Module 2

Traffic intersection control

• Principles of traffic control
• Traffic signs and road markings
• Uncontrolled intersection
• Channelization
• Traffic rotary
• Grade separated intersection
 Introduction
• Traffic control devices
– Medium of communication between traffic
engineer and road users

• Major types:
– Traffic signs
– Road markings
– Intersections
– Traffic signals
 Traffic control devices
• Purpose
– to promote highway safety and efficiency by
providing for the orderly movement of all road
users

– Traffic control devices notify road users of

regulations and provide warning and guidance
needed for the reasonably safe, uniform, and
efficient operation of all elements of the traffic
stream
 Traffic control devices

• Traffic control devices or their supports shall not

bear any advertising message or any other message
that is not related to traffic control.

• Tourist-oriented directional signs and Specific

service signs are not considered advertising; rather,
they are classified as motorist service signs
 Traffic control devices
• Principles
– Fulfill a need
– Command attention from road user
– Convey clear and simple meaning
– Avoid overuse, misusing, confusing messages
– Adequate time for proper response
– Uniformity of the meaning of the control devices
 Traffic control devices
• Communication tools
– Color
• easily noticed characteristics
• red, green, yellow, black, blue, and brown
– Shape
• the second element discerned by the driver
• circular, triangular, rectangular, diamond shape
– Legend
– Pattern
 Traffic control devices
• Communication tools
– Legend
• legend should be short, simple and specific
• Symbols that are trans-lingual or word messages
• Word messages should be as brief as possible
• All lettering shall be in capital letter
• Word messages on street name and destinations
may include lower-case letters with initial
upper-case letters
 Traffic control devices

• Communication tools

– Pattern

• Used in markings to complement signs

• solid, double solid and dotted lines

 Traffic control devices
• Design principles
– High visibility by day and night

– High legibility
• adequately sized letters or symbols, and a
short legend for quick comprehension

– Uniformity in design
• include shape, color, dimensions, legends,
borders, and illumination or retro-reflectivity
 Traffic Signs
• Regulatory signs
– Mandatory signs - give notice of traffic laws or
regulations

• Warning signs
– Cautionary signs - give notice of a situation that
might not be readily apparent

• Informative signs
– Guide signs - show route designations, distances,
services, points of interest, etc.
 Regulatory signs

• Types

– Right of way series

– Speed series

– Movement series

– Parking series

– Pedestrian series
 Regulatory signs: Right of way series
• STOP sign
– Octagonal shape
– to indicate traffic is always
required to stop

• STOP sign warrant

– Intersection of a minor road with a major road
– Street entering a through highway or street
– Un-signalized intersection in a signalized area
– High speeds, restricted view, or crash records
Regulatory signs: Right of way series
• STOP sign placement
 Regulatory signs: Right of way series
• YEILD or GIVEWAY sign
– Downward-pointing equilateral triangle
– Wide red border and the legend YIELD in red on a
white background
 Regulatory signs: Right of way series
• YEILD or GIVEWAY sign warrant

– Ability to see all conflicting traffic is sufficient to

allow a road user to pass through the intersection
in a reasonably safe manner.

– In a merging situation the entering roadway has

poor geometry and/or inadequate sight distance

– An intersection where a special problem exists

which could be corrected
 Regulatory signs

• YIELD sign placement

 Regulatory signs: Speed series
• Speed limit sign
– Black legend on a white
background
– Circular in shape with
red borders

• Warrants
– Road characteristics, shoulder condition, grade,
alignment, and sight distance
– Roadside development and environment
– Parking practices and pedestrian activity
– Accidents in least a 12-month period
 Regulatory signs: Movement series

• Turn prohibitions
 Warning Signs
• Purpose
– Own safety of drivers; Extra vigilance from driver
• Design
– Legend will be black in color with a white
background
– Shape is upward triangular or diamond shape with
red borders
 Informative signs
• Informative signs
– Predominantly meant for drivers who are
unfamiliar to the place
– Other signs: Facility information signs, parking
signs, Flood gauge signs, etc.
Traffic Signs
Traffic Signs
Road Markings
 Introduction
• Guide and control traffic on a highway
• Ensure safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic

• Types:
– Longitudinal markings
– Transverse markings
– Object markings
– Special markings
 Longitudinal markings
• Placed along the direction of traffic on road surface.

• Provided for separating traffic flow in the same

direction.

• Predominant color used is white.

• Yellow color is used to separate the traffic flow in

opposite direction
 Longitudinal markings
• Lines can be either broken, solid or double solid.

• Broken lines are permissive in character and allows

crossing with discretion

• Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not

allow crossing except for entry or exit from a side
road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction.

