PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

Sets and
Combinatorics

1 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

PM 1004: Sets and Combinatorics (30L, 2C)

Semester I - 2018
Lecturer: Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne

Lecture Hours: 1:00 – 2:00 Tuesdays and 12:00 – 1:00 Thursdays at NPLT

Tutorial Hours: 12:00 – 1:00 Tuesdays and 10:00 – 11:00 Wednesdays

Dependencies: None

Contents:

Methods of Proofs: if, if and only if, proof by contradiction, proof by contrapositive,
mathematical induction and counter examples.

Sets: definition and notations, subsets, equality, universal sets, power set, set operations
and algebra of sets.

Combinatorics: basic principles in counting, permutations and combinations, generalized

permutations and combinations, applications of permutations, combinations and
generalized permutations, Pigeonhole principle, Binomial coefficients and combinatorial
identities, generating function and applications of generating functions.

Recommended Text Books:

Elements of Advanced Mathematics by Steven G. Krantz
Applied Combinatorics by Alan Tucker

Assessment:
Final Exam: At least 70% of the final grade
Quizzes: At most 30% of the final grade
Final Grade = Final Exam + Quizzes

2 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

PM1004: Sets and Combinatorics

1. Methods of Proofs
Are the following proofs?

1. Let’s call a set normal if it does not contain itself as a member. Otherwise let’s call it abnormal.
Let N be the set of all normal sets. Then N is neither normal nor abnormal.
Proof: If N is normal then N contains N . Then N is abnormal. Therefore N can not be normal. If
N is abnormal then N contains N . Then N is abnormal. Therefore N can not be abnormal.
Therefore N is neither normal nor abnormal.

2. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides.
Proof 1: Pythagoras’s Rearrangement Proof:

Proof 2: Euclid’s Windmill Proof in Book 1:

Euclid’s definitions:
1. A point is that which has no part.
2. A line is breadthless length.
…

What do we prove in mathematics? In mathematics we have definitions in which we define certain

terms. We assume that these terms have certain properties or truth attributes. These assumptions
are called axioms. We specify certain rules of logic. Any statement that can be derived from the
axioms through definitions, using the rules of logic, is accepted as true. Such a statement may be
called a proposition, a lemma, a theorem or a corollary. Such a derivation is called a proof of the
statement.

3 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

We also have primitive notions or undefined concepts in mathematics. For example in Hilbert's
axiom system point and line are primitive notions. In any axiomatic system in set theory set is a
primitive notion.

Argument in 1 is a paradox called the Russell’s paradox. A paradox is a logically valid argument with
a seemingly absurd conclusion. Paradoxes can reveal assumptions that we are not aware of and false
assumptions. For example the Russell’s paradox shows that the assumption that the notions
collection and belonging can be freely used is a false assumption.

1.1 What are these rules of logic?

Note 1 We discuss logic briefly as we need logic to discuss methods of proof. But you will do logic in
more depth in your second year.

In mathematics and logic, we study statements, sentences that are either true or false, but not both.
Examples:
1. (e 2 ) 2  e 4 – TRUE
2. The sun rotates around the earth. – FALSE
3. March 8, 2030 is a Wednesday. – A statement as its truth value can be determined after
some calculations.
4. One trillionth digit in the decimal expansion of 3 is 8. – A statement as its truth value can
be determined in principle.
5. x  5 – An open statement.
6. Is (e 2 ) 2  e 4 ? – Not a statement.
7. All Sri Lankans are liars.

On 7 Suppose that the statement All Sri Lankans are liars is made by a Sri Lankan. Then it can’t be
true as it implies that the person who made the statement is a liar and the statement is also false.
Now if the statement is false then the negation of the statement is true. But what is the negation of
the statement? Is it All Sri Lankans are not liars and if so what is the meaning of such a statement?
Now, the meaning of all vegetarians do not eat meat is clear. But what is the meaning of all that
glitter is not gold? There is no contradiction in the statement. It means that some that glitter is gold
and some that glitter is not gold. In the first sense, i.e. all vegetarians do not eat meat sense, the
statement All Sri Lankans are liars is false implies that the person who made the statement is not a
liar and the statement is true. Again a contradiction! But in the second sense, i.e. all that glitter is
not gold sense, there is no contradiction if the person who made the statement is a liar. Now, what
is the negation of All Sri Lankans are liars in strict mathematical sense?

