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Eukaryotes and Cell Cycle

The cellular life cycle, also called the cell cycle,
includes many processes necessary for successful
self-replication. Beyond carrying out the tasks of
routine metabolism, the cell must duplicate its
components — most importantly, its genome — so
that it can physically split into two complete daughter
cells. The cell must also pass through a series of
checkpoints that ensure conditions are favorable for
division.
What Phases Make Up the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle?
In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of four discrete
phases: G1, S, G2, and M. The S or synthesis
phase is when DNA replication occurs, and the M or
mitosis phase is when the cell actually divides. The
other two phases — G1 and G2, the so-called gap
phases — are less dramatic but equally important.
During G1, the cell conducts a series of checks
before entering the S phase. Later, during G2, the
cell similarly checks its readiness to proceed to
mitosis.
Together, the G1, S, and G2 phases make up the
period known as interphase. Cells typically spend
far more time in interphase than they do in mitosis.
Of the four phases, G1 is most variable in terms of
duration, although it is often the longest portion of
the cell cycle (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The eukaryotic cell cycle © 2013 Nature Education All rights reserved.

Figure detail. A cell is shown changing its morphology and the arrangement of its chromosomes through four
sequential phases of the cell cycle. In the G1 phase, a cell containing a single pair of chromosomes appears
to grow larger. The chromosome pair looks like two sticks aligned in parallel. In the S phase, the cell is shown
with two chromosome pairs. In the G2 phase, a chromosome in each pair separates from its partner
chromosome. The separated partners migrate to opposite ends of the cell. In the M phase, the cell has begun
to divide into two separate entities: two cells are shown. The shared nucleus has begun to degenerate. Each
developing cell contains two chromosomes that were not originally paired together. A continuation of the M
phase shows a single cell containing a fully-formed nucleus and a single chromosome pair. An arrow
indicates the cell can either reenter the G1 phase to continue the cycle, or stop dividing and remain in its
present form.
 How Do Cells Monitor Their Progress through the Cell Cycle?
In order to move from one phase of its life cycle to
the next, a cell must pass through numerous
checkpoints. At each checkpoint, specialized
proteins determine whether the necessary conditions
exist. If so, the cell is free to enter the next phase. If
not, progression through the cell cycle is halted.
Errors in these checkpoints can have catastrophic
consequences, including cell death or the
unrestrained growth that is cancer.
Each part of the cell cycle features its own unique
checkpoints. For example, during G1, the cell passes
through a critical checkpoint that ensures
environmental conditions (including signals from
other cells) are favorable for replication. If conditions
are not favorable, the cell may enter a resting state
known as G0. Some cells remain in G0 for the entire
lifetime of the organism in which they reside. For
.
How Do Scientists Study the Cell Cycle?
The cell cycle and its system of checkpoint controls
show strong evolutionary conservation. As a result,
all eukaryotes — from single-celled yeast to complex
multicellular vertebrates — pass through the same
four phases and same key checkpoints. This
universality of the cell cycle and its checkpoint
Conclusion
The eukaryotic cell cycle includes four phases
necessary for proper growth and division. As a cell
moves through each phase, it also passes through
several checkpoints. These checkpoints ensure that
mitosis occurs only when environmental conditions
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instance, the neurons and skeletal muscle cells of
mammals are typically in G0.
Another important checkpoint takes place later in the
cell cycle, just before a cell moves from G 2 to
mitosis. Here, a number of proteins scrutinize the
cell's DNA, making sure it is structurally intact and
properly replicated. The cell may pause at this point
to allow time for DNA repair, if necessary.
Yet another critical cell cycle checkpoint takes place
mid-mitosis. This check determines whether the
chromosomes in the cell have properly attached to
the spindle, or the network of microtubules that will
separate them during cell division. This step
decreases the possibility that the resulting daughter
cells will have unbalanced numbers of chromosomes
— a condition called aneuploidy
controls allows scientists to use relatively simple
model organisms to learn more about cell division in
eukaryotes of all types — including humans. In fact,
two of the three scientists who received Nobel Prizes
for cell cycle research used yeast as the subject of
their investigations.
are favorable and the cellular genome has been
precisely replicated. Collectively, this set of checks
on division helps prevent chromosomal imbalance in
newly produced daughter cells.