• Double solid lines indicate severity in restrictions

Longitudinal markings
 Longitudinal markings
• Types
– Centre line
– Traffic lanes
– No passing zone
– Warning lines
– Border or edge lines
– Bus lane markings
– Cycle lane markings.
 Longitudinal markings
• Centre line
– Separates the opposing streams of traffic
– No centre line for roads having width less than 5 m
and having more than four lanes
– Marked with either single broken line, single solid
line, double broken line, or double solid line

Centre line marking for a two lane road

 Longitudinal markings

Centre line and lane marking for a four lane road

Centre barrier line marking for four lane road

 Traffic Lane Lines
• Subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes

• Eliminate confusion and facilitates turning

movements

• Helps in increasing the capacity of the road in

addition ensuring more safety

• Single broken lines of 100 mm width

 Traffic Lane Lines

Lane marking for a four lane road with solid barrier line
 No passing zones
• Provided on
– Summit curves
– Horizontal curves
– Where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited

• Marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a

double yellow line
 No passing zones

Barrier line marking for a four lane road

Barrier line marking for No passing zone marking

a four lane road at horizontal curves
No passing zones
 Warning lines

• Broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap

Warning line marking for a two lane road

 Edge lines
• Delineate the limits up to which the driver can
safely venture

• At least 150 mm from the actual edge of the

pavement

• Painted in yellow or white

• Preferably light reflective

Examples
Examples
Examples
Channelizing lines
 Transverse markings

• Across the direction of traffic

• At Intersections

• Different transverse markings

– Stop line markings
– Markings for pedestrian crossing
– Direction arrows
 Transverse markings

• Stop line

Stop line marking near an intersection

 Transverse markings
• Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian marking near an intersection

Examples
Examples
Examples - Yield
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples-Crosswalk
Examples- Diagonal Crosswalk
Rotary
 Transverse markings
• Directional arrows
– Used to guide the drivers in advance over the
correct lane
 Object marking
• Objects within the carriageway
– Traffic islands, raised medians, etc.
– Marked by not less than five alternate black and
yellow stripes
– Stripes should slope forward at an angle of 45o
with respect to the direction of traffic
– Uniform stripes with not less than 100 m width to
provide sufficient visibility
 Object marking
• Objects adjacent to carriageway

– Subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls

– Alternate black and white stripes at a forward

angle of 45o with respect to direction of traffic

– Poles close to carriageway painted up to a

height of 1.25 m above road level
Object marking
 Object marking

Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

 Word messages
• Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user

• Capital letters

• STOP, SLOW, SCHOOL,

RIGHT TURN ONLY

Typical dimension of the character T used in road marking

Examples- Elongated Word Messages
 Hazardous location
• Width transition in the carriageway should be of 100
mm width
• Converging lines shall be 150 mm wide

Approach marking for obstructions on the road way

Examples-Marking obstructions
Intersections
 Introduction
• Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads

• Designated for the vehicles to turn to different

directions

• Function to guide and control traffic on a highway

• Ensures safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic

 Conflicts at an intersection
• A typical four-legged intersection

– Total 32 different types of conflicts

 Intersection control
• To resolve conflicts for safe and efficient movement of
vehicular traffic and pedestrians

• Two methods of intersection control

– Time sharing
– Space sharing

• Type of intersection control to be adopted depends

– Traffic volume
– Road geometry
– Cost involved
– Importance of the road
 Levels of intersection control
• Passive control
– No explicit control on the driver

• Semi control
– Some amount of control on the driver is there from
the traffic agency

• Active control
– Movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the
traffic agency
– Drivers cannot simply maneuver the intersection
according to his choice
 Passive control

• Volume of traffic is less - no explicit control is

required

• Road users are required to obey the basic rules of

the road

• Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc.

are used to complement the intersection control
 Passive control
• No control
– If the traffic coming to an intersection is low

• Traffic signs
– Warning signs, guide signs etc.
– Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-
way stop control

• Traffic signs plus marking

– Stop line marking, yield lines, arrow marking etc.
 Semi control
• Channelization
– Traffic is directed to flow through different channels
– Physical separation is made with traffic islands, road
markings etc.

• Traffic rotaries
– Convert all severe conflicts like through and right turn
conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and
diverging
– Free-left turn is permitted
– Through traffic and right-turn traffic is forced to move
around the central island in a clock-wise direction
 Active control
• Traffic signals
– Traffic signal is based on time sharing approach
– At a given time, with the help of appropriate signals,
certain traffic movements are restricted where as certain
other movements are permitted to pass through the
intersection
– Two or more phases may be provided depending upon the
traffic conditions of the intersection
– If more than two phases are provided, then it is called
multiphase signal
– The signals can operate in several modes
 Active control
• Traffic signals
– Most common are fixed time signals and vehicle actuated
signals
– In fixed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of
each signal is fixed
– Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another
– But they cannot cater to the needs of the fluctuating traffic
– On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can respond to
dynamic traffic situations
– Vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets approaching the
intersection and the detector will sense the presence of the
vehicle and pass the information to a controller
– The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts the phase
lengths according to the prevailing traffic conditions.
 Active control
• Grade separated intersections
– Allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels
– Sometimes the topography itself may be helpful in
constructing such intersections
– Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will
be very high.
– Usually constructed on high speed facilities like
expressways, freeways, etc.
– Increases the road capacity
– Accident potential is reduced due to vertical
separation of traffic
 Channelized intersection
• Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed
to definite paths by islands

Channelization of traffic Channelization of traffic

through a three-legged through a four-legged
intersection intersection
Requirements of At-grade intersection
• Conflict area should be as small as possible
• Relative speed and angle of approach of vehicle should
be small
• Adequate visibility should be available
• Sudden change of path should be avoided
• Geometric features – adequately provided
• Proper signs and good lighting at night
 Types of At-grade intersections
• Un-channelized intersections
• Channelized intersections
• Rotaries
Advantages of channelized intersections
• Vehicles can be confined to definite paths
• Angle of merging can be forced to be at flat angles
• Both the major and minor conflict areas can be
decreased
• Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be
kept as desired
• Speed control can be established over vehicles
• Refuge islands can be provided for pedestrians
• Points of conflicts can be separated
 Grade separated intersections
• Flyovers and interchange
• Flyovers
– Subdivided into overpass and underpass
• When two roads cross at a point, if the road having major traffic
is elevated to a higher grade for further movement of traffic,
then such structures are called overpass
• If the major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by
means of an under bridge or tunnel, it is called under-pass
• Types of interchange
– Trumpet interchange
– Diamond interchange
– Cloverleaf interchange
 Grade separated intersections

• Trumpet interchange
 Grade separated intersections
• Diamond interchange
 Grade separated intersections
• Clover leaf interchange
– Provides complete
separation of traffic.
– High speed at
intersections can be
achieved
– Disadvantage is large
area of land is required
 Grade separated intersections
Advantages
• Uninterrupted flow is possible for the crossing traffic
• Increased safety for turning traffic
• Overall increase in comfort and convenience
• Capacity can practically approach the total capacity of the
two cross roads
• Essential for controlled access highway like expressway
• Stage construction of additional ramps are possible

Disadvantages
• Costly
• Introduces undesirable crests and sags in plain terrain
Full clover leaf interchange

Faizabad (Pakistan) Interchange

Daily traffic volume is about 48,000 vehicles
Uncontrolled Intersections
 Uncontrolled intersection

• The traffic junctions where there is no explicit

traffic control measures are adopted

• Types
– Two way STOP controlled intersection
– All way STOP controlled intersection
 Intersections

• Classification based on number of road segments

and priority usage
– Priority intersection
– Space sharing intersection
– Time sharing intersection
– Uncontrolled intersection
Uncontrolled intersection
Two way stop controlled intersection
 Two way stop controlled intersection
• Characteristics
– Stop controlled approaches are referred to as minor
streets, others are major streets
– A three leg intersection is considered as standard
type of TWSC intersection if the single minor street
approach is controlled by stop sign
– Three leg intersections where two of the three
approaches are controlled by stop signs are special
form of uncontrolled intersection
T - Intersection
Four-leg intersection
 TWSC intersection: Terminology
• Total delay is the difference between the travel time
actually experienced and the reference travel time
that would result during base conditions, in the
absence of incident, control, traffic, or geometric
delay.

• Average control delay for any particular minor

movement is a function of the Capacity of the
approach and the degree of saturation.
TWSC intersection :Performance
measures
All way stop controlled intersection
 All way stop controlled intersection
• Characteristics
– AWSC intersections require every vehicle to stop at the
intersection before proceeding.
– Since each driver must stop, the judgment as to whether
to proceed into the intersection is a function of traffic
conditions on the other approaches.
– If no traffic is present on the other approaches, a driver
can proceed immediately after the stop is made.
– If there is traffic on one or more of the other approaches,
a driver proceeds only after determining that there are no
vehicles currently in the intersection
 Gap acceptance: Terminology
• Gap: The time and space that a subject vehicle needs to
merge adequately safely between two vehicles
• Gap acceptance: the process by which a minor stream
vehicle accepts an available gap to maneuver
• Critical gap: the minimum major stream headway during
which a minor stream vehicle can make a maneuver
• Lag: Time interval between the arrival of a yielding vehicle
and the passage of the next priority stream vehicle
• Headway: The time interval between the arrivals of two
successive vehicles.
• Minimum Headway: The minimum gap maintained by a
vehicle in the major traffic stream.
 Gap acceptance: Terminology
• Follow-up time: Time between the departure of one vehicle
from the minor street and the departure of the next vehicle
using the same gap under a condition of continuous queuing.
• Delay: The additional travel time experienced by a driver,
passenger or pedestrian.
• Conflicting movements: The traffic streams in conflict at an
intersection.
• Capacity: The maximum hourly rate at which persons or
vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or
uniform section of a lane or a roadway during a given time
period under prevailing roadway, traffic, and control
conditions.