1.2 Basic logical operations or connectives

In logic, we have certain operations for combining statements. We use letters such as p and q to
denote statements.

And If p and q are two statements, then the statement ‘p and q’ is defined to be
• true, when p and q are both true, and
• false, when p is false or q is false or both p and q are false.

4 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

This definition can be shown in a truth table too:

The statement ‘p and q’ is called the conjunction of p and q, and is denoted by p  q .

Exercise 1
Which of the following statements are true?
(i) All men are mortal and 2  1.
(ii) All men are mortal and 1  2 .
(iii) The sum of two even integers is even and 2  1.
(iv) The sum of two even integers is even and 1  2 .

Or If p and q are two statements, then the statement ‘p or q’ is defined to be

• true, when p is true or q is true or both p and q are true, and
• false, when both p and q are false.
This definition in a truth table:

The statement ‘p or q’ is called the disjunction of p and q, and is denoted by p  q .

Exercise 2
Which of the following statements are true?
(i) All men are mortal or 2  1.
(ii) All men are mortal or 1  2 .
(iii) The sum of two even integers is even or 2  1.
(iv) The sum of two even integers is even or 1  2 .

Note 2 Although the definition of ‘and’ corresponds to its normal usage in English, the same is not
true of ‘or’. Everyday usage of or is one or the other, but not both (exclusive or). The definition of
‘or’ in mathematics is the inclusive or, corresponding to ‘and/or’ in English.

Not If p is a statement, then ‘not p’ is defined to be

• true, when p is false and
• false, when p is true.
The statement ‘not p’ is called the negation of p and is denoted by p .

Problem 1
One of Kanchana, Damitha, Ranjan, Roshan or Pooja broke a vase. The following is what each of
them had to tell about the person who broke the vase – Only one of these statements is false and
others are true:
Kanchana: Damitha broke it.

5 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

Damitha: Kanchana lied.

Ranjan: I did not break it.
Roshan: I did not break it.
Pooja: Ranjan or Kanchana broke it.
Who broke the vase?

If … then If p and q are statements, then the statement ‘if p then q’ is defined to be
• true, when p and q are both true or p is false, and
• false, when p is true and q is false.
This in a truth table:

The statement ‘if p then q’ is called a conditional statement and is denoted by p  q . If p is false,
then we say that p  q is vacuously true. Sometimes the statement ‘if p then q’ is abbreviated by ‘p
implies q’. In the statement ‘if p then q’, p is called the premise and q is called the conclusion.

Exercise 3
Which of the following statements are true?
(i) If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home.
(ii) If 1  2 , then 10 is a prime number.
(iii) If ABC is a right triangle where BAC is a right angle then BC 2  AB 2  AC 2 .

Note 3 In an if … then statement in English there is a cause and effect relationship between the
premise and the conclusion. But in (ii) there is no such relationship even though the statement is
true.

Problem 2 One of Kanchana, Damitha, Ranjan, or Roshan broke a vase. The following is what each of
them had to tell about the person who broke the vase – Only one of these statements is true and
others are false:
Kanchana: If Ranjan did not break the vase then Roshan broke it.
Damitha: It was not Ranjan or Roshan who broke the vase.
Ranjan: Kanchana broke the vase.
Roshan: Damitha did not break the vase.
Who broke the vase?

If and only if If p and q are statements, then the statement ‘p if and only if q’ is defined to be
• true, when p and q are both true or both false, and
• false, when one of p, q is true and the other is false.
This in a truth table:

6 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

The statement ‘p if and only if q’ is called a biconditional statement and is denoted by p  q .

Exercise 4
Which of the following statements are true?
(i) It rains tomorrow if and only if I stay home tomorrow.
(ii) If 1  2 if and only if 10 is a prime number.
(iii) ABC is a triangle. BAC is a right angle if and only if BC 2  AB 2  AC 2 .

