Strip foundation

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations. Shallow
foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing
capacity of the surface soils. Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the
surface soils is not adequate to support the loads imposed by a structure and so they need to be
transferred to deeper layers with higher bearing capacity.

Strip foundations (or strip footings) are a type of shallow foundation that are used to provide a continuous,
level (or sometimes stepped) strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or closely-spaced rows
of columns built centrally above them.

Strip foundations can be used for most subsoils, but are most suitable for soil which is of relatively good
bearing capacity. They are particularly suited to light structural loadings such as those found in many low-
 to-medium rise domestic buildings - where mass concrete strip foundations can be used. In other
situations, reinforced concrete may be required.

Older buildings may have brick strip foundations.

Very broadly, the size and position of strip foundations is typically related to the wall’s overall width. The
depth a traditional strip foundation is generally equal to or greater than the overall wall width, and
the foundation width is generally three times the width of the supported wall. This results in the load being
transmitted at 45º from the wall base to the soil.

Typical strip foundation measurements are as follows:

 Single storey building: 450 mm wide and at least 200 mm deep.

 Two storey building: 600 mm wide and 200 mm deep.

Approved document A of Building Regulations defines minimum widths for strip footingsbased on the type
of ground and load-bearing wall, although it is generally advisable to consult a structural engineer when
designing foundations.
The underside of strip foundations should be deep enough to avoid frost action; for example, at least 450
mm unless they are bearing on rock, and at least 1 m on high shrinkage clays.

Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing capacity is deeper.

Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a low bearing capacity, so as to spread
the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will typically require reinforcement.

Where there are higher localised loads, such as columns, pad foundations may be used.

Where ground conditions are poor, settlement is likely, or where it may be impractical to create individual
strip or pad foundations for a large number of individual loads, raft foundations may be used.
 Where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to support the loads imposed by
the structure, deep foundations such as pile foundations may be used.

Larger or more complex buildings may involve the use of a number of different types of foundation.

Additional guidance is available in BRE's Simple foundations for low-rise housing: 'rule of thumb' design.

Types of pad foundation

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Plain concrete
 3 Reinforced concrete
 4 Combined column foundations
 5 Continuous pad
 6 Pad and ground beam
 7 Find out more
 7.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

Introduction

Pad foundations are a form of spread foundation formed by rectangular, square, or sometimes
circular concrete ‘pads’ that support localised single-point loads such as structural columns, groups
of columns or framed structures. This load is then spread by the pad to the bearing layer of soil or rock
below. Pad foundations can also be used to support ground beams.

There are several different types of pad foundation:

Plain concrete
Plain concrete pad foundations that do not use reinforcement are an economical solution but only where
the applied load will be relatively light. These can also be referred to as footings. The general rule is that
the depth of the pad should be equal to the distance from the face of the vertical element to the edge of
the pad on both sides.

Reinforced concrete
The addition of reinforcement allows for relatively wide but shallow pad foundations. In order to make the
reinforcing cage easier to construct and place, the pads tend to be designed as a square plan area.
The reinforced concrete base is designed to span in one direction, with the main bars longitudinal in the
bottom.

Where the width of the base is restricted or where there is eccentric/inclined loading, rectangular pads
can be designed.

Combined column foundations

These are where two pad foundations are combined into a longer one and can be used where the
outer column is close to a site boundary or existing wall. The purpose is that the balancing effect of the
internal column can be incorporated. The plan shape is usually a rectangle.

Continuous pad
 This is where the pad foundations are combined together as a single long structural element. This is often
the case where the pads and the columns they support are closely spaced. By extending
the reinforcement between the pads, differential settlement can be resisted and longitudinal stiffness can
be improved.

Foundations that cover the entire footprint of a building are generally referred to as 'raft foundations'.

Pad and ground beam

This is similar to a continuous pad but differs in that smaller isolated pads are connected by ground
beams. This helps to improve structural rigidity.

Footings in foundations

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.

The term ‘footing’ or ‘footings’ is an ambiguous one that can be interpreted in a number of ways.
 In some cases ‘footings’ is used as a synonym for shallow foundations. Shallow foundationsare typically
used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing capacity of the surface soils.
Here, the most commonly used term is ‘strip footing’ (or footings), referring to a strip foundations, used to
provide a continuous strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall. Approved Document
A of building regulations defines minimum widths for strip footings based on the load of load-bearing
walling they support.

‘Pad footings’ or ‘isolated footings’ refer to rectangular or circular pads used to support
localised loads such as columns. ‘Raft footings’ or ‘raft foundations’ refer to foundation slabs that cover a
wide area, often the entire footprint of a building,

However, the term ‘footings’ is also used sometimes to describe the brickwork or blockworkbetween
the foundation and the damp proof course (DPC) level. In this situation, ‘footings’ maybe constructed
as cavity walls, single skin blockwork or as blocks lain on their side.

Building foundations
 Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Types of shallow foundations
 2.1 Strip foundations (or footings)
 2.2 Pad foundations
 2.3 Raft foundations
 3 Types of deep foundations
 3.1 Piles
 3.2 Mini piles (or micro piles/micropiles)
 
3.3 Pile walls

3.4 Diaphragm walls

3.5 Caissons

3.6 Compensated foundations

3.7 Ground anchors
 4 Find out more
 4.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

Introduction

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics to support them.

