Chapter 36 Outcome Competencies

After completing this chapter, the reader

should be able to:
1. Understand and apply important terms
and concepts introduced in this
chapter.
2. Identify dilution ventilation goals.
3. Identify examples of workplaces and
operations compatible with dilution
ventilation controls.
Key Terms
acceptable concentration • AHU • ASHRAE 62
• control • density correction factor • dilu-
tion ventilation • emission factors • emission
rate • exposures • HVAC • general exhaust
ventilation • IAQ • mixing factor • OA, SA, RA,
EA • occupancy • thermal comfort • ventila-
tion controls

4. Determine appropriate dilution air

volume flowrates. Key Topics
5. Estimate the amount of dilution air
being delivered to a space. I. All Human Occupancies Require
6. Recognize dilution ventilation limita- Ventilation
tions and alternatives. II. Correcting for Non-Standard Air
Density
III. Fundamental Relationships
IV. Selection Criteria: Is Dilution
Ventilation the Best Primary Control
Option?
V. Implementing Dilution Ventilation
VI. Special Considerations When
Ventilating for Comfort and
Maintaining Good IAQ in Commercial
Prerequisite Knowledge Buildings
VII. Common Problems with HVAC Systems
In conjunction with this chapter, the user VIII. Estimating the Amount of Outdoor Air
should read or review the following chapters. (OA) Required
IX. Estimating the Amount of outdoor Air
Chapter Chapter (OA) Being Delivered
Number Topic X. References
7 Principles of Evaluating
Worker Exposure
9 Occupational and
Environmental Health Risk
Assessment
18 Indoor Air Quality
35 General Methods for the
Control of Airborne Hazards

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Dilution
Ventilation
By D. Jeff Burton, CIH, PE
All Human Occupancies
Require Ventilation
Ventilation is the use of supply and exhaust
air to replenish oxygen, to dilute or remove
air contaminants and odors, and to provide
thermal conditioning. All occupied spaces
require ventilation of some kind.
One important type of ventilation —
local exhaust ventilation (LEV) — contains
controls, or captures emitted air contami-
nants at or near their sources and is covered
in Chapter 37. This chapter covers the other
major type of ventilation, dilution ventila-
tion, for both industrial and non-industrial
occupancies. Dilution ventilation systems
are sometimes called general exhaust venti-
lation or turbulent air mixing ventilation.
Non-mixing types of dilution ventilation,
e.g., plug flow, displacement ventilation are
not included.
This chapter is written to help the prac-
ticing IH apply basic dilution ventilation prin-
ciples. Theory, derivation of equations and
more technical details can be found in the
References. Materials presented in this chap-
ter are thought to be compatible with current
standards of good practice. However, the IH
should always review current standards and
Figure 36.1 — Comparison of the Weight Densities of Water and Air at Standard Conditions (STP).
Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1191
Copyright AIHA®
36
consult with experts before actually applying
the principles presented herein.
A good dilution ventilation system
allows and encourages emissions of air cont-
aminants to thoroughly mix with surround-
ing air and then provides fresh outdoor air
to mix with and dilute contaminants to
some safe acceptable concentration before
the contaminated air reaches occupant or
employee breathing zones.
Table 36.1 shows common properties
and definitions of air used in all ventilation
systems. Air has many of the same measur-
able properties as many other materials,
e.g., weight, density, volume, viscosity, tem-
perature, and so forth. The standard weight
density of air is about 0.075 lbs per cubic
foot, for example. This compares to water,
as shown in Figure 36.1, which weighs about
62.4 lbs/cubic foot. The industrial ventilation
definition of STP is shown in Table 36.1.
Correcting for Non-Standard
Air Density
With every type of ventilation operating at
non-standard conditions, an air density
correction factor, dc, can be employed to
account for air density and volume changes
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Table 36.1 — Common Properties of Air combined into an equation called the
Molecular Weight (MW) = 29 g/mole Perfect or Ideal Gas Law, derived from
Standard air weight density = 0.075 lb/ cu ft (1.2 kg/cubic meter) Equation 36-1, which is often represented as:
at STP
STP = Standard Temperature and Pressure P1V1 P2V2
Traditional industrial ventilation definition of STP: T = 70F, BP = ——— = ——— (36-2)
29.92 inches Hg, dry air (T = 21C, BP = 760 mm Hg, dry air) T1 T2
Traditional HVAC definition of STP: T = 68F, BP = 29.92 inches Hg,
50% Relative Humidity (T = 20C, BP = 760 mm Hg, 50% RH)
The factor dc is derived by transposing
terms in the Ideal Gas equation. A widely
when the temperature or pressure is differ- used definition of dc is shown in the follow-
ent than the standard condition. As the air ing equation:
moves to a higher altitude, for example, its
weight density is reduced and its volume TSTP PB
increases as shown in Figure 36.2. The mag- dc = ——— × ——— (36-3)
nitude of this difference can be calculated.
Tactual PBSTP
Air density is related to pressure and
temperature through the perfect gas equa-
tion of state: where:

P = ρRT (36-1) PB = absolute barometric pressure.

where:
P= absolute pressure, lbs/sq ft (psfa)
ρ= density, lbs/ft3
R= gas constant, 53.35 ft-lb/lbm-ºR
T= absolute temperature, ºR
When all other conditions are equal,
changes in air density and volume, V, vary
linearly with changes in absolute tempera-
ture, T. Similarly, air density varies linearly
with the change in air pressure, P (e.g., if the
pressure increases by 5%, the density will
increase by 5%). These two relationships are
T= absolute temperature in R or K
R= degrees Rankine, R = °F + 460
K= degrees Kelvin, K = °C + 273
The actual air density can be calculated
using Equation 36-4:
ρactual = ρSTP × dc (36-4)
Example 36.1. At a plant near Salt Lake
City at an altitude of 5000 feet, the summer-
time air temperature is 90°F and the baro-
metric pressure is 24.89 in Hg. What is the air
density correction factor, dC? The actual air
density?

Figure 36.2 — Atmospheric Air Expands as Temperature Increases or Pressure Decreases.

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Using Equation (36-3), the density correc-
tion factor can be calculated:
(460 + 70) PB
dC = ————— × ——— = 0.802
(460 + 90) 29.92
And, the actual air density can be deter-
mines with Equation 36-4:
lb lb
ρactual = 0.075 ——— × 0.802 = 0.060 ———
cu ft cu ft
Information on determining the air
density correction factor and handling
unusual density corrections for high static
pressures in ductwork and high moisture
content in hot air is presented in
References 1 and 2.
Fundamental Relationships
As mentioned above, emissions and subse-
quent employee or occupant exposures are
often controlled with fresh dilution air in
both industrial and nonindustrial environ-
ments. For a constant emission source, no
contaminant sinks, perfect air mixing, and a
constant dilution air flowrate, the following
basic ratios describe the resulting equilibri-
um concentration in a ventilated space (e.g.,
chamber, room, building, space, lab, work-
room, plant, hood, etc.).
E oxides, and smoke may be higher than those
C = —— (36-5)
Q
where:
E = emission rate
C = concentration
Q = dilution ventilation rate in the
same units as E
Emission and ventilation rates are usu-
ally expressed as cubic feet per minute
(cfm), actual feet per minute (acfm) when
the air density correction factor has been
applied or standard cubic feet per minute
(scfm) when standard air conditions (STP)
are assumed. In the SI system, the tradition-
al units are cubic meters per second.
Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1193
Copyright AIHA®
Chapter 36 — Dilution Ventilation
Contaminants in air must be diluted to
below some acceptable concentration, Ca. Ca
is usually chosen by the industrial hygienist
as some fraction of a published OEL or other
exposure standard.
Selection Criteria: Is Dilution
Ventilation the Best Primary
Control Option?
Dilution ventilation is not always the most
appropriate primary control. Table 36.2 shows
typical selection criteria for dilution ventila-
tion as the primary approach to emission and
exposure control. When conditions in the sec-
ond category of the table prevail, costs and
energy consumption will be high. If the out-
side air is more contaminated, for example,
dilution cannot be achieved unless the out-
door air is scrubbed of those air contami-
nants. Source removal, LEV, generation con-
trol, substitution, or other forms of primary
control should be considered, possibly with
dilution ventilation as a secondary control.
In the vast majority of cases the outside
air will be less contaminated than indoor
air. Researchers report, however, that out-
door concentrations of the reactive gases
sulfur dioxide and ozone often are greater
than indoor concentrations in commercial
buildings. Another exception occurs when
there is an outdoor source near an air
intake, such as a truck idling next to a build-
ing air intake, in which case the outdoor con-
centrations of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
in indoor air. Also, summertime concentra-
tions of mold spores and pollen are often
greater outdoors than indoors.
Air contaminants emitted from an indus-
trial process, plus carbon monoxide, nitro-
gen oxides, and respirable dust concentra-
tions are usually greater inside the building.
But this may be reversed if significant out-
door sources exist. For example, when the
wind blows in a dry climate, outdoor levels
of dust may exceed indoor dust concentra-
tions. Or, if a parking garage is attached to
a building, outside air concentrations of
carbon monoxide may be higher. Air concen-
trations of total volatile organic compounds
(TVOC), carbon dioxide, formaldehyde,
radon, and environmental tobacco smoke
concentrations are almost always greater
indoors than outdoors.
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Table 36.2 — Conditions Favorable and Unfavorable for Dilution Ventilation as the Primary Control
Certain conditions lend themselves to dilution with outdoor air:
Indoor air contaminants are of relatively low toxicity or cause minor irritation.
Contaminant concentrations in occupant air are not hazardous.
Smoking is not allowed in the occupied space.
Emission sources are difficult or expensive to remove or control.
Emission rates occur uniformly over time.
Emission sources are widely dispersed.
Emissions do not occur close to the breathing zone of occupants (using the IH definition of breathing zone).
Moderate climatic conditions prevail.
The outside air is less contaminated than the inside air.
The HVAC system is capable of conditioning the dilution air required.

This means dilution ventilation is less effective and more expensive when:
Air contaminants are highly toxic or irritating materials.
Contaminant concentrations are hazardous or cause great discomfort.
Smoking is allowed in the occupied space.
Emission sources are easy to remove or control.
Emission rates vary with time.
Emission sources consist of large, point sources.
People’s breathing zones are in the immediate vicinity of emission sources (using the IH definition of a breathing
zone).
The building is located in severe climates.
The outside air is more contaminated than the inside air.
The existing HVAC system is not capable of conditioning the outside air.

Case Study 1. Employees of a new office
building were complaining about “bad air.”
Specific complaints included headache,
watery eyes, irritation of the nose and
throat, and dry, itchy skin. The industrial
hygienist was asked to investigate and
determine if additional dilution ventilation
was appropriate.
Outcome. The industrial hygienist found
that at the end of the day carbon dioxide
totaled about 1200 ppm in the return air
plenum. No specific chemical or biogenic
sources, indoors or outdoors, were immedi-
ately obvious. However, the building was only
six weeks old. The measured carbon dioxide
concentration suggested insufficient outside
air to dilute airborne contaminants. The fact
that this was a new building suggested the
problem of off-gassing. Recently built heat-
ing, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems are usually capable of providing
more air and better distribution than in the
past. The industrial hygienist recommended
that during the first 4–6 months of occupan-
cy, the system be set to deliver 100% fresh air.
Case Study 2. A Los Angeles-based com-
puter components firm operated 15 small dip
tanks in a room adjacent to a set of offices.
Although the dip tanks were enclosed and
provided with local exhaust ventilation, both
plant and office employees were concerned
about potential exposure because the build-
ing’s air handling unit (AHU) served both the
office and the production area. An occasion-
al “chemical” odor infiltrated the office area
from the tank room. Plant employees were
concerned about fugitive emissions from the
tanks and office employees were asking for
more dilution air. The industrial hygienist
performed an problem characterization
study following the procedure outlined in
Chapter 35.
Outcome. Traditional IH testing deter-
mined that the fugitive emissions from the
tanks were at a concentration above the
odor threshold, but employee exposures were
well below appropriate OELs. Improving the
local exhaust ventilation with additional baf-
fles alongside the tanks helped reduce fugi-
tive emissions but did not entirely eliminate
them. Complaints in the office were alleviat-
ed by additional dilution ventilation which
reduced exposure concentrations to below
odor and irritation thresholds. Other control
solutions could have included isolating the
office HVAC system from the tank area AHU,
isolating the tank area from the rest of the
building, and moving the tank operation or
the offices to another building but none were
considered cost-effective.

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Implementing Dilution
Ventilation
If preliminary indications point to dilution
as a primary control measure, the industrial
hygienist should develop the following infor-
mation: (1) a profile of the contaminant
sources; (2) an estimate of emission rates; (3)
a description of the space (e.g, volume); (4)
an acceptable concentration for exposure;
and (5) an appropriate air dilution flowrate.
Sources. A basic understanding of emis-
sion sources should be obtained, if possible.
Any information is better than none; intelli-
gent professional judgment is better than no
estimate. This information-gathering task
includes descriptions of emission sources;
chemical description of emissions to include
chemical composition, size and shape, and
temperature; current airborne concentra-
tions; and rates of generation or evapora-
tion over time.
Steady State Emission Rates. Estimating
generation or evaporation rates for air cont-
aminants requires ingenuity, detective work,
and skill. Published emission factors are
often used.
Once an estimate of the evaporation or
generation rate is established, it is possible
to estimate an emission rate as shown in
Equation 36-6 which is based on the funda-
mental natural relationship that one pound-
molecular weight (lb-mole) of a material will
evaporate to fill 387 cubic feet of space. In SI
units, one gram-mole evaporates to fill about
24.1 liters of air. These constants are true at
the ventilation definition of STP. Dividing the
emission volume by the time over which it
evaporates provides the units of cubic feet
per minute (or cubic meters per second), the
same units used in ventilation for airflow.
387 × G
E = ——————, in US Units (36-6a)
MW × t × dC
0.0241 × G
E = ——————, in SI Units (36-6b)
MW × t × dC
Where:
E = volume rate of vapor emitted at
STP conditions, dc = 1; US units =
ft3/min, SI units = m3/sec
Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1195
Copyright AIHA®
Chapter 36 — Dilution Ventilation
G = generation or evaporation
quantity; US units = lbs, SI units =
grams
MW = molecular weight or molecular
mass
t = approximate time of generation
or evaporation, minutes (seconds)
dc = density correction factor, unitless
Accuracy. Note that these calculations
are considered to be “approximate” in most
cases. Always use good judgment about the
answers obtained.
The Space. Obtain all of the physical
parameters of the building, its equipment
and processes, and its occupants. Gather
data on the occupied space, width, height,
length, barriers, obstructions, and so forth.
Building plans are often helpful.
Existing Ventilation and Air Movement.
Identifying and understanding existing ven-
tilation is important. This might include
general heating and air conditioning venti-
lation, location of space heaters, open
doors and windows, use of freestanding
fans, LEV systems, and other dilution sys-
tems already in place. Prevailing air move-
ment in the space, including the directions
and velocities, should be identified. Ask
about other times of the day, other seasons,
and when the operation is running differ-
ently (for instance, what happens during
very cold weather or when the local exhaust
system is turned off).
Occupants. Obtain a thorough under-
standing of the physical locations of peo-
ple; time considerations, such as how much
time people spend in particular locations
and how they interact with emission
sources; and training, education, and
cooperativeness.
Acceptable Concentration. As men-
tioned above, the industrial hygienist must
determine an acceptable level of exposure.
Usually it is some fraction of existing expo-
sure standards (e.g., 10% of the OEL). With-
out an acceptable concentration, modeling
is impossible, and predicting the benefits of
dilution ventilation is difficult.
Dilution Ventilation Rates. Dilution air
volumes should be based on the information
developed above. The volume flow rate of
air required to dilute a constant volume flow
rate of emitted vapor can be approximated
as follows:
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AIHA® — American Industrial Hygiene Association

E × Keff × 106 distributed where it will be most effective

Qd = ——————— (36-7)
Ca
Where:
Qd = volume flowrate of dilution air,
scfm
E = emission rate of vapor, scfm
Ca = the acceptable exposure
concentration, ppm
Keff = a mixing factor to account for
incomplete or poor delivery of
dilution air to occupants
Air Mixing. The mixing of air is some-
times called the ventilation efficiency or the
ventilation effectiveness factor.
Mathematically, it can be stated as:
Actual Qd
Keff = ————— (36-8)
Ideal Qd
The value of Keff ranges from 1.0 to 2 in
most cases, with excursions to K =3 in some
industrial applications. If it seems likely that
Keff > 2, improving mixing or identifying
another form of control should be consid-
ered because dilution is likely to be too
expensive, and the uncertainties are too
high. Typical values for Keff in commercial
buildings are shown in Table 36.3.
Dilution will be more effective, and
lower values of the mixing factor, Keff, can
be selected when (1) dilution air is routed
through the occupied zone; (2) supply air is
(e.g., a supply register serves every office);
(3) returns are located as close to contami-
nant sources as possible; and (4) auxiliary
or freestanding fans are used to enhance
mixing.
Air Changes. Once the required dilution
ventilation is known, the number of air
changes per hour that will occur in the
space being ventilated can be calculated.
The concept of an air change does not imply
that a complete change of all air in the
space will occur. The percentage of air in the
space which is exchanged depends on the
airflow within the space, which will be influ-
enced by the distribution and locations of
the incoming and exiting air. In order to
achieve equilibrium pressure, incoming and
exiting air volumes must be balanced.
Equation 36-9 shows how to calculate the
number of air changes per hour (N) within a
defined space.
Qd × 60
N = ———— (36-9)
V
Where:
N = the number of air changes per
hour
V = the volume of the space being
ventilated
Example 36.2. Toluene evaporates into
the workroom air from multiple locations of
a coating process. An industrial hygienist is
asked to evaluate and determine the require-
ments for adequate dilution ventilation.

Table 36.3 — Typical Mixing Factors for Commercial Buildings (for dilution of air contaminants)
Keff Typical Conditions
1.0 Wide open office spaces with good supply and return locations, all HVAC equipment function
adequately; no point sources of emission.

1.1 Supply and return conditions not ideal but use of freestanding fans to create mixing; no point sources
of emission.

1.2–1.4 Poor placement of supply and return registers; partitioned offices with generally adequate distribu
tion of supply and return locations; discernable but small point sources; warm air supply and return
in ceiling.

1.4 –2.0 Crowded spaces with tight partitions; poor supply and return locations; point sources of emission
close to people; people located close to interior walls. Steps should be taken to improve mixing or use
other emission and exposure control approaches.

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Outcome. A problem characterization
study produced the following estimates:
Nine pounds of toluene are uniformly evapo-
rated from the process during an 8-hour peri-
od. The workroom has excellent air mixing in
its 125,000 cubic foot space. The air density
correction factor for the location was deter-
mined to be 0.95. The IH suggested an accept-
able concentration of 5% of the published
OEL of 100 ppm.
Estimates for the volume flow rates (Qd)
required for dilution to the Ca are shown in
the following equations using: G = 9 lbs; t =
480 minutes; OEL = 100 ppm; Ca = 5 ppm; Keff =
1.0; dc = 0.95; MW = 92.1; and workroom vol-
ume = 125,000 cubic feet. Using Equations
36-6 and 36-7:
387 × 9
E ≈ ————————— ≈ 0.08293 acfm
92.1 × 480 × 0.95
And,
0.08293 × 1 × 106
Qd ≈ ————————— ≈ 16,600 acfm
5 Equation 36-7.
Then, the resulting number of air
changes per hour can be determined:
16,600 × 60
N ≈ —————— ≈ 8 air changes per hour
125,000
Example 36.3. New particleboard wood
shelving has been proposed for installation in
a large office bay. The industrial hygienist was
asked to estimate the volume flow rate of
formaldehyde (HCHO) emitted and the dilu-
tion air volume flow rate required to keep
background concentrations of HCHO at or
below 0.05 ppm. Assume: STP, MW = 30, A = 250
m2 of particleboard, Ca = 0.05 ppm, Keff = 1.25.
Outcome. After searching product litera-
ture the industrial hygienist found the sup-
plier’s published emission rate for particle-
board ranged from 2000 to 25,000 microgram
per m2 per day (24 h). To evaluate the worst
case the IH assumed an HCHO emission rate
for the first few weeks after installation of
25,000 micrograms/m2/day.
Converting the units from micrograms/
m2/day to lbs/min:
Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1197
Copyright AIHA®
Chapter 36 — Dilution Ventilation
(25,000 µg/m2/day) × 250m2
Emission rate ≈ ———————————————–—
µg g ⎛ min ⎞
1,000,000 —– × 454 —– × ⎜1440 —– ⎥
⎜ ⎥
g lb ⎝ day ⎠
≈ 9.56 × 10-6 lb/min
The emission rate is the weight of the
generated contaminate over a period of
time; this is equivalent to G/t in Equation 36-
6. Therefore, the volume rate of vapor emit-
ted can be determined by substituting this
value into Equation 36-6:
387 × G 387 G
E = —————— = —–——— × ——
MW × t × dc MW × dc t
387
E = —–—— × 9.56 × 10-6 = 1.23 × 10-4 scfm
30 x 1
The volume flow of dilution air required
to maintain the background concentration
below 0.05 ppm with this emission fate of
contaminant can be determined using
(1.23 × 10-4) × 1.25 × 106
Qd = ———————————— ≈ 3,080 scfm
0.05
Note that Example 36-3 considers the
worst case scenario. The practical meaning of
this calculation is that if the existing ventila-
tion system is not capable of providing at
least 3,080 cfm of fresh dilution air then some
other solution will be required (e.g., emission-
retarding coatings, alternative shelving mate-
rials, pre-installation airing, etc.).
Special Considerations when
Ventilating for Comfort and
Maintaining Good IAQ in
Commercial Buildings
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning
(HVAC) equipment is used for tempering,
dehumidifying, and cleaning air for comfort,
safety, and health. HVAC systems also may
contribute to odor control and to mainte-
nance of air contaminant levels at accept-
able concentrations.
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The widely used standard ASHRAE 55 has
historically applied an 80/20/10 rule to estab-
lish satisfactory comfort performance. In this
approach, if 80% of the occupants are satisfied
with all environmental conditions (e.g., tem-
perature, humidity, odor, drafts), or if less than
20% are dissatisfied, then comfort require-
ments have been met. If more than 10% are
dissatisfied with any one condition, then satis-
factory performance is not achieved.
HVAC engineers talk in terms of “zones.”
Each zone usually contains a thermostat to
control temperature. The more zones there
are, the better chance there is of providing
satisfactory comfort conditions for more
people. Typically, air in perimeter zones is
harder to condition because of the required
filtration, heating, cooling and humidity con-
trols. Outdoor conditions (temperature,
wind, sun, rain) can greatly impact the need
for thermal conditioning. Interior zones
often need only filtration and cooling and
Figure 36.3 — Zones within an HVAC System.
Figure 36.4 — Schematic Representatation of a Mechanical
Room Containing HVAC Equipment and the Spaces It Serves.
1198 ___________________________ The Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation, Control, and Management, 3rd edition
Copyright AIHA®
are not as impacted by outdoor conditions
(see Figure 36.3).
When designing an adequate HVAC sys-
tem, the combinations of air volume flowrate,
temperature, humidity, and air quality which
will satisfy the needs of the occupants of a
space must be selected carefully. Air handling
systems generally consist of:
• Outside air (OA) intakes, plenums and
ducts
• Filters
• Supply air fans (SA)
• Heating and/or cooling coils
• Humidifying and/or dehumidifying
equipment
• Supply air ducts (SA)
• Distribution plenums, ducts, terminal
boxes or devices, supply registers
• Dampers
• Return air grilles, plenums and ducts
(RA)
• Exhaust (or relief) air systems (EA)
• Controls and instrumentation
Figure 36.4 is a schematic of a simple,
constant volume commercial HVAC system –
a single-zone, constant air volume system
(SZ-CAV) showing much of the equipment
mentioned above. These systems supply a
constant airflow to the space and vary the
temperature and humidity.
Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems are
often used because they provide energy con-
servation and lower operating costs. These
systems supply a varying airflow to the
space as a function of the need for tempera-
ture and humidity controls. Operating cost
savings can be obtained, for example, when
the VAV system actually reduces fan rpm. Air
volume and fan rpm are linearly related; if
the airflow is cut in half, then the rpm is cut
in half. But horsepower and rpm are related
through a third-power relationship. If the
rpm is reduced by half, the horsepower (and
energy costs) are reduced by about eight
times. Simply reducing airflow with fan inlet
dampers also results in lower motor operat-
ing costs and energy consumption, but not
by the same factor as reducing fan rpm. See
Reference 2 for more detail.
Common Problems with
HVAC Systems
In many studies of IAQ problems, NIOSH has
found that about 50% of IAQ problems and
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 Chapter 36 — Dilution Ventilation

Table 36.4 — Common Problems Found in HVAC Systems and their Typical Impacts
Inadequate design and/or poor operation – not enough dilution of air contaminants in occupied spaces
Inadequate replacement air supply – building under negative pressure, high concentrations of air contaminants
Poor distribution of supply air in the space – certain areas receive little air exchange
Insufficient air delivery, or not delivered appropriately, or not mixed in the space – stuffiness
Improper pressure differences – doors hard to open, outside air leaking into/through building envelope
Temperature extremes – too hot or too cold
Humidity extremes – too dry or too humid
Poor filtration –dirt, bugs, pollen in air delivery system
Poor maintenance – equipment not functioning correctly
Energy conservation has become No. 1 priority – reduction of outdoor air delivery rates
Settled water in system – mold
Visual evidence of slime or mold – odors, spores, complaints
Improper balance of distribution system — some areas do not receive sufficient outdoor air
Dampers at incorrect positions — some areas do not receive sufficient outdoor air
Supply terminal diffusers not at correct positions — inadequate distribution of supply air
VAV systems capable of shutting down air delivery — occupants do not receive sufficient SA and OA

complaints originated in the HVAC system
itself. Common problems with HVAC systems
that result IAQ complaints are shown in
Table 36.4.
Estimating the Amount of
Outdoor Air (OA) Required
The ASHRAE standard 62–2010 on IAQ sug-
gests an “air per person” and “air per square
foot” approach for determining the minimum
amount of OA to be supplied to various occu-
pancies for dilution purposes, see Table 36.5.
The ASHRAE standard assumes excellent mix-
ing, distribution and delivery of the outdoor
air to occupants. It also assumes a certain
occupant loading. Where these are not the
case, additional OA may be required or better
mixing and distribution provided. In cases
where definitive data are not available, the
designer/user can use default values.
This approach recognizes that air pollu-
tants also arise from non-people sources:
building materials, furnishings, and the
HVAC equipment itself. However, the
approach decreases the total amount of out-
door air historically required for some occu-
pancies of interest to industrial hygienists.
However, these are minimums and can be
adjusted upward as the need arises.
In its simplest form, the amount of air to
be supplied is estimated by an equation sim-
ilar to that shown below.
QOA = Qp + Qb = RpPd + RbAb (36-10)
Where:
QOA = minimum design OA ventilation
rate
Qp = ventilation required to control
“people” sources of air
contaminants
Qp = ventilation required to control
“building” sources of air
contaminants
Rp = minimum rate of outdoor air in
cfm per person
Pd = number of people in the occupied
area
Rb = minimum rate of outdoor air in
cfm per square foot of occupied
area
Ab = floor area in occupied portion of
the building, square feet
Example 36.4. In an 2,000 sq ft office
space with 14 occupants, the minimum
required ventilation rate to the occupied
zone can be determined using Equation 36-10.

Table 36.5 — Sample of ASHRAE 62–2010 Standard Table 6.1

Default Default
Occupancy Outdoor Air (OA) — Required Ventilation Rates —
Application Persons per 1000 sf cfm/person cfm OA /person + cfm/ft2
Office Space 5 17 5 + 0.06
Conference Room 50 6 5 + 0.06
Science Lab (school) 25 17 10 + 0.18

Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1199

Copyright AIHA® For personal use only. Do not distribute.

AIHA® — American Industrial Hygiene Association
QOA = (5)(14) + (0.06)(2000) =
190 cfm of fresh outdoor air
This results in an OA rate (OA/person) of
13.6 cfm/person, slightly less than tradition-
al standard minimum of 15–20 cfm/person.
Example 36.5. To provide sufficient out-
door air in a conference rooms the proposed
ventilation rates are 5 cfm/person and 0.06
cfm/sq ft. For a small conference room of
750 sq ft occupied by 30 occupants, the mini-
mum required ventilation rate is:
QOA = (5)(30) + (0.06)(750) =
195 cfm of fresh outdoor air
This results in a OA rate (OA/person) of
6.5 cfm/person.
In certain circumstances, ASHRAE 62–2010
also requires the application of the ventila-
tion effectiveness factor to account for poor
mixing or distribution of the air. A typical
default value for Keff is 1.2. Additionally, the
designer may have to take into account
occupant population diversity and other fac-
tors in the space which also could increase
the amount of air required. See Reference 5
for additional details.
Example 36.6. Continuing with Example
36.4, if the ventilation effectiveness factor
for air distribution and mixing is estimated
to be 80%, or Keff =1.25, what is the required
total outdoor ventilation rate?
Total QOA = QOA × Keff = (190)(1.25) =
238 cfm of fresh outdoor air
This results in a total OA rate per person
of 17 cfm/person.
Estimating the Amount of
Outdoor Air (OA) Being
Delivered
In addition to the traditional approach of for
estimating the volumetric flow of air by mea-
suring the air velocity in and the area of
ductwork (see Chapter 38), it is possible to
estimate the percentage of outdoor air (OA)
in the supply air (SA) by measuring tempera-
tures or carbon dioxide content of the vari-
ous air streams at the HVAC equipment. The
following ratios show the fractions of out-
door air (OA) in the supply air (SA). Figure 36.4
shows the locations of OA, SA, MA, and RA.
1200 ___________________________ The Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation, Control, and Management, 3rd edition
Copyright AIHA®
QOA
%OA = —— × 100 (36-11)
QSA
TRA–TMA
%OA = ———— × 100 (36-12)
TRA–TOA
CRA–CSA
%OA = ———— × 100 (36-13)
CRA–COA
Where:
QOA = volume of outdoor air (cfm)
QSA = volume of mixed return and
outside air, the supply air (cfm)
TRA = temperature of return air (dry-
bulb)
TMA = temperature of mixed return and
outside air, the supply air (dry-
bulb)
TOA = temperature of outdoor air (dry-
bulb)
CRA = concentration of CO2 in return air
(ppm)
CSA = concentration of CO2 in supply
air (ppm)
COA = concentration of CO2 in outdoor
air (ppm)
Example 36.8. The design air volume flow
rates at an air handling unit (AHU) are as fol-
lows: QSA = 12,500 scfm, and QOA = 1600 cfm.
What percentage of OA would be expected
from this design? If the intended number of
employees served by the AHU is 90, how
much air per person will be delivered?
1600
%OA = ——— × 100 = 12.8%
12500
The QOA per occupant (1600 cfm/90 peo-
ple) from this design would be approximate-
ly 18 cfm/person.
Example 36.9. Assume the following
wintertime temperatures were measured
by an IH at the HVAC system in an office
building: TRA = 74°F, TMA = 66°F, and TOA =
40°F. Use these temperature measure-
ments to estimate the percentage of out-
door air entering the system.
For personal use only. Do not distribute.

74 – 66
%OA = ———— × 100 ≈ 24%
74 – 40
In addition to the temperature measure-
ments, CO2 levels were also measured at the
same locations: CRA ≈ 870 ppm, CSA ≈ 750 ppm,
and COA ≈ 410 ppm. These values also can be
used to estimate the percentage of outdoor
air in the system.
870 – 750
%OA = ————— × 100 ≈ 26%
870 – 410
Measured carbon dioxide concentrations
can also be used to estimate the amount of
OA reaching a specific area of the building.
During the day, carbon dioxide tends to build
up to some steady state concentration, e.g.,
from 450 ppm in the early morning before
workers arrive to a fairly constant 950 ppm
at noon. When everyone leaves the building,
and the carbon dioxide sources are gone, the
outside air will dilute carbon dioxide at an
exponential rate depending on the volume of
OA being delivered. Knowing initial and final
concentrations and the time elapsed, the fol-
lowing formulas can be used to predict the
volume flow of OA delivered. The outdoor
concentration of carbon dioxide must be
measured because that will affect the rate at
which the inside CO2 concentration can drop.
lnCi – lnCt
N ≈ ————— (36-14)
T References
N × VR
QOA = ———— (36-15)
60
Where:
N = air exchange per hour of fresh
outdoor air (OA), ac/hr
Ci = Initial concentration of CO2 at
start of test (minus the outdoor
air concentration, usually about
400 ppm)
Ct = Concentration of CO2 at end of
test (minus the outdoor air
concentration)
T = time elapsed between start and
end of test in hours
VR = volume of space in cubic feet
Section 6: Methods of Controlling the Work Environment _____________________________________________________1201
Copyright AIHA®
Chapter 36 — Dilution Ventilation
Example 36.10. The carbon dioxide con-
centration is measured at 1200 ppm at 5:30
pm, when all of the people have departed a
small office building. The air handler is left to
run in its normal operating mode. By 7:30 pm,
the CO2 concentration has been reduced to
500 ppm. The outside CO2 concentration is
400 ppm. How many air changes per hour of
OA does this suggest? What is the QOA for a
space with a volume of 50,000 cu ft?
ln(1200 – 400) – ln(500 – 400)
N ≈ ——————————————— =
2
1.04 air changes/hr
1.04 × 50000
QOA = ——————— ≈ 870 cfm
60
The discussion and examples in this
chapter have assumed steady state condi-
tions for emission source and dilution venti-
lation rates. Additional references are avail-
able to provide information on the exponen-
tial buildup and decay of airborne concen-
trations during non-steady conditions.
Additional information on the properties
and behavior of water in air (i.e., humidity
concerns; psychrometrics) is provided in
Reference 2 and References 4–7.
1. Burton, D.J.: Industrial Ventilation Workbook,
7th edition. Bountiful, UT: IVE, Inc., 2011.
2. Burton, D.J.: IAQ and HVAC Workbook,
Burton, D. Jeff, 4th edition. IVE, Inc.
Bountiful, UT.
3. American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®): Industrial
Ventilation, a Manual of Recommended
Practice for Design, 27th edition. Cincinnati,
OH: ACGIH®, 2010.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE):
ANSI/ASHRAE 55-2004, Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE, 1992.
5. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE):
ANSI/ASHRAE 62–2010, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. Atlanta, GA:
ASHRAE, 2010.
For personal use only. Do not distribute.
AIHA® — American Industrial Hygiene Association
6. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA): Building Air
Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and
Facility Managers. Washington, D.C.: NIOSH
and EPA: (EPA/400/1-91-033). Government
Printing Office, 1991.
7. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE):
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, latest
edition; American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE): Atlanta, GA: 2009.
1202 ___________________________ The Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation, Control, and Management, 3rd edition
Copyright AIHA®
8. American Industrial Hygiene Association
(AIHA): ANSI/AIHA Z9 standards (Z9.1–2006
(Ventilation and Control of Airborne
Contaminants During Open-Surface Tank
Operations); Z9.2–2006 (Fundamentals
Governing the Design and Operation of
Local Exhaust Ventilation Systems);
Z9.3–2007 (Spray Finishing Operations:
Safety Code for Design, Construction, and
Ventilation); Z9.5–2003 (Laboratory
Ventilation); Z9.6–2008 (Exhaust Systems for
Grinding, Polishing, and Buffing); Z9.7–2007
(Recirculation of Air from Industrial Process
Exhaust Systems); Z9.9–2010 (Portable
Ventilation Systems); Z9.10–2010
(Fundamentals Governing the Design and
Operation of Dilution Ventilation Systems in
Industrial Occupancies). Fairfax, VA: AIHA.
For personal use only. Do not distribute.