Flowmeasurementpdf 150425120127 Conversion Gate01

Flow Measurements
Types of flow encountered:

• Clean or dirty
• Wet or dry
• Hazardous/corrosive or safe
• Single or multi phase
• Laminar of turbulent
• Varying pressure
• Varying temperature
• Flow rates from least to highest
Types of flow measurements:
A. Primary or quantity meters
B. Positive displacement meters
C. Secondary of rate meters
D. Special methods
Contents provided in this presentation are for reference purpose & the detailed theory to be read/written from respective text book/Class Notes
Flow Measurements
A. Primary or quantity meters:
Signifies the amount of fluid in terms of mass or volume
that flows past a given point in a definite period of time.
• Simple
• Economical
• Accurate
• Routinely used in the calibration of other flow measuring
devices
1. Volumetric method:
Fluid flowing in the flow meter is diverted into a tank of
known volume. When the tank is completely filled, then
the known volume is compared with the integrated,
volumetric quantity registered by the flow meter under
test.
Flow Measurements
2. Gravimetric method:
Fluid flowing in the flow meter is diverted into a vessel
which can be weighted either continuously or in the
vessel after a pre-determined time. The weight of the
liquid collected is compared with the gravimetric quantity
registered by the flow meter under test.
B. Positive Displacement Meters:
Liquid flows through a meter and moves the measuring
element that seals the measuring chamber into a series of
measuring compartments each holding a definite volume.
Each element is successively filled from the flow at the
inlet and emptied at the outlet of the meter. In other
words these meters chop the flow into number of pieces
of known size and then count the number of pieces.
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Widely used in low flow rate metering applications where
high accuracy & repeatability are required.
• Easy to install
• Moderate cost
• Due to moving parts involved, wear of the components may
alter the accuracy.
• Suitable to clean fluids only.
• These devices are flow totalizes and generally and do not
give the instantaneous rate of flow.
• Cause pressure loss in the fluid system whose flow is being
metered.
Flow Measurements
1. Nutating Disc Meters:
Flow Measurements
Working:
• Liquid enters the left side of the meter, alternately above &
below the disc, forcing it to rock in a circular path while
rotating about its own axis.
• A small spindle attached to the sphere traces a circular path
and is used to drive the counter, which can be calibrated in
terms of liquid discharge.
Features:
• Simple & rugged construction
• Low pressure drop
• Low cost
• High accuracy of the order of ±1%.
• Widely used as a domestic water meter
Flow Measurements
2. Sliding Vane Type Meters:
Flow Measurements
Working:
• Liquid entering at inlet revolves the rotor and the vanes
around cam causing the vanes to move radially.
• Vane nearest to the inlet port begins to move outwards &
becomes fully extended at point A. While vane ahead at
point B is already fully extended, so a measuring chamber
of known volume is formed.
• A continuous series of chambers at the rate of four per
revolution are formed.
Features:
• Low pressure drop
• High accuracy of the order of ±0.2% of measured values.
• Can be used as a positive displacement pump which can
cause the flow and measure it simultaneously.
Flow Measurements
3. Lobed Impeller Meters:
Flow Measurements
Working:
• The incoming fluid is trapped between the two rotors and is
conveyed to outlet as a result of the rotor rotations.
• For every rotation of each rotor, the swept volume
corresponding to twice the area A is passed through meter.
• Number of revolutions of the rotor gives and indication of
volumetric flow.
• Rotation of lobed impellers can be monitored by magnetic
or photo-electric pick up.
Features:
• Available for pressures up to 60 atm and flow range 10 to
10,000 m3/hr.
• High accuracy of the order of ±1% of rated capacity.
• Low pressure drop of the order of 50 mm of Hg.
• Relatively expensive.
• Applicable to clean fluids like gas metering.
Flow Measurements
C. Secondary or Rate Meters:
• Also termed as inferential type of flow measuring devices.
• They do not measure flow directly but instead measure
another physical quantity which is related to flow.
• Two categories:
Flow rate meters
Velocity meters or Anemometers
Flow Measurements
1. Variable Head Meters:
Features:
• Generally termed as obstruction type flow meters.
• The main forms of obstructions are: Venturi, orifice plate
and nozzle.
• The position of minimum pressure is located slightly
downstream from the restriction at a point where the
stream is narrowest and is called vena- contracta.
• Beyond this point the pressure the pressure again rises but
does not return to upstream value and thus there is
permanent pressure loss.
• No moving parts & so require no maintenance practically.
• Major disadvantage is square root relationship between
flow and head.
• Not suitable for flow below 20% of rated meter capacity.
Flow Measurements
a) Venturi Meter:
Flow Measurements
b) Orifice Meter:
Flow Measurements
c) Nozzle Meter:
Flow Measurements
General expression for rate of flow :
Rate of discharge : Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2 KK Eq.1
ρV12 ρV2 2
FromBernoulli ' s Eq. : p1 + = p2 + KK Eq.2
2 2
p -p
The diff pr at manometer : 1 2 = ∆h KK Eq.3
ρg
A1 A2
By solving Eq.1, 2 & 3 : Q ideal = 2 g ∆h KK Eq.4
2 2
A1 − A2
Inactual practice Q ideal is always more than actual flow, so :
Q actual
Cd = = Coefficient of discharge
Q ideal
A1 A2
∴ Q actual = C d 2 g ∆h KK Eq.5
2 2
A1 − A2
Or Q actual = C d K ∆h KK Eq.6
A1 A2
Where K = 2g
2 2
A1 − A2
Flow Measurements
Coefficient of discharge depends on:
• Type of flow
• Obstruction type configuration
• Reynolds number
Venturimeter Features:
• Best accuracy
• Least head loss as compared to orifice & nozzle meters
• Due to low value of losses coefficient of discharge is high
• Can be used with dirty fluids also
• Relatively expensive
• Occupies substantial space
Flow Measurements
Nozzle Flow meter Features:
• Offers all the advantages of venturimeter but to a lesser
extent
• Occupies less space
• Nozzle is difficult to install and the installation is limited to
small to moderate pipe sizes
Orifice Flow meter Features:

• Simple geometry, so cost is low
• Easy to install
• Takes almost no space
• Susceptible to inaccuracies due to erosion, corrosion,
clogging etc.
• Suffers from a head loss of the order of 30-40%
2.
Flow
Variable Area Meters:
Measurements
Features:
• In variable area meters the
area of restriction can be
altered to maintain the steady
pressure difference.
• Common variable area meter
is rotameter.
• The float will rise to a point in
the tube where the drag force
(Up) & Buoyant force (Up) is
balance by the weight of the
float.
• The position of the float in
the tube is taken as an
indication of flow rate.
• It is also called as variable
area flow meter.
Flow Measurements
The force balance equation for of the float is :
Fdrag + Fbuoyancy = Fweight
Or A f (p d - p u ) + ρ ff gV f = ρ f gV f
Vf
∴ (p d - p u ) = g ( ρ f − ρ ff ) K K Eq .7
Af
Where ρ f & ρ ff are the densities of the float and flowing fluid respective ly
Vf is the volume of the float
p d & p u are the pressures at the downward & upward faces of float
At ( At − A f ) (p d - p u )
From Eq.6 earlier : Q actual = C d 2g K K Eq .8
2
At − ( At − A f ) 2 ρ ff g
Where A t is the area of the tube at float level
( At − A f ) is the min annular area between th e tube & float
( At − A f ) Vf ( ρ f − ρ ff )
From Eq.7 & 8 : Q actual = C d 2g K K Eq .9
( At − A f ) 2 Af ρ ff
1− 2
At
( At − A f )
If << 1, Then : Q actual = K ( At − A f ) K K Eq .10
At
Flow Measurements
Where K is the rotameter constant
If the angle of taper is θ (Which is very small), then
π
At = ( Di + y tan θ ) 2
4
π 2 π
Or At = Di + yDi tan θ KK Eq.11
4 2
Where y is the float position with respect to inlet and Di is dia at inlet
From Eq.10 & 11

π 2 π
Q actual = K ( Di + yDi tan θ − A f )
4 2
π π 2
Q actual = K Di y tan θ + K ( Di − A f ) KK Eq.12
2 4
Q actual = K1 y + K 2 KK Eq.13
Where K1 & K 2 are constants depending on the shape of the rotameter & float
Thus rotameter gives a direct reading of the float on a linear scale.
Flow Measurements
Rotameter Features:
• Rotameter tube is made of high strength borosilicate glass
to allow direct observation of the float position.
• Main advantage is that they give direct visual indication on
linear scale.
• Can be used for wide ranges (from 0.1 ml/min to several
hundred lpm)
• Accuracy is generally ±1% of max flow rate, but up to ±5%
of rated capacity for very cheaper units.
• Can handle wide variety of fluids including corrosive ones.
• The disadvantage is that it can only be mounted in vertical
direction.
• Can be subjected to oscillations in pulsating flows.
Flow Measurements
3. Variable Head & Variable Area flow Meters:
Flow Measurements
For a rectangular weir without end correction, considering a layer of fluid thicknessdy
at a depth of y from the top surfaceof the water level:
Velocityof layer of fluid = 2gy
∴ Dischargeof the thin layer = 2gy Lw dy
And actual dischargefrom the thin layer = Cd 2gy Lw dyKK Eq.14
Integrating the above equation from 0 to H,
H
Qactual = Cd Lw 2g ∫
0
ydy
2 3
Qactual = Cd Lw 2g (H )2 KK Eq.15
3
In practiceeffectivecrest length of the weir is less that theactual crest length due to
end contactionof 0.1H on both sides.
2 3
∴Qactual = Cd [Lw − 0.2H ] 2g (H )2 KK Eq.16
3
Flow Measurements
The effect of end contractions is taken care of by making the weir trapezoidal in shape
So, the discharge equation for a trapezoidal or cipolletti weir is :
2 3
Q actual = C d L w 2g (H )2 KK Eq.17
3
Discharge equation of triangular weir is
8 θ 5
Q actual = C d tan 2g (H )2 KK Eq.18
15 2
Weir type Flow meters Features:
• Variable head variable area flow meters.
• Principle: If a restriction of a specified shape and form is placed
in the path of the flow, a rise in upstream liquid level occurs
which is a function of the rate of flow through the restricted
section.
• Rectangular weir suitable for large flow while triangular weir is
used for smaller flows below 50l/s.
• Simple in construction, easy to install and accurate devices.
• Main disadvantage is their non-linear characteristics.
Flow Measurements
4. Linear Resistance Element flow Meters:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Principle: Based on Hagen- Poiseuille equation for laminar flow.
πD 4
Q= ( p1 − p2 )
128µL
Where Q is the flow rate, D is the inside diameter of the tube, L is
length of tube, µ is the coefficient of viscosity and ( p1 − p2 ) is the
pressure drop along the length of tube.
• Used for very small flow rates of highly viscous flows.
• Flow rate is directly proportional to pressure drop (Linear
characteristics)
• Main disadvantage is that metering element is subjected to
plugging if fluid is not clean.
• Relatively expensive.
• High pressure losses.
Flow Measurements
5. Pitot Static Tube:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Principle: Variable head velocity measuring device.
• Consists of two concentrically arranged tubes bent at right
angle.
• Inner tube faces the flow impingement and hence measures
static and dynamic pressures while outer tube measures the
static pressure.
For a one dimensional, incompressible and frictionless fluid flow,
V 2 pstag
pstat
By Bernoulli's Eq : + =
ρ 2 ρ
2( pstag − pstat )
∴V =
ρ
Where V is flow velocity, ρ is fluid density, pstag is stagnation pressure and pstat
is static pressure.
Flow Measurements
Advantages of Pitot tube:
• Simple & low cost device
• No appreciable pressure loss
• Easy installation
• Useful in measuring flow velocities
Limitations of Pitot tube:
• Not suitable for measuring low velocities i.e. below 5 m/s
• Sensitive to misalignment of the probe with respect to free
stream velocity.
• Not suitable for measuring highly fluctuating velocities.
• Not commonly used in industrial applications as numerous Pitot
tube traverses are required for velocity distribution data which is
quite tedious & time consuming.
Flow Measurements
6. Target Flow Meter:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Principle: The drag force onto a suitably shaped body into a flow
stream can be a measure of the flow rate after suitable
calibration.
1
Fd = Cd ρgV 2 A
2
Where Cd = Coefficient of drag
A = Area of cross section (in m 2 )
ρ = Fluid density (in kg/m 3 )
V = Fluid velocity
• Main advantage is its very good dynamic response.
• Overall accuracy is ±0.5%
• Applications: Highly viscous flows of tar, oils or slurries at high
pressures of the order of 100 bars.
Flow Measurements
7. Turbine Flow Meter:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Principle: Turbine meters are inferential measurement devices
that measure a flow rate indirectly by using the natural kinetic
energy of the flow as it passes through the angled blades of the
turbine rotor. This causes the turbine to spin and as the blades
pass by a close pre positioned magnetic (Or other
technology)“pick up” coil. The resulting interruption of the coils
magnetic field by each blade results in a pulse being produced.
The frequency of this pulse is directly proportional to the point
velocity reading it is taking. From this point velocity and cross
sectional area of the pipe a rough volumetric flow rate can be
calculated.
Q=kXn
Where k = Constant for any given meter
n = rotor angular velocity
Flow Measurements
Features:
• These meters have linear relationship between volume flow rate

and the angular velocity of the rotor.
• Accuracy of instruments is ±1%
• Commercially available for flow rates ranging from 0.5 to 150000
LPM (for liquids) and from 5 to 100000 LPM (For air).
• Bearing maintenance is a problem and accuracy drops off greatly
at low flow rates.
Flow Measurements
8. Vortex Shedding Flow Meter:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Principle: If a bluff body or an obstruction is placed in a fluid

stream, vortices are shed alternately on each side of the bluff
body. The vortex shedding frequency of the bluff body is a
measure of the average flow velocity of the fluid flow.
• Strouhal number S governs the operation of vortex shedding
flow meter:
fs D
S=
V
Where f s = Vortex shedding frequency
D = Diameter or characteristic length of the bluff body
V = Average velocity of the flow
S = Strouhal number
Flow Measurements
• h= height of the bluff body, generally the ratio of height to the
pipe dia should not be less than 0.2
• L=Length of shedder taken approx 1.3h
• Value of Strouhal number S for triangular wedge shaped body
remains nearly constant value of 0.88±0.01 over a wide range of
Reynolds number.
Df s
∴V =
0.88
or V = (1.136D) f s
Flow rate in the vortex flow meter can be evaluated as :
π π 
Q= D 2V u=  D 2 − hD Vd
4 4 
Where V u= Velocity of flow upstream of the shedder
Vd = Velocity of flow downstream of the shedder
π 
∴ Q =  D 2 − hD (1.136Df s )
4 
Measurement of vortex shedding frequency is done by monitoring the alternating
strain signals from the strain gauge.
Flow Measurements
Advantages of Vortex shedding Flow meter:
• No moving parts and causes very low pressure loss

• Linear characteristics with respect to the shedding frequency
• Calibration constant is same for all fluids
• Calibration constant is not affected by the changes in the fluid
properties.
• Accuracy is of the order of ±0.5%
• Main disadvantage is inability to give accurate results for
Reynolds number <103 and > 107
Flow Measurements
D. Special Methods
1. Ultrasonic Flow Meters:
Travel time difference
method (Single Transmitter-
Receiver System)
Fig.1
Travel time difference

method (Twin Transmitter-
Receiver System)
Fig.2
Flow Measurements
Oscillating Loop Method
Fig.3
With zero flow velocity, the transit time t 0 of the pulse from the transmitter
to the receiver is given by :
l
t0 =
Vs
Where l = distance between transmitter & receiver
Vs = Velocity of sound in the fluid
Flow Measurements
In a moving fluid with velocity Vs , the transit time t becomes :
l
t=
Vs + V
l (Vs − V )
or t = 2 2
KK Eq.1
Vs − V
Considering Vs >>> V ,
l  V 
t= 1 − 
Vs  Vs 
 V 
or t = t0 1 −  KK Eq.2
 Vs 
From Eq.2
V 
∆t = t - t0 = t0  
 Vs 
lV l
or ∆t = 2 KK Eq.3 (as t0 = )
Vs Vs
Flow Measurements
Since the measurement of t0 is not provided in the present
arrangement (Fig.1), Hence an additional set of transmitter -
receiver system (Fig.2) is provided. If t1 is the transit time in
flow direction and t 2 is transit time against the flow direction :
l l
Then ∆t = t 2 - t1 = −
Vs − V Vs + V
2lV
or ∆t = 2
Vs − V 2
Since Vs >>> V
2lV
∴ ∆t = 2 KK Eq.4
Vs
Flow Measurements
Thus the output signal proportional to ∆t is linear in V for constant V , s
however the calibration constant is strongly dependent to Vs .

Another approach in this technique is the oscillating loop system (Fig.3),
also called the frequency difference method. In this method, a pulse is
emitted by the transmitting transducer T1 and is received by the receiving
transducer R 1 after time t1. This pulse is amplified and instantaneously fed
back to the transmitting transducer for retransmission. This generates a train
of pulses in each path whose time period equals the acoustical time.
The repetition frequencies along and against the fluid flow are :
1 Vs + V
f1 = =
t1 l
1 Vs − V
f2 = =
t2 l
Vs + V Vs − V
Then ∆f = f 2 - f1 = −
l l
2V
or ∆f = KK Eq.5
l
Flow Measurements
Advantages of Ultrasonic Flow meter:
• Negligible resistance to metering fluid system

• Reasonably good Accuracy of the order of ±2%
• Is suitable for both liquids and gases
• Output read out can easily be either analog or digital
• Has a linear relationship between the velocity and output
Flow Measurements
2. Electromagnetic Flow Meters:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Suitable for electrically conducting fluids
• Principle: Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction for solid
conductors. It states that whenever a conductor cuts lines of
magnetic field, an induced emf is generated and the magnitude
of this emf is proportional to the rate at which these lines are
cut and the emf is perpendicular to the plane of conductor and
magnetic field. The direction of induced emf is given by the
Fleming’s right hand rule.
E0 = Blv X 10 −8 Volts
Where E0 = Induced voltage
B = Magnetic flux density (in V - s/cm 2 )
l = Length of the conduction (in cm)
v = Velocity of the conductor (in cm/s)
Flow Measurements
Volume flow rate for the circular pipeis given as :
π
Q= d 2v
4
4B
or Q = Q X 10 −8 Volts
πd
This shows that the flow rate is directly proportional to the induced emf E 0 .
• This type of flow meter causes no obstruction to the flow
line of metered fluid
• Device is quite accurate and has wider range with good
transient response
• Can be used for dirty, corrosive, cement slurries etc flows
• These meters are expensive and their use is limited to fluids
having conductivity at least of the order of 1 X 10-6
Flow Measurements
3. Hot Wire Anemometer:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• Used for measuring mean and fluctuating velocities
• Flow sensing element is a Platinum- Tungsten wire
• Principle: When a heated probe is introduced in the fluid
stream, it tends to get cooled by the instantaneous velocity and
consequently there is a decrease in its resistance. If the same is
connected by a Wheatstone bridge then the instrument
response is the direct measure of the flow velocity and hence
the flow.
• The velocity measurement is done in two ways:
1. Constant current method: In this method, the sensing element
is feed constant current, the knowledge of this current and the
resistance of the wire defines the power being fed to the wire,
which is a function of the flow velocity. This method can be
used at higher frequencies and relatively small signals.
Flow Measurements
2. Constant resistance or constant temperature method: In this
method, the current to the hot wire is continuously adjusted
by means of a suitable servo system to maintain the resistance
of wire and hence the wire temperature at a contant value
throughout the range of hot wire operation. The current or
voltage is then the measure of the heat transfer rates and
hence the fluid velocity.
The basic governing equation of the hot wire operation is based on King' s law :
1
hD  ρVD  2
= 0.30 + 0.5  KK Eq.1
k  µ 
Where h = Convective film coefficient of heat transfer
k = Thermal conductivity of hot wire
ρ = Density of the fluid
v = velocity of the fluid stream
µ = Coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
D = Dia of hot wire
Flow Measurements
The basic governing equation of the hot wire operation is based on King' s law :
1
hD  ρVD  2
= 0.30 + 0.5  KK Eq.1
k  µ 
Where h = Convective film coefficient of heat transfer
k = Thermal conductivity of hot wire
ρ = Density of the fluid
v = velocity of the fluid stream
µ = Coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
D = Dia of hot wire
Eq.1 can also be written as follows :
h = c1 + c2 V KK Eq.2
Under the equilibrium condition of hot wire :
I 2 Rw = K c hA(Tw-T f )KK Eq.3
Where I = Current flowing in the hot wire
R w = Resistance of the wire
K c = Conversion factor from electrical to thermal power
A = Heat transfer area
Tw = Hot wire temperature
Tf = Temperature of the flowing fluid
Flow Measurements
From Eq.2 & 3 : I 2 Rw = K c A(Tw -T f ) c1 + c2 V KK Eq.4 ( )
Change in resistance from tf to tw is directly proportional to the
temperature difference for the Platinum - Tungsten material.
∴ R w − R f = C3 (Tw -T f )KK Eq.5
I 2 RwC3
From Eq.4 & 5 : = c1 + c2 V KK Eq.6
K c A(R w − R f )
Rw
For constant resistance operation, the factor is constant and the
Rw − Rf
value of hot wire current I can be replaced with E which is directly proportional
to I.
∴ from eq.6 : E 2 = A1 + B2 V KK Eq.7
Flow Measurements
Eq 7 can also be written as :
2
E 2 = E0 + B V KK Eq.8
Where E0 is the emf at zero velocity. Differentiating, we get :
1 1
∴ 2 EdE = B(V ) 2 dV
−
2
BdV
= 4 EdE KK Eq.9
V
2
E 2 − E0 dV
From eq 8 & 9 : = 4 EdE
V V
dV 4 EdE
= 2 2
V E − E0
4 Ee
Hence the turbulence level is = 2
E 2 − E0
Flow Measurements
Advantages of hot wire anemometer:
• Negligible resistance/disturbance to metering fluid system

• Excellent accuracy of the order of ±0.1% in the measurement of
mean velocities and ±2% in the measurement of turbulence
levels
• Exhibits excellent dynamic characteristics
• Output read out can easily be either analog or digital
• Measuring range can be from very low velocities to supersonic
velocities
• Shown on next slide are the Typical forms of hot wire film
anemometer probes used for liquid flows
Flow Measurements
Flow Measurements
4. Laser Doppler Anemometer:
Flow Measurements
Features:
• It is an optical type of velocity meter
• Principle: Operating principle of this device is based on the
Doppler shift in frequency of the light scattered by an object
moving relative to the radiating source. The technique basically
consists of focusing laser beams at the point in the fluid where
the velocity is to be measured. At this focal point, the laser light
scattered from the fluid or fluid particles entrained in the fluid is
sensed by a photo-detector. Signal processing of the photo-
detector output yields the magnitude of Doppler frequency shift
which is directly proportional to the instantaneous velocity of
the flow.
2v θ
∆f = sin
λ 2
NOTE: Refer the detailed theory of Laser Doppler Anemometer from text book.

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Flow Measurements

Types of flow encountered:

Orifice Flow meter Features:

From Eq.10 & 11

• These meters have linear relationship between volume flow rate

• Principle: If a bluff body or an obstruction is placed in a fluid

• No moving parts and causes very low pressure loss

Travel time difference

however the calibration constant is strongly dependent to Vs .

• Negligible resistance to metering fluid system

• Negligible resistance/disturbance to metering fluid system

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