There are a very wide range of foundation types suitable for different applications, depending on
considerations such as:

 The nature of the load requiring support.

 Ground conditions.
 The presence of water.
 Space availability.
 Accessibility.
 Sensitivity to noise and vibration.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations.

 Shallow foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the
bearing capacity of the surface soils.
 Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to
support the loads imposed by a structure and so those loads need to be transferred to deeper layers
with higher bearing capacity.

Compensated foundation

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Compensated raft foundations
  3 Compensated piled raft foundations
 4 Find out more
 4.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

Introduction

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics to support them.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow or deep:

 Shallow foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the
bearing capacity of the surface soils.
 Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not sufficient to
support the loads imposed by a structure and so those loads need to be transferred to deeper layers
with higher bearing capacity.

Compensated foundations are a type of deep foundation, which work on the principle that if the weight of
material excavated equals the weight of the building added, the soil is subjected to no additional stresses.
They are also known as ‘floating foundations’ as the structure acts in a similar way to a ship’s hull.

The relief of stress due to the excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress of
the foundation, resulting in a negligible net stress. As a result there may be
little consolidationsettlement experienced.

Compensated foundations normally comprise a deep basement and/or are used to support tall buildings
or swimming pools, where a very large amount of material is excavated.

In addition to the control or elimination of settlement in the soil, other advantages include:

 A simple construction process with minimal impact on adjacent structures.

 They can be integrated with other foundations in more complex situations, such as piling.
 They can contribute to protection from rising damp, thermal insulation, drainage, and so on.

Compensated raft foundations

Where soil is compressible, the a raft foundation may be formed as a compensated foundation. In this
case, the raft slab is provided to a depth that the weight of the excavated soil is equal to the raft slab
weight plus that of the structure to be supported. This can be appropriate when constructing buildings on
soft clay or loose sand, as settlement can be significantly reduced.
 Compensated piled raft foundations

Compensated piled raft foundations are typically used where the soil provides only modest bearing
capacity, meaning that piles are necessary to carry some of the load. This can necessary, for example, in
the case of soft clay, which may undergo settlement due to reclamation filling or dewatering processes,
during which the soil may settle away from the raft base.

Stepped foundation

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.

Strip foundations (or strip footings) are a type of shallow foundation used to provide a continuous, level
(or sometimes stepped) strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or closely-spaced rows
of columns built centrally above them.
 Where the natural surface of the ground is sloped, the most economical solution may be a stepped
foundation. In this case, the foundation takes the form of a series of concretehorizontal steps following the
slope of the ground.

This helps to minimise the amount of excavation and below-ground wall construction that would otherwise
be required. Stepped foundations can also be used to transition from deep foundations to shallow
foundations, and at corners and intersections.

Regularly stepping foundations also avoids abrupt and excessive changes in level that could cause a
weakness resulting in movement. Similarly, abrupt and excessive changes in foundation depths should
be avoided at corners and intersections by the introduction of stepping.

Each step in the foundation should be no higher than the thickness of the foundation. The foundation at
the higher level should also overlap the lower foundation, typically by at least twice the height of the step,
or by the thickness of the foundation, or by at least 300 mm (whichever is greatest).

Drainage must be carefully designed to eliminate the danger of instability due to accumulating water
pressure.

Trench fill foundation

Trench fill foundations are a type of shallow foundation that avoids bricklaying below ground by instead
almost completely filling the trench excavation with concrete. Typically, concrete is poured to within 150
mm of the surface ground level. This type of foundation minimises the excavation required,
as bricklayers are not required to access the trench to lay bricks or blocks. It can also help to reduce the
width of the foundation where below ground brickwork would require a wider footing.
 Trench fill is often used when soil is loose or in areas with a high water table, although in loose ground it
can be difficult to predict the quantity of concrete required, and the quantity can be quite high if trenches
meet or cross at right angles.

By getting ‘out of the ground’ relatively quickly, trench fill foundations can save on labour, time
and temporary works.

Trench fill foundations can be taken deeper in areas with heavy clay or in the presence of trees, to a level
where the subsoil moisture content is unaffected. In these situations, mesh reinforcement is often
required. In addition, one or both trench faces may need to be lined with a compressible batt. This can
also mitigate against the tendency in some situations for the trench strips to pick up longitudinal or lateral
ground strains which may occur in the strata immediately around the foundation.

Another issue to consider is that the height of the concrete can create access problems for drainage and
other services, as well as issues with landscaping and planting.

A variation on the trench fill foundation is the Rubble trench foundation.

Types of excavation
 Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Material types
 2.1 Topsoil excavation
 2.2 Earth excavation
 2.3 Rock excavation
 2.4 Muck excavation
 2.5 Unclassified excavation
 3 Excavation purpose
 3.1 Cut and fill excavation
 3.2 Trench excavation
 3.3 Basement excavation
 3.4 Road excavation
 3.5 Bridge excavation
 3.6 Dredging
 4 Excavation support
 5 Find out more
 5.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
 5.2 External resources

Introduction

In construction terms, excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground.
On small sites or in confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual means using tools such
as picks, shovels and wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such
as bulldozers and backactors. For more information, see Excavating plant.

Material types

A common method of classification is by the material being excavated:

Topsoil excavation

This involves the removal of the exposed layer of the earth’s surface, including any vegetation or
decaying matter which could make the soil compressible and therefore unsuitable for bearing
structural loads. The depth will vary from site to site, but is usually in a range of 150-300 mm.

Earth excavation

This involves the removal of the layer of soil directly beneath the topsoil. The removed material (referred
to as 'spoil') is often stockpiled and used to construct embankments and foundations.

Rock excavation

This is the removal of material that cannot be excavated without using special excavationmethods such
as drilling (by hand or with heavy machinery) or blasting with explosives.

Muck excavation

This is the removal of excessively wet material and soil that is unsuitable for stockpiling.

Unclassified excavation

This is the removal of a combination of the above materials, such as where it is difficult to distinguish
between the materials encountered.

Excavation purpose

Excavation can also be classified according to the purpose of the work:

Cut and fill excavation

 This is the process of excavation whereby the material that is cut or stripped. The removed topsoil and
earth can be used as fill for embankments, elevated sections, and so on. It can also be used to form a
level surface on which to build, as elevated sections of the site are ‘cut’ and moved to ‘fill’ lower sections
of the site.

Trench excavation

A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow trenches are usually
considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches greater than 6 m.

Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations, buried services, and so on. The
choice of technique and plant for excavating, supporting and backfilling the trench depends on factors
such as; the purpose of the trench, the ground conditions, the trench location, the number of obstructions,
and so on.

The common techniques that are used include:

 Full depth, full length: Suitable for long narrow trenches of shallow depth, such as pipelinesand sewers.
 Full depth, successive stages: Suitable for deep trenches where works can progress in sequence,
reducing the risk of collapse.
 Stage depth, successive stages: Suitable for very deep trenches in confined areas, deep
foundations and underpinning.

Basement excavation

A basement is part of a building that is either partially or completely below ground level. For more
information, see Basement excavation.

Road excavation

This typically involves stripping topsoil and cut-and-fill. For more information, see Road construction.

Bridge excavation

This typically involves the removal of material for the footing and abutments of bridges. The work may be
subdivided into wet, dry and rock excavation. Underwater excavations may require special methods
of drill and blast. For more information, see Bridge construction.

Dredging

Dredging is the process of excavating and removing sediments and debris from below water level,
typically from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbours, and so on. For more information, see Dredging.
 Excavation support

Materials have different stability characteristics during excavation works. The ‘angle of repose’ of the
material describes the steepest angle at which it will remain stable without support. The exact angle of
repose will depend on the presence of groundwater, but some typical angles are:

 Drained clay: 45-degrees.

 Wet clay: 16-degrees.
 Gravel and dry sand: 40-degrees.
 Wet sand: 22-degrees.

The type and extent of temporary support that is required will depend on the following factors:

 The stability and angle of repose of the subsoil.

 The proximity of the excavation to vehicles, services and buildings.
 The level of the water table.
 The type/s of subsoil.
 The depth of the excavation.
 The length of time the excavation will be left open.
 The time of year and weather conditions.

The types of support that can be used include:

 Timber supports: Commonly used for low risk, narrow trenches, shafts or headings.
 Trench boxes: Can be placed in pre-excavated trenches in low-risk situations.
 Trench sheets: Can be overlapping or interlocking, and are used to provide continuous support for
deeper trenches.
 Ground anchors and rock bolting.
 Caissons.
 Cofferdams.

Pad foundation

See also: How to design a pad foundation.

See also: Types of pad foundation.

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics. They can be used to help to
prevent settlement and other movements of structures and can permit construction on ground that might
otherwise have insufficient bearing capacity.
 There are a very wide range of foundation types suitable for different applications, depending on
considerations such as:

 The nature of the load requiring support.

 Ground conditions.
 The presence of water.
 Accessibility.
 Sensitivity to noise and vibration.
 Proximity to other structures.
 Project timeframes.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations. Shallow
foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing
capacity of the surface soils. Deep foundations (more than 3m from the surface) may be necessary where
the bearing capacity of the surface soils is insufficient to support loads imposed.

Pad foundations are generally shallow foundations, but can be deep depending on the ground conditions.
They are a form of spread foundation formed by rectangular, square, or sometimes
circular concrete ‘pads’ that support localised single-point loads such as structural columns, groups
of columns or framed structures. This load is then spread by the pad to the bearing layer of soil or rock
below. Pad foundations can also be used to support ground beams.

They are generally of a uniform thickness, but sometimes the upper face may be sloped or stepped. Their
plan shape will depend on the nature of the applied load and the allowable bearing capacity of the layers
below. Their thickness must be sufficient to distribute the load across the plan shape. They are generally
 reinforced on all but the smallest structures, with the reinforcement allowing higher loads to be imposed
and the construction of shallower pads which require less excavation and use less concrete.

The arrangement of pad foundations will vary depending on the nature of the structure they are
supporting, the loads imposed, the allowable bearing capacity of the layers below and the space available
on site. They may be:

 A series of discrete, well-separated pads.

 Balanced base pads that support more than one point load.
 Continuous pads, where there are a number of point loads close together.
 Pad and beam, where a series of pads support a continuous beam.

Pad foundations can be selected as they do not require much excavation, and are generally suitable
where the bearing capacity of ground is sufficient at relatively low depths. However, they can be large in
plan shape and may not be effective against differential settlement, uplift forces or wind forces.

How to design a pad foundation

For a general introduction, see Pad foundation.

For different types, see Types of pad foundation.

Pad foundations are a form of spread foundation formed by rectangular, square, or sometimes
circular concrete ‘pads’ that support localised single-point loads such as structural columns, groups
of columns or framed structures. This load is then spread by the pad to the bearing layer of soil or rock
below. Pad foundations can also be used to support ground beams.

A pad foundation should be designed to effectively spread a concentrated force into a bearing stratum.
They are a popular design solution as they are generally cost-effective and are relatively easy to design
and construct, and are suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas.

In order for pad foundations to spread the load into the soil, the pad must be either sufficiently deep
(allowing the force of the load to spread out at a pre-defined angle), or be constructed with
adequate reinforcement. The soil’s bearing capacity, as well as the concrete’s strength, are the factors
that define the angle of the load’s spread.

The type of skeletal frame will determine the pad foundation design. For example, a cast
insitu concrete column will require a kicker and continuity bars to be cast into the pad. Steel frame, timber
frame or precast concrete framed structures will require holding-down bolts to be cast into the top of the
pad or sockets to be formed.

The following table should be referred to when determining the spread of force within an
unreinforced concrete pad.

Depth/projection ratios for unreinforced footings:

Unfactored ground pressure (kN/m²)

a/hf

a = the projection from the face of the column

hf = the depth of the footing

C20/25

C25/30

C30/37

C35/45

≤200
1.2

1.1

1.1

1.0

300

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

400

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4

(Ref. Manual for the design of concrete structures to Eurocode 2.)

For low-rise buildings, it is generally recommended to limit the overall depth of a pad foundation to 1 m
from ground level. When designing the pad, care should be taken to ensure that it is large enough to
prevent tension within the concrete, which could result in cracking and failure.

Reinforced concrete pads should be designed so that the depth is sufficient to resist a shear force known
as ‘punching shear’. This can develop around the perimeter of the column, wall or other
vertical component that the pad is supporting. Bending can also occur as the pad footingspreads the load
onto the stratum.

To resist bending moments, the pad footing should be designed so that the force is applied within the
middle third of the base. This is known as the ‘middle third rule’ – a design practice that means the size of
 the foundation is defined according to the resultant force’s centralisation. There is an equation that
defines the distribution of compression stress across the pad foundation:

Where:

 p = compressive stress in the soil under the pad foundation.

 P = applied axial load, including the self-weight of the footing.
 B = width of the pad foundation.
 L = length of the pad foundation.
 e = eccentricity of the applied axial load taken at the centre of the bearing.

Uplift can occur if the applied force lies outside the middle third of the base. What this means is that
where the applied forces are greater than, and acting in the opposite direction to, the self-weight of the
pad, it can cause the pad to lift. The equation for calculating the value of the applied bearing stress on
the soil is as follows:

 y = distance from the line of action.

 P = nearest edge of the pad footing. This is defined as L/2 - e.

Biaxial bending moments can also be applied to pad foundations. For more information, see Biaxial
bending. The equation used to calculate the bearing stress in the soil is as follows:

Where:

 Mx = applied bending moment in the major axis.

 Zx = elastic modulus of the pad foundation in its major axis in plan.
 My = applied bending moment in the minor axis.
 Zy = elastic modulus of the pad foundation in its minor axis in plan.

Depending on the loads, either welded steel fabric or reinforcing bars will be necessary, and arranged in
both directions.
 It is common to approach the design of the pad as though it were an inverted cantileversupported by
the column and carrying the pressure of the soil.

The reinforcement must be designed to be capable of resisting the bending stress, and is similar to that
of floor slabs.

Pile foundations

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 1.1 Pile classifications
 2 Driven piles
 3 Bored piles
 4 Screw piles
 5 Micropiles
 6 Pile walls
 7 Geothermal piles
 8 Piling equipment
 9 Pile caps and beams
 10 Testing piles
 11 Find out more
 11.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
 11.2 External references

Introduction

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics. There are a very wide range
of foundation types available, suitable for different applications, depending on considerations, such as:

 The nature of the load requiring support.

 Ground conditions.
 The presence of water.
 Durability of the materials.
 Cost.
 Accessibility.
 Sensitivity to noise and vibration.
 Proximity to other structures.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations. Shallow
foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing
capacity of the surface soils. Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the
surface soils is insufficient to support loads imposed and so they are transferred to deeper layers with
higher bearing capacity.

Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements typically
made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is described as 'piled' when its
depth is more than three times its breadth (Atkinson, 2007).

Pile foundations are principally used to transfer the loads from superstructures, through weak,
compressible strata or water onto stronger, more compact, less compressible and stiffer soil or rock at
depth, increasing the effective size of a foundation and resisting horizontal loads. They are typically used
for large structures, and in situations where soil is not suitable to prevent excessive settlement.
Pile classifications

Piles may be classified by their basic design function (end-bearing, friction or a combination) or by their
method of construction (displacement (driven) or replacement (bored)).

End-bearing piles develop most of their friction at the toe of the pile, bearing on a hard layer. The pile
transmits load direct to firm strata, and also receives lateral restraint from subsoil.

Friction (or floating) piles develop most of the pile-bearing capacity by shear stresses along the sides of
the pile, and are suitable where harder layers are too deep. The pile transmits the load to
 surrounding soil by friction between the surface of the pile and soil, which in effect lowers the bulb of
pressure.

Driven piles

Driven (or displacement) piles are driven, jacked, vibrated or screwed into the ground, displacing the
material around the pile shaft outwards and downwards instead of removing it.

Driven piles are useful in offshore applications, are stable in soft squeezing soils and can densify
loose soil.

There are two groups of driven piles:

 Driven in situ: Either with a permanent concrete or steel casing, or with temporary casing.
 Preformed: Prefabricated off-site from timber, concrete or steel.

For more information, see Driven piles.

Bored piles

Bored (or replacement) piles remove spoil to form a hole for the pile which is poured in situ. They are
used primarily in cohesive subsoils for the formation of friction piles and when forming pile
foundations close to existing buildings.

Bored piles are more popular in urban areas as there is minimal vibration, they can be used where
headroom is limited, there is no risk of heave and where it may be necessary to vary their length.

For more information, see Bored piles.

If the boring and pouring takes place simultaneously, piles are called continuous flight auger(CFA) piles.

Screw piles

Screw piles have a helix near the pile toe so they can be screwed into the ground. The process and
concept is similar to screwing into wood.

For more information, see Screw pile foundations.

Micropiles
 Micropiles (or mini piles) are used where access is restricted, for example underpinningstructures affected
by settlement. They can be driven or screwed into place.

For more information, see Micropiles.

Pile walls

Pile walls can be used to create permanent or temporary retaining walls. They are formed by
placing piles directly adjacent to one another. These can be closely-spaced contiguous pile walls or
interlocking secant pile walls; which depending on the composition of the secondary
intermediate piles can be hard/soft, hard/firm or hard/hard secant walls.

For more information, see Sheet piles and Secant pile wall.

Geothermal piles

Geothermal piles combine pile foundations with closed-loop ground source heat pumpsystems. They
provide support to a structure, as well as acting as a heat source and a heat sink.

In effect, the thermal mass of the ground enables the building to store unwanted heat from cooling
systems and allows heat pumps to warm the building in winter. Generally, ground source heat
pumps extract heat from the ground by way of underground pipes which are laid either horizontally or
vertically in the ground. In geothermal piles, the pipe loops are laid vertically, within the piles themselves.

For more information, see Geothermal pile foundations.

Piling equipment

A wide range of equipment is available for piling, including:

 Percussion drivers: Hammers driven by steam, compressed air or diesel.

 Hydraulic drivers: Hydraulic rams push piles into the ground.
 Vibratory drivers: Piles are vibrated into the ground.
 Rotary augers: Used to screw replacement piles into the ground.

For more information, see Piling equipment.

Pile caps and beams

 Piles can be used individually to support loads or grouped and linked together with a reinforced
concrete cap. As it is very difficult to bore or drive piles exactly vertical, the pile cap should be able to
accommodate some deviation in the final position of the pile heads. The pile cap should overhang the
outer piles, typically by a distance of 100-150 mm on all sides, depending on the size of the pile.

Pile caps can also be linked together with reinforced concrete ground beams. At least three is
capped piles are needed to ensure stability against lateral forces (with the exception of caissonpiles).
Capping beams are also suitable for distributing the weight of a load-bearing wall, or of close-
centred columns to a line of piles. Piles may be staggered in the beam to allow for any eccentricities that
may occur in loaded conditions.

The capping beam should be kept clear of the ground where the purpose of the piles is to overcome the
problem of the subsoil swell and shrinkage. This can be done by casting the
capping beam on polystyrene or other compressive material, thereby allowing an upward ground
movement without damage to the beam.

Testing piles

It is advisable to test load at least one pile per scheme by forming a trial pile that is in close proximity but
does not form part of the actual foundations. The pile should be overloaded by at least 50% of its working
load and held for 24 hours. This provides a check on the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile as well as
the workmanship involved in forming the pile.

Raft foundation

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations. Shallow
foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the bearing
capacity of the surface soils.

Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to
support the loads imposed by a structure and so those loads need to be transferred to deeper layers with
higher bearing capacity.

Shallow foundations include:

 Strip foundations (or footings).
 Pad foundations.
 Raft foundation.

Raft foundations (sometimes referred to as mat foundations) are formed by reinforced concreteslabs of
uniform thickness (typically 150 mm to 300 mm) that cover a wide area, often the entire footprint of a
building. They spread the load imposed by a number of columns or wallsover the area of foundation, and
can be considered to ‘float’ on the ground as a raft floats on water.

They are suitable where:

 Floor areas are small and structural loadings are low, such as in one or tw0-
storey domestic construction.
 A basement is required.
 Ground conditions are poor and strip or pad foundations would require significant excavation, for
example on soft clay, alluvial deposits, compressible fill, and so on.
 Settlement, or differential settlement is likely.
 Where it may be impractical to create individual strip or pad foundations for a large number of
individual loads. In very general terms, if strip or pad foundations would cover 50% or more of the floor
area, then a raft may be more appropriate.

Raft foundations can be fast and inexpensive to construct, as they tend not to require
deep excavations compared to strip or pad foundations and they may use less material as they combine
the foundation with the ground slab. However, they tend to be less effective where structural loads are
focussed on in a few concentrated areas, and they can be prone to erosion at their edges.

They are generally constructed on a compacted hardcore base (perhaps 100 mm thick). A layer
of blinding concrete may then be laid to allow formation of the raft (typically 50mm) with a waterproof
membrane above.

The concrete raft tends to include steel reinforcement to prevent cracking, and may incorporate beams or
thickened areas to provide additional support for specific loads, for example, below
internal walls or columns. Typically, a thickened reinforced area is created at the perimeter of the raft to
form an edge beam supporting the external walls of the building. A concrete toe often supports the
external leaf of the wall.

Insulation will generally be laid on top of the raft, with a concrete floor, or raised floor above.

Drainage may be required in some circumstances under raft foundations, an geotextile barriers may be
required to prevent free-draining materials from becoming clogged up by the surrounding soil.

Types of raft foundation include:

 Solid slab raft (flat raft mat, wide toe raft, slip plane raft).
 Blanket raft.
 Slab beam raft.
 Cellular type raft.
 Piled raft foundation.

For more information see: Types of raft foundation.

Find out more

See full history

Vibro-compaction for ground improvement

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Technique
 3 Find out more
 3.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
 3.2 External references

Introduction
 Vibro-compaction is a ground improvement technique that can be used to transfer structural loads to
suitable levels in poor ground conditions. The effect of vibration consolidates and strengthens the
ground, helping to compact non-cohesive soils such as sand that would otherwise be unsuitable for
construction. Since cohesive soils don’t respond to vibration, this process is not suitable for
those ground conditions.

It can be a cost-effective alternative to piled foundations and grouting and can be used
for structures such as buildings, embankments, dams, tanks, towers and so on. However, the site must
be large enough to accommodate and justify the plant that is required. By consolidating loose sands
before construction of raft foundations, this method may be more economical than piling.

Another similar method is vibro-replacement.

Technique

Vibro-compaction works by using a vibrator suspended from a crane to penetrate to the design depth.
Water jetting is often used to aid penetration. The energy of the vibrations reduces the forces acting
between the soil particles which allows them to become denser.

Once the depth has been achieved, the water pressure (if jets are used) is reduced and sand infill
poured in from ground level around the vibrator, compacting at the base. As more infill is added and
compacted the vibrator is gradually removed until the infill has been built up to ground level.

Vibro-compaction can be used in loose soils of up to 29 metres in depth, and enable shallow
foundations to be built with bearing pressures of up to 500 kN/m2.

Vibro-replacement

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Technique
 2.1 Dry process
 2.2 Wet process
 3 Find out more
 3.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
  3.2 External references

Introduction

Vibro-replacement is a ground improvement technique that can be used to transfer structural loads to
suitable levels in poor ground conditions. Another term that can be used for this technique is vibro stone
columns (VSC).

The effect of vibration consolidates and strengthens the ground, helping to stabilise granular soils that
would otherwise be unsuitable for construction.

It can be a cost-effective alternate method to piled foundations and grouting that can be used
for structures such as buildings, embankments, dams, tanks and towers. However, the site must be large
enough to accommodate and justify the plant that is required.

The amount of stone fill material must be carefully calculated to ensure that the process does not become
uneconomical compared with conventional piles which also have the advantage of having higher bearing
capacities.

Another similar method is vibro-compaction.

Technique

Vibro-replacement works by using a crane-suspended downhole vibrator to construct

stone columns through weak soils, improving their load-bearing and settlement capacities. The vibrator is
usually up to 4 metres long, although sometimes it may be necessary, if strata are particularly dense, to
pre-drill down to the design depth. There are two processes that can be used:

Dry process

Weak soil is penetrated to the desired depth and stone used to fill the cavity through a feed pipe attached
to the vibrator. The vibrator is then used to compact the stone and ensure it interlocks tightly with the
surrounding ground. Successive charges of stone are added and compacted to form a column that is built
up to ground level.

Wet process
 Weak soil is penetrated to the design depth by means of the vibrations as well as water jetting from the
vibrator’s tip. The stone backfill is then inserted as the vibrator is removed and then used to compact the
stone. A water supply of 10,000-12,000 litres per rig hour is usually required for this method.

Both processes can be aided by computers on-board the rigs that monitor specific parameters, allowing
operators to respond quickly to any deviations that may occur.

ension piles

Foundations provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or rock that have
sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics.

Very broadly, foundations can be categorised as shallow foundations or deep foundations:

 Shallow foundations are typically used where the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to the
bearing capacity of the surface soils.
 Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing capacity of the surface soils is insufficient to
support loads imposed and so they are transferred to deeper layers with higher bearing capacity.

Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements typically
made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is described as 'piled' when its
depth is more than three times its breadth.

Pile foundations are principally used to transfer compressive loads from a building's superstructures,
through weak, compressible strata or water onto stronger layers of soil or rock at depth.

Tension piles, also known as uplift piles or anchor piles, are a type of pile foundation that is used to resist
uplift forces that might otherwise cause it to be extracted from the ground.

Uplift forces can develop as a result of hydrostatic pressure, seismic activity or overturning moments. In
particular, tall structures such as chimneys, jetties and transmission towers can be subject to high
wind loads and hence, overturning moments. The compressive and tensile forces generated must be
transmitted to the ground along the length of the pile.

Tension piles resist uplift forces through the action of friction along their length, by under-reaming (that is
enlarging the end of the pile), by the action of helical bearing plates welded to the pile shaft, or
by bonding the pile into rock.

Tension piles may also be used to resist the horizontal forces from sheet piling walls. See also: Ground
anchors.
Sheet piles

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Timber sheet piles
 3 Reinforced concrete sheet piles
 4 Steel sheet piles
 4.1 Normal sections
 4.2 Straight web sections
 4.3 Box sections
 4.4 Composite sections
 5 Installation
 6 Find out more
 6.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

Introduction

Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials with interlocking edges that are driven into the ground to
provide earth retention and excavation support. Sheet piles are most commonly made of steel, but can
also be formed of timber or reinforced concrete.

Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground structuressuch as car
parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection, seawalls, cofferdams, and so on.
 The selection of sheet piling is dependent on factors, such as:

 The type of work, for example. whether it is permanent or temporary.

 Site conditions.
 The required depth of piles.
 The bending moments involved.
 The nature of the structure.
 The type of protection required.

Timber sheet piles

Timber sheet piles are generally used for short spans in temporary structures, and to resist light
lateral loads. They are typically connected together by tongue and groove joints. The disadvantage
of timber piles is that they require preservative treatment and are not generally suitable
for soils consisting of stones.

Reinforced concrete sheet piles

Reinforced concrete sheet piles are formed using precast concrete members, usually connected together
by tongue and groove joints. They are commonly used in permanent river embankments, canals and
other marine structures. The toes of the piles are usually cut with an oblique face to facilitate easy driving
and interlocking, while the heads are finished off by casting a capping beam.

Steel sheet piles

Steel is the most common form of sheet piles as it has good resistance to high driving stresses, excellent
water-tightness, and can be increased in length either by welding or bolting. They are connected by
interlocking.

There are four basic forms of steel sheet piles:

Normal sections

These include Larssen and Frodingham sheet piles, which are systems of interlocking steelpiles. They
have good driving qualities and are designed to provide the good strength for low weight.

The interlocking system facilitates easy positioning of the piles (pitching) and driving, as well as providing
a close-fitting joint to form an effective water seal. In some cases, a sealant can be brushed into the joints
prior to pitching which expands in thickness to form a watertight joint.
Larssen sheet piles are stronger and easier to drive because of their uniform section shape.
Frodingham sheet piles are usually supplied interlocked in pairs, which makes them easier and quicker to
handle and pitch.

Straight web sections

These are piles that are interlocked and driven to form cellular cofferdams which may be filled with
material such as gravel and small rocks.

Box sections

These are formed by two or more sheet pile sections welded together, and are suitable when
heavy loads and high bending moments are anticipated.

Composite sections

These are commonly used in waterfront protection where large bending moments and heavy
axial loads are anticipated. A typical composite pile is a double Frodingham section welded to
the flange of a universal I-beam.

Installation

Prior to installation, piles should be carefully inspected for straightness, cracks and the integrity of the
interlocking components.

Driving must be carefully monitored and should stop immediately if the pile ceases to penetrate the soil,
before moving on to the next pile along. In some cases, several adjacent piles will be unable to penetrate
to the design depth. At this point, effort should be made to remove the obstacle, either by
partial excavation or using a water jet. There is an acceptable number of ‘under-driven’ sheet piles, but
this will vary according to the specific design requirements.

Sheet piles have a tendency to deviate from a vertical plane during driving and instead lean sideways.
This is due to encountering obstacles within the soil which act as deflection. Guide controls should be
used to counter this.

One technique is to drive piles in panels. This involves pitching and driving two piles to part or full-
penetration at either end of a panel of piles. The panel is therefore supported by the
‘bookended’ piles during driving to their final position. The pair left on the end then forms the support of
the next panel along.

Another technique is to use trestles and walings to support and position sheet piles during driving.
 Vibratory hammers are often used to install sheet piles, although if soils are too hard or dense, an impact
hammer can be used. At certain sites where vibrations are a concern, the sheets can be hydraulically
pushed into the ground.

Retaining walls

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction
 2 Earth pressure
 3 Hydrostatic pressure
 4 Types of retaining wall
 4.1 Gravity retaining wall
 4.2 Sheet piling wall
 4.3 Reinforced retaining wall
 4.4 Mechanical stabilisation
 4.5 Anchored earth walls
 4.6 Gabions
 4.7 Crib walls
 4.8 Green retaining walls
 5 Find out more
 5.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
 5.2 External references

Introduction
 Retaining walls are vertical or near-vertical structures designed to retain material on one side, preventing
it from collapsing or slipping or preventing erosion. They provide support to terrain where the soil’s angle
of repose is exceeded and it would otherwise collapse into a more natural form. The principal
characteristic of a retaining wall is being able to withstand the pressure exerted by the retained material,
which is usually soil.

Retaining walls may include a parapet that extends above the height of the retained material, often for
safety reasons.

The main uses of retaining walls are to help prevent soil erosion, create usable beds out of steep terrain
and to provide decorative or functional landscaping features. They may be independent structures, or
may be part of a wider construction works, such as a building.

Planning permission is required if the wall is to be over 1-metre high and next to a road or pathway; or
over 2-metres high elsewhere. Independent, freestanding retaining walls may not require building
regulation approval; however, any structures must be structurally sound and well maintained.

According to the Deputy Director of the Building Regulations and Standards Division at DCLG, “Where
they consider that a building or structure, or part of it, is in such a state or is used to carry such loads as
to be dangerous, local authorities have powers under sections 77 and 78 of the Building Act 1984 to take
action to remove danger to the public. The exercise of such action may be appropriate for freestanding
boundary and retaining walls that present a danger.” Ref Construction and maintenance of boundary and
retaining walls, 13 May 2013.

Where a retaining wall is near to a boundary, it may be subject to the provisions of the Party Wall Act, and
may be required to continue a right of support.

Earth pressure

There are three types of earth pressure that bear upon the movement of the wall, that were investigated
by Terzaghi in 1929:

 Earth pressure at rest: This applies when the wall is at rest and the material is in its natural state.
 Active earth pressure: As the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the pressure on
the wall which continues until reaching a minimum value that then remains constant.
 Passive earth pressure: As the wall moves towards the backfill, there is an increase in the pressure on
the wall which continues until reaching a maximum value that then remains constant.

Hydrostatic pressure
Water can also build up behind retaining walls, increasing the pressure on them, and so they may
include weep holes or some other form of drainage. Accumulating water can also reduce the stability of
retained soil, and the friction between the retaining wall base and the soilbeneath it.

Types of retaining wall

Very broadly, retaining walls are ‘cut’ walls, in which the wall is cut into the existing slope, and ‘fill’ walls in
which the retaining wall is built in front of the slope, and then the space behind It is filled.

There a wide variety of types of retaining wall:

Gravity retaining wall

This type of wall depends on its mass to retain the material behind it and remain stable.
Stone, concrete and brick masonry are the most common materials used in this type of wall construction.
To maintain stability, the mass and friction of the interlocking wall materials must be greater than the force
of the material being retained. Gravity walls might be suitable for heights of up to 2 to 3m

To better resisting pressure gravity retaining walls may have a ‘battered’ profile, (that is one face is
sloping so that the wall is thicker at the bottom than the top. Either the face or the back of the wall may be
battered. Very broadly, the base should be half to three-quarters of the wall’s height.

Sheet piling wall

This type of wall can be made of timber, interlocking steel or vinyl panels, that have been driven into the
ground up to the required depth and fixed in place by soil on either side at the base. These are most
commonly used where the soil is soft and the space available is restricted. As a general rule, there is
usually 1/3 of the pile above ground and 2/3 below ground. The piles must resist the bending forces
induced by the retained material.

Concrete pile walls can be used to create permanent or temporary retaining walls. They are formed by
placing piles directly adjacent to one another. These can be; closely-spaced contiguous pile walls, or
interlocking secant walls, which depending on the composition of the secondary intermediate piles can be
hard/soft, hard/firm or hard/hard secant walls.

Reinforced retaining wall

The stability of reinforced concrete and masonry walls can be increased by reinforcement bars.

Cantilever retaining walls, made of steel-reinforced or cast-in-place concrete, are connected to a

slab foundation (in the shape of an inverted ‘T’ or ‘L’) which allows horizontal pressures from behind the
wall to be converted to vertical pressures on the ground below.

Counterfort buttresses, spaced at equal distances along the wall can be used to create the structural path
between the vertical wall and the horizontal base. These are typically used for walls with heights greater
than 8-12 m.

Mechanical stabilisation

Mechnically stabilised earth (MSE) walls are walls that can tolerate some differential movement. The wall
face is infilled with granular soil whilst retaining the backfill soil. The advantage of MSE walls is the ease
of construction, as they do not require formwork or curing.

The use of soil nailing in MSE walls, involves introducing slender steel reinforcing bars to the soil, placed
parallel to one another on a slight incline and grouted into place.

Anchored earth walls

Anchored earth walls include cables or rods anchored in the rock or soil behind the wall. Concrete is
injected at the end of the rod to bind it into the soil. This method can be used where high loads are to be
expected.

Gabions
Gabions are cages, baskets or boxes typically made of wire, filled with earth, sand, crushed rock and so
on. They may be woven, or welded. As they are free-draining retaining structuresthey are frequently used
where water will be present, such as along coastal roads and as flood defences.

Crib walls

Where timber, steel or concrete cages or boxes are interlocking, this may be described as a crib wall.

Green retaining walls

Green retaining walls can be used to retain more gentle slopes. A geocellular structure such as a series
of ‘honeycomb’ cells can be embedded into the surface of the slope to stabilise it, and the individual cells
can then be planted.