS > BC and TS < στ ,

A common rule of thumb is that a channel is frequency selective if TC ≤ στ .

Spring 2017, 32
 Figure 2.5: Flat fading channel characteristics.

[2 ] Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread

(a) Fast Fading In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes

rapidly within the symbol duration. That is, the coherence time of the chan-

nel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. This causes

frequency dispersion (also called time selective fading) due to Doppler spreading,

which leads to signal distortion. Viewed in the frequency domain, signal distor-

tion due to fast fadi:lg increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the

bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

A signal undergoes fast fading if

TS > TC and BS < BD ,

In the case of a frequency selective, fast fading channel, the amplitudes, phases,

and time delays of any one of the multipath components vary faster than the rate

of change of the transmitted signal. In practice, fast fading only occurs for very

Spring 2017, 33
 low data rates.

(b) Slow Fading In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at

a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t). In this case, the

channel may be assumed to be static over one or several reciprocal bandwidth

intervals. In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the

channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband signal. Therefore, a

signal undergoes slow fading if

TS << TC and BS >> BD ,

It should be clear that the velocity of the mobile (or velocity of objects in the

channel) and the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes fast

fading or slow fading.

Spring 2017, 34
Lecture 3

The Cellular Concept System Design

Fundamentals

3.1 Introduction

The cellular concept became the major solution for the problem of spectral congestion and

user capacity. It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation. The cellular

concept is a system level idea which calls for replacing a single, high power transmitter (large

cell) with many low power transmitters (small cells), each providing coverage to only a small

portion of the service area. Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of

channels available to the entire system, and nearby base stations are assigned different groups

of channels so that all the available channels are assigned to a relatively small number of

neighboring base stations. Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels

so that the interference between base stations (and the mobile users under their control) is

minimized. The available channels are distributed throughout the geographic region and

may be reused as many times as necessary, so long as the interference between co-channel

35
stations is kept below acceptable levels. This fundamental principle is the foundation for

all modern wireless communication systems, since it enables a fixed number of channels to

serve a large number of subscribers by reusing the channels throughout the coverage region.

3.2 Frequency Reuse

Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within a small

geographic area called a cell. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups

which contain completely different channels than neighboring cells. The base station anten-

nas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within the particular cell. By limiting the

coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels may be used to

cover different cells that are separated from one another by distances large enough to keep

interference levels within tolerable limits. The design process of selecting and allocating

channel groups for all of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse

or frequency planning.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells labeled with the

same letter use the same group of channels. The hexagonal cell shape is conceptual and is

a simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base station, but it has been universally

adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a cellular system. The

actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is determined from field mea-

surements or propagation prediction models. Although the real footprint is amorphous in

nature, a regular cell shape is needed for systematic system design and adaptation for future

growth. While it might seem natural to choose a circle to represent the coverage area of a

base .station, adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps or

The power of the radio signals transmitted by the BS decay as the signals travel away

Spring 2017, 36
Figure 3.1: Illustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept. Cells with the same letter

use the same set of frequencies. A cell cluster is outlined in bold and replicated over the

coverage area. ln this example, the duster size, N = 7, and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7

since each cell contains one-seventh of the total number of available channels.

from it. A minimum amount of signal strength is needed in order to be detected by the

receiver. The region over which the signal strength lies above this threshold is known as the

coverage area.Circular coverage is theoretical assumption. It might so happen that either

there may be an overlap between any two such side by side circles or there might be a

gap between the creating overlapping regions. Thus, when considering geometric shapes

which cover an entire region without overlap and with equal area, there are three sensible

choices: a square; an equilateral triangle; and a hexagon. A cell must be designed to serve

the weakest mobiles within the footprint, and these are typically located at the edge of the

Spring 2017, 37
 Figure 3.2: Different cell shapes.

cell. For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points,

the hexagon has the largest area of the three. Thus, by using the hexagon geometry, the

fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region, and the hexagon closely approximates

a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an omni-directional base station antenna

and free space propagation. Of course, the actual cellular footprint is determined by the

contour in which a given transmitter serves the mobiles successfully.

To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system which has a total

of S duplex channels available for use. If each cell is allocated a group of k channels ( k < S

), and if the S channels are divided among N cells, the total number of available radio

channels can be expressed as

S=kN

The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.

If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex channels,

C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given

C=M kN =M S

So, the capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster

Spring 2017, 38
is replicated in a fixed service area. The factor N is called the cluster size and is typically

equal to 4, 7, or 12. If the cluster size N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant,

more clusters are required to cover a given area and hence more capacity is achieved. A

large cluster size indicates that the ratio between the cell radius and the distance between

co-channel cells is large. Conversely, a small cluster size indicates that co-channel cells are

located much closer together. The value for N is a function of how much interference a

mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient quality of communications.

From a design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to maximize

capacity over a given coverage area. The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given

by 1/N , since each cell within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total available channels

in the system.

Due to the hexagonal geometry which has exactly six equidistant neighbors and that the

lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are separated by multiples of

60 degrees, there are only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts which are possible.

N = i2 + ij + j 2

where i and j are non-negative integers. To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a

particular cell, one must do the following:

(1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons

(2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.

3.3 Channel Assignment Strategies

For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum and for increasing capacity and minimizing

interference, A variety of channel assignment strategies have been developed to achieve these

Spring 2017, 39
objectives.

(a) Fixed channel assignment strategy: Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of

voice channels. Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused

channels in that particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is

blocked.

– borrowing strategy

– MSC supervises borrowing procedures

(b) Dynamic channel assignment strategy: Voice channels are not allocated to dif-

ferent cells permanently, each time a call request is made, the serving base station

requests a channel from the MSC

– The switch allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that

takes into account the

∗ likelihood of future blocking within the cell

∗ frequency of use of the candidate channel

∗ reuse distance of the channel

∗ cost functions

– MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use in

the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of

frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference

– reduce the likelihood of blocking, since all the available channels in a market are

accessible to all of the cells

Spring 2017, 40
 – require the MSC to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribu-

tion, and radio signal strength indications (RSSI) of all channels on a continuous

basis

– provide the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability

of a blocked call.

3.4 Interference and Sys1em Capacity

Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems. Sources

of interference

1) another mobile in the same cell

2) call in progress in a neighboring cell

3) other base stations operating in the same frequency band

4) any noncellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency

band

Types of interference:

1) interference on voice channels causes cross talk (hearing interference in the background

due to an undesired transmission

2) interference on control channels leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the

digital signaling

Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often

responsible for dropped calls.

The two major types of cellular interference are

Spring 2017, 41
 i) co-channel interference

ii) adjacent channel interference

3.4.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing SNR, co-channel interference can-

not be combated by simply increasing the carrier power of a transmitter because an increase

in carrier transmit power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel cells. To re-

duce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum

distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.

When the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the base stations transmit

the same power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power

and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the distance between centers of the

nearest co-channel cells (D). By increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between

co-channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus interference is

reduced from improved isolation of RF energy from the co-channel cell. The parameter Q,

called the cochannel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster size. For a hexagonal geometry:

D
Q=
R

A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small, whereas a large

value of Q improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller level of co-channel interference.

A trade-off must be made between these two objectives in actual cellular design.

Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to-interference ratio

(SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as

S S
= ∑i0 (3.1)
I k=1 Ik

Spring 2017, 42
 Table 3.1: Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N

Cluster Size (N ) Co-channel Reuse Ratio(Q)

i = 1, j = 1 3 3

i = 1, j = 2 7 4.58

i = 2, j = 2 12 6

i = 1, j = 3 13 6.24

where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and Ik is the interference

power caused by the k th interfering co-channel cell base station.

The average received power P , at a distance d from was given as

( d )−n
Pr = P0 (3.2)
d0

If Dk is the distance of the k th interferer from the mobi1e, the received power at a given

mobile due to the k th interfering cell will be proportional to (Dk )−n

When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the

same throughout the coverage area, S/I of Equation (3.1) for a mobile can be approximated

as
S R−n
= ∑i0 (3.3)
I −n
k=1 (Dk )

Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are

equidistant from the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D

between cell centers, then Equation (3.3) simplifies to

( )n ( )n/2
S D/R 3N
= = (3.4)
I i0 i0

For the AMPS cellular system, sufficient voice quality is provided when S/I is greater than

or equal to 18 dB. In GSM cellular system, S/I = 12 dB=(9 + 3 dB).

Spring 2017, 43
 From Figure 3.3, it can be seen for a 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit is at the cell

boundary, the mobile is a distance D − R from the two nearest co-channel interfering cells

and approximately D + R/2, D, D − R/2, and D + R from the other interfering cells in

the first tier. Using Equation (3.4) and assuming n = 4, the SIR for the worst case can be

approximated as

Figure 3.3: Illustration of the first tier of co-channel cells for a cluster size of N = 7. When

the mobile is at the cell boundary (point A), it experiences worst case co-channel interference

on the forward channel. The marked distances between the mobile and different co-channel

cells are based on approximations made for easy analysis.

S 1
= (3.5)
I 2(Q − 1) + 2(Q + 1)−4 + 2Q−4
−4

Spring 2017, 44
3.4.2 Adjacent Channel Interference

Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is

called adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect

receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak into the passband.

By keeping the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as

possible, the adjacent channel interference may be reduced.

3.5 Trunking and Grade of Service

The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small number

of channels in a cell. The telephone company uses trunking theory to determine the number

of telephone that need to be allocated for office buildings. Same principle is used in designing

cellular radio systems. In a trunked mobile radio system, when a particular user requests

service and all of the radio channels are already in use, the user is blocked, or denied access

to the system. In some systems, a queue may be used to hold the requesting users until a

channel becomes available.

To design trunked radio systems that can handle a specific capacity at a specific ”grade of

service”, it is essential to understand trunking theory and queuing theory. The fundamentals

of trunking theory were developed by Erlang. One Erlang represents the amount of traffic

intensity carried by a channel that is completely occupied (i.e.1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-

minute per minute). For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during

an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.

The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked

system during the busiest hour.

Spring 2017, 45
3.5.1 Number of Definitions Used in Trunking Theory

Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in seconds).

Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel oc-

cupancy measured in Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to

measure the time utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A.

Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Erlangs

Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion which is specified as the probability

of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed beyond

a certain amount of time (for Erlang C).

Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by λ seconds−1 .

The traffic. intensity offered by each user is equal to the call request rate multiplied by the

holding time. That is, each user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlangs given by

Au = λH

where H is the average duration of a call and λ is the average number of call requests per

unit time. For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of channels, the total

offered traffic intensity A , is given as

A = U Au

There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used. The first type offers no

queuing for call requests. That is, for every user who requests service, it is assumed there is

no setup time and the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available. If no

channels are available, the requesting user is blocked. This type of trunking is called Blocked

Calls Cleared (BCC) and assumes

Spring 2017, 46
 • calls arrive as determined by a Poisson distribution

• there are memoryless arrivals of requests, implying that all users

• the probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially distributed

• there are a finite number of channels available in the trunking pool

This is known as an M/M/m queue, and leads to the derivation of the Erlang B formula

(also known as the blocked calls cleared formula), and is given by

AC /C!
P r[blocking] = ∑C = GOS (3.6)
k
k=0 A /k!

where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio system and A is the

total offered traffic.

The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to hold calls which

are blocked. If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until

a channel becomes available. This type of trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed (BCD),

and its measure of GOS is defined as the probability that a call is blocked after waiting a

specific length of time in the queue. It is determined by the Erlang-C formula:

AC
P r[delay > 0] = ( )∑ (3.7)
AC + C! 1 − CA C−1 k
k=0 A /k!

If no channels are immediately available the call is delayed, and the probability that the

delayed call is more than t seconds is given by the probability that a call is delayed, multiplied

by the conditional probability that the delay is greater than t seconds. The GOS of a trunked

system where blocked calls are delayed is hence given by

( )
P r[delay > t] = P r[delay > 0]P r[delay > t|delay > 0] = P r[delay > 0] exp − (C − A)t/H

Spring 2017, 47
The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by

H
D = P r[delay > 0] =
C −A

where the average delay for those calls which are queued is given by H/(C − A).

3.6 Improving capacity In Cellular Systems

As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell

eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number of users. At this point,

cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area.

To expand the capacity of cellular systems, techniques such as cell splitting and sectoring

approaches are used in practice .

Cell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system (increases the number of base

stations)

Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse

of channels

3.6.1 Cell Splitting

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its

own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.

Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of

times that channels are reused. By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the

original cells and by installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing

cells, capacity increases due to the additional number of channels per unit area.

Spring 2017, 48
 An example of cell splitting is shown in Figure 3.4, where the base stations are placed

at comers of the cells, and the area served by base station A is assumed to be saturated

with traffic. New base stations are therefore needed in the region to increase the number

of channels in the area and to reduce the area served by the single base station. Note in

the figure that the original base station A has been surrounded by six new microcell base

stations. The smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan

of the system. For the new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit power of these cells must

Figure 3.4: Illustration of cell splitting.

be reduced. The transmit power of the new cells with radius half that of the original cells

can be found by examining the received power P , at the new and old cell boundaries and

setting them equal to each other. This is necessary to ensure that the frequency reuse plan

for the new microcells behaves exactly as for the original cells.

Pr [at old cell boundary] ∝ Pt1 R−n (3.8)

and

Pr [at new cell boundary] ∝ Pt2 (R/2)−n (3.9)

Spring 2017, 49
where Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit powers of the larger and smaller cell base stations,

respectively. If we take n = 4 and set the received powers equal to each other, then

Pt1
Pt2 =
16

In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the original

coverage area with microcells, while maintaining the S/I requirement.

3.6.2 Sectoring

Here the cell is kept unchanged and decreases the D/R ratio. In this approach, capacity

improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in a cluster and thus increasing the

frequency reuse.

The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a single

omni-directional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas, each radiating

within a specified sector. By using directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference

and transmit with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells. The factor by which

the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is

normally partitioned into three 120 sectors or six 60 sectors. Assuming 7-cell reuse, for the

case of 120 sectors, the number of interferers in the first tier is reduced from 6 to 2. The

resulting S/I for this case can be found using Equation (3.3) to be 24.2 dB.

Spring 2017, 50
Figure 3.5: lllustration of how 120 sectoring reduces interference from co-channel cells. Out

of the 6 co-channel cells in the first tier, only 2 of them interfere with the center cell.

Spring 2017, 51