Note 4 When p  q is true we denote it by p  q and when p  q is true we denote it by

p  q . In mathematics we don’t use the symbols  and  . We use  and  instead and
there is a slight abuse of meaning in their use but the meaning is usually clear in the context.

Problem 3
Kasun and Theekshana just became friends with Prathibha, and they want to know when her
birthday is. Prathibha gives them a list of 10 possible dates:
May 15, May 16, May 19
June 17, June 18
July 14, July 16
August 14, August 15, August 17
Prathibha then tells Kasun and Theekshana separately the month and the day of her birthday
respectively.
Kasun: I don't know when Prathibha's birthday is, but I know that Theekshana doesn't know too.
Theekshana: At first I didn't know when Prathibha's birthday is, but I know now.
Kasun: Then I also know when Prathibha's birthday is.
So when is Prathibha's birthday?"

Problem 4
Now Kasun and Theekshana want to know how old Prathibha is.
Prathibha: I have two younger brothers. The product of all our ages, i.e. my age and the ages of my
two brothers, is 144, assuming that we use whole numbers for our ages.
Kasun: We still don't know your age. What other hints can you give us?
Prathibha: The sum of all our ages is the bus number of this bus that we are on.
Theekshana: Of course we know the bus number, but we still don't know your age.
Prathibha: Oh, I forgot to tell you that my brothers have the same age.
Kasun and Theekshana: Oh, now we know your age. How old is Prathibha?

Problem 5
Comment on the solution given below to the following problem:
Let A  (1, 2) and B  (3, 2) . Let P  ( x, y) be a variable point such that the angle APB is a
constant.
If APB  90 , prove that P lies on the circle x  y  4 x  4 y  7  0. What is the
2 2
(i)
locus of P ? Justify your answer.
(GCE AL Examination, August 1998 (New Syllabus). Pure Mathematics II - Question 10 part (i))

A Solution

7 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo

 PM 1004 – Sets and Combinatorics 2018

By the Pythagoras Theorem AP  BP  AB if AP  BP . Therefore,

2 2 2

( x  1) 2  ( y  2) 2  ( x  3) 2  ( y  2) 2  4 .
i.e. x  y  4x  4 y  7  0 .
2 2

 P lies on the circle x 2  y 2  4x  4 y  7  0.

If P coincides with A or B then the angle APB  90 . Let C  {( x, y) | ( x  2)  ( y  2)  1}
2 2

 The locus of P is C  {A, B}.

Example 1
Find all real values of x satisfying the inequality x  2  x .
2

(GCE AL Examination, August 2015. Combined Mathematics I - Question 2)

A Solution
x  2  x 2  x 2  4  4 x 2  x 4 (by squaring as both sides are positive).
But,
4  4 x 2  x 4  x 4  5x 2  4  0
 ( x 2  1)( x 2  4)  0
 x 2  1 or x 2  4
Now, x 2  1  2  x 2  1  x . So x 2  1  x  2  x 2 . But
x 2  4  2  x 2  2  2  x 2  0. So x 2  4 
 x  2 x .
2

Therefore x  2  x 2  x 2  1  1  x  1.
Note: Notice how  and  are used in the solution.

Note 5 In using the conditional in mathematics and related subjects various expressions in the
English language are used for p  q :
q if p , p implies q , p only if q
q is implied by p
whenever p , then q
q whenever p
q unless p
p is sufficient for q
q is necessary for p

Note 6 q is necessary for p does not mean that q cannot be true without p being true. q can be
true without p being true. What it means is that if p is true then q has to be necessarily true.

Example 2
Explain that the necessary and sufficient condition for the roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2  bx  c  0 to be real is b 2  4ac  0.
(Combined Mathematics Teachers’ Instruction Manual Grade 12)
What this says is that the roots of the quadratic equation ax  bx  c  0 are real if and only if
2

b 2  4ac  0.

8 Dr. Chanakya Wijeratne, Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo