Vozoff 1972 Geophysics PDF

THE MAGNETOTELLURIC
THE MAGNETOTELLURIC METHOD

METHOD IN THE
IN THE EXPLORATION
EXPLORATION
OF SEDIMENTARY BASINSt
OF SEDIMENTARY BASlNSt
KEEVA VOZOFF*
The
The paper
paper describes
describes the theory
theory of of the magneto-
magneto- homa.
homa. \Vide
Divide station
station spacings
spacings were
were used, such ,t' a>
telluric
telluric (MT)
(MT) method,
method, and and some
some of of the experi-
experi- might typify
might typify basin
basin evaluations.
evaluations. The The South
South Texas
Texas
mental,
mental, analytical,
analytical, and
and interpretive
interpretive techniques
techniques results
results arcarc compared
compared directly
directly with
with smoothed
smoothetl
developed
developed for its use use in petroleum
petroleum exploration
exploration in induction
induction logs. I\ No0 useable
useable logs could
could be found
found forfor
the past
past five
five years.
years. Particular
Particular emphasis
emphasis is is placed
placed Oklahoma.
Oklahoma. Comparisons
Comparisons \\'ith
\rith known
knolvn and and in-in-
on interpretation,
interpretation, since it isis the area
area least
least amen-
amen- ferred
ferred geology
geology sho\\'
sho\r- that
that thethe surveys
surveys mapped
mapped
able
able to routine
routine treatment.
treatment. \rhereas
whereas present
present inter-
inter- resistivity
resistivity successfully
successfully in the the knO\\"n
known parts
parts oi
0i
pretation
pretation techniques
techniques are adequate,
adequate, interpretation
interpretation these basins
basins as well \vcll as in Jlortions
portions inaccessible
inaccessible
is
is the area
area of both
both the greatest
greatest progress
progress andand the seismically.
seismically.
greatest
greatest need for improvement.
improvement. The
The capabilities
capabilities and
and economics
economics oi 0i the
the :\IT
11’1’
Field
Field results
results are presented
presented from from traverses
traverses in method
method justify
justiiy its
its consideration
consitleration for
for e\'aluating
evaluating
South Texas
South Texas bordering
bordering on the Guli Guli of :\Iexico,
Mexico, large
large unexplored
unexplored blocks blocks and
and "no“no record"
record” areas.
areas.
and the Anadarko
1nadarko BasinHasin of southwestern
southwestern Okla-
Okla-
NOTATION
NOTATION 86 Skin depth, meters
Skin depth, meters
.r, }" z Coordinate
Coordinate axes. Positive
l’ositivc north,
north, cast,
cast, PO .'\pparent
Po Apparent resistivity, ohm-m
resistivity, ohm-m
and down.
and down. Z,)
Zf, Impedance
Impedance tensor element
tensor relating E,
element relating Ei
j Current
Current density,
density, amperes.'square
amperes ‘square meter meter H), ohms
to Hj, ohms
T' Potential
Potential difference,
difference, volts
volts Zi’J 7- i ) after
Z,.') %2j after rotation
rotation through e
through 0 (in
(in principal
principal
I Current,
Current, amperes
amperes axes)
axes)
Resistance, ohms
R Resistance, ohms P7j
Pi) .'\pparent
Apparent resistivity corresponding
resistivity corresponding to to
f Frequency,
Frequency, hertzhertz (hz)
(hz) Z'j
zfj
Angular frequency
w Angular frequency = 27y[,271/, radians,
radians.'‘ssec-
ec- eo Direction
00 Direction of E for for largest
largest apparent
apparent
ond
0lld resistivity, cloc!i\visc
resistivity, clockwise fromirom north
north
Resistivity, ohm-meters
ohm-meters (ohm-m)(ohm-m) X’
) .v’
x', y',, 2z Coordinate
Coordinate syitcm system after aiter rotation
rotation
P Resistivity,
Conductivity, mho
a Conductivity, mho ‘m
'm through 8e(principal
through (principal axe,)
axes)
Permeability, henry
Permeability, henry.·meter
‘meter (Ii (him)m) E ) II
E,1J Components parallel
Components parallel to to strike
strike
Free space
Free space permeability,
permeability, = &rX 10- 7
471' X 1W7 q, Tipper
4 Tipper azimuth
azimuth mcasured
measured cloc!il\isc
clockwise
him
h ‘m from north
from north
Electric field,
Electric field, volts/‘
volts/meter
meter (practical
(practical .s Skewness
S Skenness
units -- mv;‘
units Ill\'/km)
km) T Tipper
Tipper
IJ JIagnetic
:\1 agnetic field,
field, amperes/meter
ampere,;/ meter [prac- [prac-
INTRODUCTION
tical units-gammas
tical units- gammas (y)] (')I) 1 INTRODUCTION
Component of
Ex Component of E in
in the
the s.r direction
direction .'\dvances in
.\dvances magnetotelluric techniques
111 magnetotelluric techniques anti
and
I Electrode
Electrode separation,
separation, meters
meters preliminary indications
preliminary indications of
of success
success in
in their
their use
use
it I)r.
])r. \‘ozoff’s Jqcr
Vozoff's paper is
is the
the second
second in
in aa series
series of
of survq
survey papers
papers sponsorctl
sponsored I)?-
by the
the liesearch
Research (‘Commit
omrnittee tee of
of the
the SI-G.
SEG.
The
The series
series \vas
was the
the suhjrct
subject of
of im
an editorial
editorial in
in the
the Ikcemlxr.
December, 1971
1971 issue
issue of
of (;F.o1~11Yslcs
(;!-:Oi'IIYSIC; (v.
(v. 36. 1’. 1252).
3(J.p. 12'=;21.
J’
resentcd at
Presented at the
the 39th .\nnual International
39th .\nnual International SIIG
SEC; Meeting. September Ii,
l\leeling, Scptemlxr 17, 1069,
1969, (‘Calgary, .\Iberta. AJanuscril)t
Agary, .\llwta. :\lanuscripl
received
received l)>.
by' the
the Miter
Editor AJn-il
.'\pril 30,
30, 197 1; revised
1971; revised manuscript
manuscript received
received Jul>
July 20,
20, 197 1.
1971.
** Professor
Professor of
of Geol)h>.sics,
Geophysics, School
School of
of Earth
Earth Sciences,
Sciences, Rlacquarie
l\Iacquarie Lniversitj,,
Cniversity, Sorth
:\orlh Rytle,
Rycle, X.S.\\-.
N.S.\\". 22113,
113, LIustralia.
"\ustralia.
© 1972 by
@ by the
the Society
Society of
of Exploration
Exploration Geophysicists.
Geophysicists. All
All rights
rights reserved.
reserved.
98
98
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Magnetotelluric
Magnetotelluric Exploration
Exploration 99
99
have
have led let1 to an an acceleration
accclcration in interest interest and and applica-
applica- sUf\"eys.
surveys. In In the conducting
conducting earth,
earth, the changing changing
tion.
tion. .4s \s aa rough
rough estimate,
estimate more
more than than aa millionmillion magnetic
mqnctic field induces
induces tellurictrlluric [ctltly) current,
(eddy) currcnt-
d()"ars
rlollars I\·as sl)ent ()n
\vas ,;penl on magnetolelluric
ma~:n~tot~lluric (:'lIT) (.\l’i‘) COIN- and
C()Il- iln(l 1·()ltage,;;
voltaxcs: lhe
lh(, lalll'r
lattc~r arc the electric U~I
th(, declric (/:‘I
tract
tract field\\"ork
ficl(l\vork and and research
research in 11060. <)()<). For
For 1111~ he fir,;1
tirxl signals.
signals. They They are arc veryvcr>. similar
similar in appearanceappearance t() to
time,
time fieldwork
fieldwork is is being
being supported
supported by the operat- operat- the If II signals.
signals. ()n On chart
chart record,;,
record>, both both sets oi
ing divisions
divisions of major major oil companiescompanies as as well
\vell as as by by variations
variations look
look irregular
irregular and
and noise-like
noise-like for for the the
their
their research
research laboratories.
laboratories. most
most part, part, as in Figure Figure 1. :\,t .At times,
times, in certain certain
This
This paperpaper is intended
intended to help help fill fill the increasing
increasing frequency
frequency bands,
bands, the the variations
variations may
may appear appear
need of the the petroleum
petroleum geophysicist
geophysicist to understand understand sinusoidal
sinusoidal (Figure (Figure 2) but but the the sinusoids
sinusoids are not not an
the methodmethod so so he can can use it it intelligently.
intelligently. Field
Field important
important part
part of 0i the
the signal
signal for for :\1 Al?‘T purposes.
purposes.
results
results are included included to illustrate illustrate the method',;
method’5 Signal
Signal amplitudes
amplitudes fall fall off rapidly
rapidly II·ith I\-ith increasing
increasing
potential
potential and its inherent inherent limitation,;.
limitationh. frequency
frequency o\·er o\‘er most oi 0i thethe range
range’ oi 0i irequencie,;
ireclucncicq
used. Figure
Figure -33 shows sho\vs typical
tyl)ical spectral
spectral behavior
behavior for i0r
BASIC
BASIC CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS
l~
R ,wdanal If IZ as recorded
recorded in four i0ur o\"Crlapping
overlapping fre-
ire-
The
The :\1'1' metl~od is a \\"ay
11’1‘ method \vay oj 01 determining
determining the
the quency
clucncy bam\,;. bands. Signal Signal level lel-el can increase increase very \-er!-
electrical
electrical conductivity
conductivity distribution
distribution of
oi the sub- rapidly
rapidly at the the onset oi 0i magnetic
magnetic storms, storms, an an inin-
surface
surface from from measurements
mcasurementb of natural natural transient
transient crease
crease of 0i a a factor
factor oi of 10 being
being common common and and eveneven a
electric
electric and and magnetic
magnetic fields on the surface. surface factor
factor of 100 is not not unusual.
unusual.
Resul
Resultsts interpreted
interpreted from
from measurements
measurements at
at a :\rost
Lost o[ oi thethe magnetic
magnetic noise noise reaching
reaching the the earth
earth
,;i ngle site are sometimes
Angle sometimes compared compared to an induc- induc- beloll·
belon- 1 hz hz is due due to to current
current flo\v flow in in thethe ioniwtl
ionized
tion
tion log, \"Cry very hea ,·ily smoothed,
heavily smoothed, obtained obtained wi thou t
Jvithout layers
layers surrounding
surrounding the earth.
the earth. The The currents
currents arc arc
drilling
drilling a well. well. Results
Results from ir0m a line
line of measuring
measuring powered
powered by solar activity,
by solar activity, and and by by the the relative
relati,·e
stations
stations are interpreted interpreted to give
give underlying
underlying con-
coii- motions
motions of 0i the earth,
the earth, sun, sun, and and moon.moon. At At fre-fre-
ductivity
ductivity distribution
distribution and and structure.
structure. That That picturepicture quencies
quencies above 1 hz,
above hz, worldGde
worlrhl"ide electrical electrical
'If
01 thethe subsurface
subsurface can can in in turn
turn be relatedrelated to porosityporosit> thunderstorm
thundcrstoi-iii activity \vithin
activity within the the atmosphere
atmosphere is
and
and salinity,
salinity, since conductivity
conductivity depends
depends primarily
primarily the
the major contribu tor. ‘The
major contributor. transient ficltls
l’he transient fields due due to
on those those t\\"o t\vo factors
factors in common common sedimentary
sctlimentar) thunderstorm,;
thunderstorms can bc
can be exceedingly
exceedingly large large locally,
locally,
rocks.
rocks. while those
while associated with
those associated with tornatlos
tornados arc arc greater
greater
The
The time time variations
variations of oi the the earth's
earth’s electric
electric and and still.
still.
magnetic
magnetic fields
fields at at a site site are arc recorded
recorded simul-
simul-
EFFECT
EFFECT OF OF EARTH
EARTH CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY ON ON H
taneously over
taneously over a wide wide range
range of frequencies,
frequencies, usually usually
digital tape. The variations are analyzed by
on digital tape. The variations are analyzed b> \\"hen the magnetic !luctuations reach
\\‘
h en the magnetic fluctuations reach the the
computer to obtain
computer obtain their their spectra
spectra and apparent surface
and apparent surface of of thethe earth,
earth, reflection
reflection and and refraction
refraction
resistivities as a function
resistivities function 0i of frequency
frequency arc arc com- com- occur. r\lthough
occur. Although there there was \\"as considerable
considerable disagrec- disagree-
puted from
puted from the the spectra.
spectra. Interpretation
Interpretation consists consists 0i of ment at
ment at one
one time time, itit is no\vno\\" wellII·ell established
established that, that,
matching the
matching the computed
computed plots plots of apparent apparent resis- resis- working theory,
as a working theory, the the signals
signals can can be treated
treated as
tivity against
tivity against frequency
frequency to curves curves calculated
calculated for for plane electromagnetic
plane electromagnetic waves. Il"a\"C5. This This \rill will not not be
simplified modelx.
simplified model:;. true under
true under all all conditions,
conditions, but but holdsholds for for the the vast
vast
‘The
I‘hc :'lIT method depends
JIT method depends on the the penetration
penetration of majority of
majority of geological
geological situations
situations of interest interest in in
electromagnetic energy
electromagnetic energy into into the the earth.
earth. Depth petro leu m prospecting
Depth petroleum prospecting (Gladden (:\1 adden and and K&on, Kelson,
control comes
control comes as a natural natural consecluence
consequence of the the 190-+; Rikitake, 1966;
1961; Rikitake, 1%0; \‘Yozoff
ozoff and and E3lis,
Ellis, 1966).
1966).
greater penetration
greater penetration 0iof the the low3 100\"er frequencies.
frequencies. The The :'l.lthough the
;\lthough the majority
majority 0iof the the incident
incident energy energy is
mca,mrements are
measurements are absolute.
absolute. Their Their interpretation
interpretation reflected, a small
reflected, small portionportion is transmitted
transmitted into into the the
gh·es true
gives true resistivity
resistivity values values and and true true depths,
depths, not earth and
not earth and slowly
slowly travels
travels vertically
vertically downward.dO\\"I111·ard. ‘1To ‘0
just anomalies.
just anomalies. Depth Depth interpretation
interpretation based based on on the conducting
the conducting rocks, rocks, this this energy
energy appearsappears as a
:\IT
1I’ I‘ datadata is therefore
therefore much much more more definitive
definitive than than magnetic field
magnetic field which
which is changing
changing with Il"ith time
time, and and
‘tthat
ha t based
based on gravity gra vi ty or or magnetic
magnetic data. da tao electric fields
electric fields are are induced
induced so that that currents,
currents, called called
telluric currents,
telluric currents, can can flow.
flow. TheseThese telluric
telluric currents
currents
THE
THE SIGNALS
SIGNALS
are completely
are completely analogous analogous to to thethe eddyeddy currents
currents
The time-varying
The time-varying magnetic magnetic (H) (H) signal
signal is the the which
which flow !low in in transformers
transformers due due to to thethe changing
changing
always present
always present “noise” "noise" in in thethe earth’
earth's s magnetic
magnetic magnetic fields
magnetic fields caused
caused by by the the ac ac current
current in in the
the
field. \l’
field. When
hen very very large,
large, itit interferes
interieres with with magnetic
magnetic primary pri mary \\-indings.
II"indings.
100
100 Vozoff
Vozoff
Energy in
Energy in the
the downgoing
downgoing disturbance
disturbance is is quickly
quickly This differential
This differential form
form of of Ohm’
Ohm's s law
law is
is really
really aa
dissipated as
dissipated as heat.
heat. AsAs aa result,
result, the
the field
field penetra-
penetra- definition of
definition of resistivity,
resistivity, and
and is
is very
very similar
similar to
to the
the
tion i,;
tion is relatively
relatively small
small in
in terms
terms of of its
its wavelength
wavclcngth Ohm’slaw
Ohm's definition of
law definition ofrrsistancr,
resistance,
in air. ‘
I ’
h c penetration mechanism
in air. The penetration mechanism in this in Chis situa-
situ;L-
tion is actually diffusion rather than wave propa- f/ == I',R.
I.,“/?.
tion is actually diffusion rather than wave propa-
gation.
gation. In mks
mks ul\it~,
unitb,, E
fi is
is in
in vo\t<mcler;j
volls,‘mcLcr;j is is in
in amperes/
amperes/
In
Currcnl density
Current density inin the
lhc earth
carlh depends
tlepcntls on on resis-
resis- square meter; p is in ohm-meters; and H isis in
in
square meter; p is in ohm-meters; and H
tivity p,
tivity p, asas might
might bebe expected.
expected. vVithin
Within aa rock,
rock, the
the amperes/meter. However, because the fields are
amperes/meter. However, because the fields are
normal relationship between the electric
normal relationship between the electric field and field and so small,
small, the
the more
more commonly
commonly usedused practical
practical
so
the current
the current density
density atat each
each point
point is
is units are
are mv/km
mv/km for for ER and
and gammas
gammas for for H.
H. The
The
units
.ij = FJp.
=
I<‘/p. practical units will be used in later sections.
practical units will be used in later sections,
~JIG.
FIG, 1.1.Typical
Typicalnoise-like
noise-liketelluric
telluricsignals,
signals.Sine
Sinewave
waveat
atbottom
bottomshows
showstime
timescale,
scale.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 101
101
~-.".
.. ~ -: .---'- ~ --; .. ;--- ---. . ..... - '- - ~-
~~~~~C';j~~-,
FIG. 2.
FIG. 2. Largenear-sinusoidal
Large near-sinusoidal telluricsignals
telluric signalswith
with superposed
superposed noise-likesignals.
noise-like signals.Time
time scale
scaleon
on boltom
bottom trace.
trace.
The EE measurement
The measurement is isactually
actually aa voltage
voltage differ-
diffcr- The depth
The depth ofof penetration
penetration of oi the
the fields
fields into
into the
the
ence measurement between two electrodes.
ence measurement between two electrodes. In In aa earth is
earth is inversely
inversely related
related (0to rock
rock conductivity.
conductivity. In In
uniform earth,
uniform earth, the
the voltage
voltage difference
difference Vi’ between
between aa uniform
uniform earth
earth E E and
and HII weaken
weaken exponentially
exponentialI>
electrodes aa distance
distance I1apart
apart would
would bebe \vith depth;
with depth; thethe more
more conductive
conductive the the earth,
earth, the
the
electrodes
lessthe
less the penetration.
penetration. TheThe depth
depth atat which
which the
the fields
fields
v1; == 11:‘.
l/~. have fallen
have fallen off
off to
to (e)-l
(c)-l of
of their
their value:i
values at
at the
the sur-
sur-
In the
In the MT
MT method
method it it is
is usually
usually assumed that E is
assumed thatEi:i
face is
face iscalled
called the
the skin
skin depth
depth6.o.
constant over
constant over the
the length
length of of the
the wire;
wire; i.e.,
i.e., 6 = V2!w/J.u
d/2,/w/U m
Ill (1)
(1)
F1: == VC’ l.1. "'" !Vp,]

= $d/b,'J km,
km, (la)
(1 a)
102 Vozoff
Vozoff
where/ frequency, w == 27r/,and,u

where/is is frequency, 2~/,andp is is permeabili
permeability.ty. magnetic
magnetic fields
fields at point. Ii
at each point. If E isis positive
lmsitive to
(,u
(J.Lin the earthearth is is taken
taken equalequal to ,un pi, except
except in north, H is
the north, is positi\'C
positive to the east. That That is,
highly
highly magnetic
magnetic materials.)
materials.) Frequency
Frequency ('nter,
enters into
into \'icwed above, E must
from above,
viewed from must 1w
he rotated
rotated 9()!JOdegrees
degrees
the equations
equations because
because the magnitudesmagnitudes of the clockwise to obtain
clockwise obtain the direction pnsitivc H.
direction of positive H.
induced
induced telluric
telluric currents
currents dependdepend on the time time rate
rate The
The mathematical
mathematical description
description of the per-per-
of change
change of the magnetic
magnetic fields. pcndicular E
pendicular and H fields
e and fields in a uniform
uniform isotropic
isotropic
In
In aa uniform
uniform or horizontally
horizontally layered
layered earthearth all conductor
conductor includes
includes all these features
features in a concise
concise
currents,
currents, electric
electric fields,
fields, and magnetic
magnetic fields
fields are form:
form :
practically
practically horizontal,
horizontal, regardless
regardless of the direction
direction
HS e- iw1 - o.
Ify
fI
?/
= HOepiwt-
!,
(i--l’; '':- 6.
(i-I (2)
(1)
from
from which
\vhich these fields enter enter the
the earth.
earth. ThisThis
comes
comes about
about because
because of the high high conductivity
conductivity of
oi 1,‘
Ff2.r
= J':Jo c-iw!- (i-II: O.
/,‘Oc~iw!-_(ihI~;
,r
6.
, (3)
(J)
earth
earth relative
relative to air. air. IItt can be thought
thought of in terms terms
].0
I**:’ = (1
(1 -- i)w,uoH,?
+dpcm,; 2.
1. (.+)
of Snell's
Snell’s law
law in optics,
optics, with\vith the
the velocity
velocity in the the 'x (1)
earth
earth being
being orders
orders of magnitude
magnitude smaller
smaller thanthan
The
The superscript
superscript indicates
indicates the
the value
value at
at the
the surface.
surface.
that
that outside.
outside. Furthermore,
Furthcrmorc, the
the currents
currents and
and
Particularly
Particularly interesting
interesting is the
the ratio
ratio
electric
electric fields
fields are at right
right angles
angles to the
the associated
associated
]<'0
'f (1 - i)w,uo
----
oh illS
IfJ 2 (5)
= (1 - i)(wJ.I 20-)l’.li~.
i) (w,u 2C)‘
10 ?I Since E
Since E and
and H H are
are recorded
recorded atat frequencies
frequencies \vhich
\\'hich
can
can be accurately
accurately measured and
measured since p,u varies
and since varies
little
little from
from pO,uo in
in most
most rocks,
rocks, the
the ratio
ratio shows
shows thethe
relationship
relationship which exists
\vhich exists bet\veen
between the the con-
con-
ductivity
ductivity and
and thethe measured
measured fields.
fields. The
The equation
equation
can
can be solved
solved iorfor conductivity,
conducti\'ity, giving
giving
u1 L’ = (1
(1 _- i)(wp 2‘ )1
i) (w,u2) I
” 5; . (6)
(‘
5)
Equation (6)
Gluation (6) is usually
usually rwritten
rewritten in
in mks
mks units
units as
P (6a)
and the
and the superscripts
superscripts are
are omitted.
omitted,
In practical
In practical units,
units, where
where EE is given
given in
in mv,‘
mv,'km
km
and H is in
and H in gammas,
gammas, the
the magnitude
magnitude of
of ppis
is
(6b)
When pp (or
\Vhen (or u) from EE and
calculated from
(j) is calculated H values,
and H values,
i
it is called
it called an apparellt resistivity
an afipurcrzt resistivity pa (or apparent
Pa (or apparent
conductivity a,).
conductivity and P,~
(ja). pp and are related,
p" are related, but
but they
they
must be clearly
must clearly distinguished.
distinguished. pa i,; the
Pu is the resistivity
re,;istivity
that a uniform
that uniform earth
earth must
mu,;t Iiave
have to
to give
give the
the mea-
mea-
FREQUENCY Hz sured value
sured value of
of the
the impedance Z. pp is a property
impedance Z. property oi
of
the medium,
the medium, whereas
whereas pn depends on
Pa depends on ho\\-
how itit is
i,;
1:X.
FIG. 3. Selected *lower
power spectral densities recorded in measured. The
measured. The ratio
ratio of E, to
of L;, Hj at
to ZIj at each
each irequenc\
irequency
the four
four overlapping
overlapping frequency
frequency hands
bands indicated.
indicated. Bands
Bands
different times.
were recorded at different tbe impedance
is the impedance %ij for those
Zij for those components
components at
at
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 103
103
i
H
H CHANNEL
CHANNEL
I
MAGNETICC FIELD
MAGNETI FIELD INPUT
INPUT ! r------------
r ---------
[IQIL
.--_ _ _~---<~
f-- COUPLER,
COUPLER,
PRE-AMPLIFIER
PRE-AMP_LlFI_ER_Il_I:1
AND POWER SUPPLY
AND POWER SUPPLY i Lr-----'
RECORD/REPRODUCE
I, RECORDI REPRODUCE
,-------,
A/D/A A
A/D/
=:: == === == - - - , DIGITAL

DIGITAL
:= =CHANNE[=-L
I EECHANNEL
1
- _ _ _--,
FILTER a
FILTER 8
AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER
) 66 CHANNEL
CHANNEL
CONVERTER
CONVERTER
_ TAPE
TAPE
RECORDER
RECORDER
!
!:I ~
I /11/1/
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
FIELD
FIELD r--
-
ELECTRIC
FIELD
FIELD
i r~
JJ
___ --.J
IO BITS
10 BITS (READ/WRITE)
(READ/ WRITE)
ELECTRODE
I ELECTRODE INPUT
INPUT PRE-AMPLIFIER I1
PRE-AMPLIFIER
I - .-
, COUPLER
COUPLER I I
I I
II
L-______p___-!
I 66 CHANNEL
CHANNEL
~~:~T ~
~ STRIP
STRIP -
4-
I
I’ :CALIBRATOR - - - -- - - - ,-_-
I-----------------
_ _-_-,' 1
~AL~:C:~: C~A:E: 0 -- -- -
CHART
CHART
/ CALIBRATOR I
- - - - - -, I RECORDER
RECORDER
~ I
I
I(
I
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
ATTENUATOR
CHANNEL
CHANNEL
ATTENUATOR (-'-
(- 10')
(.,- IO’) 1 .-----1
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
SIGNAL I LL_-___ _ _ _ -+ ___ _ __JJ
_____I
, GENERATOR
GENERATOR , I~
I’ MAGNETIC
MAGNETIC
MAGNETIC CHANNEL
CHANNEL I GENERATOR
L-----1:-----i
7 ATTENUATOR (-10')
ATTENUATOR (c-
(7 100)
IO’) --.J
- I
----------------~
_ _~ 1
I:IG. 4.
FIG. 4. Block
Block diagram
diagramof
of aa oasic
basicmagnetotelluric
magnetotelluricinstrumentation
instrumentationsystem.
s)-stem.
that frequency. Since

that Since E and H are usually not does not depend on the directions used
does used as
as long as as
in-phase, Z,'jZfj is
is taken to be aa complex number. E is
is measured perpendicular
perpendicular to H. H.
In aa uniform
In uniform earth,
earth, Papa has
has to be the same same at \Vhen due to faulting
When iaulting or jointing,
jointing, 0"c varies later-
later-
frequency, and E
every frequency, .E leads H in-phase by 45 with direction,
ally or with direction, the j and E E which are inin-
degrees at all ffrequencies.
degrees [That this is
rel[uencies. [That is so
so can be be duced by a given ZJ H depend on their
their direction
direction rela-
rela-
substituting equation
checked by substituting equation (5) into el[ua- equa- tive to strike.
tive strike. In
In order that
that these effects can be
(Ob)].
tion (()b) J. Thus, if we \ve plot Papa and phase against sorted out, we rccortl
record complete
complete horizontal
horizontal E E and
frequency, we see see that
that both are constants. H fields (two
II (two perpendicular
perpendicular components of each)
In
In discussing
discussing kinds of electrical
electrical structure
structure it it isis at every
every site. In
In addition,
addition, the vertical
vertical component
component
useful to define t\vo-dimensional
two-dimensional and three- three- of EIH is also
also recorded, for a total
total of five recorded
dimensional structures. In In the two-dimensional
two-dimensional signals
signals in all. These are designated H,, II y , II;,
HI' II,, lIz,
case
case [a=~(s,
[0" = O"(x, z)], conductivity
conducti vit;; varies along one Ex, and E,.
EX)
E,, Ey.
horizontal
horizontal coordinate
coordinate and with with depth.
depth. TheThe other
other In
In general, pU
Pa at each
each frequency
frel[uency varies withwith mea-
horizontal
horizontal direction
direction is called the strike. \Vhen When surement
surement direction.
direction. \Ve\Ye assume
assume that that there is a
conductivity
conductivity varies \vith with both horizontal
horizontal coor- strike
strike but
but that
that its direction
direction is unkno\vn.
unknown. Then Then E, Ex
dinates and Faith with tleptli
depth [u=u(.r,
[o-=o-(.\', ?,
y, z)],
z)]' the struc-
struc- is due partly
partly to II,,
IIy, but
but also partly
partly to currents
currents
ture is said to be three-tlimensional
three-dimensional and has no no induced by- HI, which
by H,, which have been deflected by by the
strike.
strike. IfIf r0- depends onlyonly on z, the structure
structure is structure.
structure. TheThe same is true
true oi
of l?,,,
F'-!l, so
R!I, so the
the relations
relations
one-dimensional.
one-dimensional. In In each case,case, c0" at each pointpoint are written
written
can depend on the directiondirection of current
current flou;
flow; ifif (r
0"
does
does depend on direction,
direction, the the medium
medium is aniso-
I:, = %,,/I, + ZJi’,, (i)
(7)
tropic.
tropic. I:, = Zi,,N, + Z,,,Z~,. (8)
(8)
If
If the
the conductivity
conductivity changes with with depth,
depth, p,, PI'
varies with frequency, since lower
with frequency, lower frequencies For
For example,
example, Z,,Zyx gives the the part
part of E,
Ey which
which is due
.penetrate
.penetrate more deeply.deeply. Apparent
_\pparent resistivity
,\pparent resistivity can to H,,
HI, and so
so forth.
forth. Since E, Ey and H,
HI are generally
generally
be
be written
written and computed
computed c.rrrcllJ
exactly for
for any
any desired not
not in-phase,
in-phase, the
the Z’ s are
Z's arc complex.
complex. E Ii and
and HH com-
com-
combination
combination oi of horizontal
horizontal layers,
layers, whether
whether iso- ponent
ponent amplitudes
amplitudes are are obtained
obtained b!,by computer-
computer-
tropic
tropic or arbitrarily
arbitrarily anisotropic.
anisotropic. ItIt can be be cal-
cai- analyzing
analyzing the
the records
records using
llsing methods
methods described
described inin
culated
culated t~~~~~.ri~t~lcI~
approximately ior for any
any tno-dimcnsioiial
two-dimensional the
the section onon data
data analysis.
analysis. Computation
Computation oi of the
the
model
model structure.
structure . .;\s
\s might
might be be expected,
expected, ZZ for for Zij
Zij for tno-dimensional
two-dimensional models models \5ill
will be
be discussed
discussed
horizontally
horizontally isotropic
isotropic and homogeneous
homogeneous layers layers under
under Interpretation.
Interpreta tion.
tiol1.
104
104 Vozoff
Vozoff
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION comprised of
comprised of 30,000
30,000 turns
turns ofof #22
#22 copper
copper wirewire
Over most
Over most ofof the
the frequency
frequency range
range of of 0.0006--10
0.000610 wound
wound on on cores
cores laminated
laminated of of moly-permalloy
moly-permalloy.
hz used
hz used for
for most
most :\IT
MT work,
work, thethe signals
signals weaken
weaken strips. The
strips. The strips
strips are
are 11 inch
inch wide and and 66 ftit long,
long,
rapidly with
rapidly \vith increasing
increasing frequency.
frequency. Figure Figure 33 filling aa 1!
filling 1% inch
inch diameter
diameter tube. Earth Earth con-con
shows typical
shows typical (smoothed)
(smoothed) powerpower density
density spectra
spectra tacts for
tacts for E sensors are
E sensors are nonpolarizing
nonpolarizing electrodes
electrodes
in this
in this range.
range. TheThe absolute
absolute levels
levels can can rapidly
rapidly made
made up up of
of cadmium
cadmium metal immersedimmersed in in aa cad-
cad
increase by
increase by 3030 db
db oror more
more on on thethe advent
advent of of aa mium
mium chloride
chloride solution.
solution in porous pots 1i
in porous 12 inches
inches
storm. They
magnetic storm. They areare also
also often
often observed
observed to to in
in diameter
diameter and 2! 22 inches
inches high. (The (The solution
gradually diminish
gradually diminish by 10-20lo-20 db db in in aa matter
matter of of is highly toxic!)
is
hours. Furthermore
hours. Furthermore the detaileddetailed shape shape of of the The
The other
other highly critical
critical component is is the If H
spectrum changes,
spectrum changes, with some some frequency
frequency bands bands preamplifier.
preamplifier. This is is aa guarded, differential
differential input,
input,
being enhanced
being enhanced relative
relative to to the general
general trend. chopper
chopper carrier
carrier amplifier
amplifier with very low-noise lon-noisc
Heirtzler and Davidson
Heirtzler Davidson (1%7)
(lohi) show
show aa sample of connections and components, with with heat sinks
sinks and
these variations
these variations in If, If, for the component along shock
shock mounts. :\0 Xo common commercial amplifiers amplifiers
the main geomagnetic field. have yet beenbeen found which can can be fed by the
A block diagram of aa typical
typical measuring system high inductance coils coils while retaining
retaining the band-
is shown
is show11 in Figure 4.4. The complete equipment
equipment set set width,
width, low noise,
noise, and high gain necessary
necessary in thb this
includes three If
includes H channels and two E channels. channels. Of application.
application.
the components, nearly all are custom-madecustom-made ex- The
The rest of the system was was designed
designed for geo- geo-
preamplifiers,
cept for the signal generator, E field preamplifiers, physical field use. use. Its
Its response
response is is accurately
accurately
strip chart recorder, and the digital digital recording known, but its specifications are not otherwise
propane-powered
system. A single 1 kva liquid propane-powered remarkable.
remarkable.
motor generator will operate the system. Rather than record the entire
Rather entire frequency range
The If
The sensors are long, slender induction
H sensors induction coils at once,
once, the 10-10P3
3 to 10 10 hz band is is recorded in
Db
180
SC
-30 -90
>"
-...
:;
0
LLJ
-40 -180
-50 -270
-60 -360
450
.-ml .O! 0.1 1.0 IO. /
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY Hz
Hz
FIG. 5.5.
FIG. Responses
Responses of commercial
commercial 1:
E and IIII systems
systems in
in one
one typical
typical recording
recording band.
band.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 105
105
,001 ,01 ,I 1.0! 10 100

10-'2-r--"E""""--..L-------'------'-----..L----....,..10-2
IO- o-2
IO- b 10-33
10-
IO- 4
\ 10-4
\
",X
\'.
IO 5 10-s
VI
MT
MT NOISE
NOISE MEASUREME
MEASUREMENTNT
E
D-
U H
Ii CHANNELS
CHANNELS IN 2/cps
IN r*/CPS r
,;”
;;::..
[....
L
10
IO d 10-
10-e6
*L
IO t 10-T
.‘ :.
I
-: . . .
.. .
1 k - " " - - - - - . . , - - - - - - . - - - - - - r - - - - - ' - r - - - - - - - ' - 1 010-a
IO0 -a
I I I I
,001
,001 ,01
.Ol ,I
*I 1.0
1.0 10
IO 100
100
FREQUENCY.
FREQUENCY. CPS
CPS
FIG. 6. 1\oise
FIG. Kc&e power spectral density
density of commercial Obtained using naisc
commercial H system. Obtained noise
measurement procedures of Hopkins (1965).
Hopkins (1965).
three narrower,
narrower, overlapping
overlapping segments. Com- Com- multiple
multiple of the longest periodperiod which is being
monly
monly these are (nominal)
(nominal) 0.002-0.025,0.01-0,5,
0.002-0.025, 0.01-0.5, recorded, whereas digitizing
digitizing rate
rate is at least twice
twice
and 0.1-7.5
0.1-7.5 hz, with
with At = 10
/::"t= set, 0.5 sec,
10 sec, see, and 1/30
1,/30 the highest frequency being recorded. If If the band
sec, respectively. (/::"t
set, respectively. (At isis the sampling rate rate of the is
is very
very wide, far more short period data data will
will be
digital
digital equipment.)
equipment.) OtherOther filter
filter settings can be acquired than
than is necessary
necessary while
while waiting
waiting for
used
used when desired,
desired. TheThe actual frequency
frequency range adequate sampling of long periods. The
adequate sampling The 1- I- to 2-
analyzed
analyzed extends from 0,0006 0.0006 to 9.8 hz. In In areas
areas decade segments usedused are a compromise.
of high ncar-surface
near-surface resistivity,
resistivity, a stillstill higher fre- Total number of samples
Total number samples to be recorded in a
quency band is extending from 0.33 to
is recorded, extending data set is selected in this equipment
equipment by means of
15.5
15.5 hz (/::,,1=
(At= 1/37,5
l/37.5 sec),
set). The
The frequency
frequency range is is a front
front panel switch. :\10st commonly, data sets
Most commonly, sets
divided
divided this way for two important important reasons:
reasons: to consist multiplexed scans.
consist of 4096 multiplexed scans. Each voltage
voltage
make best use use of the available
available dynamic
dynamic range and sample is converted
converted to a 10 bit bit binary
binary number,
number,
for economy in digital
digital recording. That That is,is, dividing
dividing giving a full
full scale
scale resolution 2- 10 or about
resolution of 22’” about 60 db.
the frequency
frequency range permits
permits the use use of large gains Typical normalized system response
Typical normalized response curves are
in some parts
parts of the spectrum and lower gains in shown in Figure
Figure 5. In terms of the parameters
S. In parameters
others, according to the signal levels actually actually measured, the maximum
maximum full scalescale sensitivities
sensitivities
present at recording time. time TheThe economic aspect equipment are H =9
for this equipment 1OF4 gammas at 1
= 9 X 10-- I
enters, since the total total recording duration
duration is a hz and E == 12.5 pv/km
tlV /km at 1 km electrode spacing.
106
106 Vozoff
Vozoff
Noise power
Noise power spectral
spectral densities
densities for for this
this equipment
equipment motion stabilization
motion stabilization oror compelbation
compensation would~voultl be
be
are sho\\n in Figure
are shown in Figure 6. 6. very helpful.
very helpful.
Quoted sensitivities
Quoted sensitivities for ior other
other magnetometers
magnetometer:, Hopkins (1965)
Hopkins (1965) discusses
discussesthe
the engineering
engineering and
anti
made for
made for exploration
exploration Wie usean:are in
in the
the neighborhood
ncighborho~otl design problems
design problems associated
associated \\·i
\vith .\1’1‘ instru-
(h :\1'1' instru-
of 10-
of 10~’ 1 gammas full scale ior optically pumped
gammas full scale for optically pumped mentation.
mentation.
devices, and
devices, and 11 gamma
gamma full full scale
scale for
for proton
proton pre-pre-
FIELD PROCEDURE
FIELD PROCEDURE
cessionand
cession and fluxgate
tluxgate magnetometers.
magnetometers. K Koise levels
oise levels
in each
in eachcase
caseare are 10
10toto 20
20 percent
percent of of full
full scale.
scale.The
The Although basically
Although basically simple,simple, field
field procedures
procedures
that frequency
flat frequency- responses
responses of oi these
these other
other magne-
magne- require aa great
require great deal
deal of of planning
planning and and attention
attention to to
tometers gi\'es
tometers gives themthem the the advantage
advantage at at periods
periods detail, since
detail, since they
they dominate
dominate the the cosb;
costs; and
and thethe
longer than
longer than 30-100
30-100 sec.sec. Superconducting
Superconducting mag- mag- sensitivity of
sensitivity of the
the measurement
measurement makes makes it it highly
highI?
netometers have
netometers have been
been built
built with
with noise
noiselevels
levels com-
com- vulnerable
vul nerable to to disturbances
disturbances at at the
the measuring
measuring sisite.te.
parable to
parable to those
those ofof the
the induction
intluction coil
coil system
sy.stemde de Tn-o pairs
T\\,o pairs ofof electrodes
electrodes aligned
aligned at at right
right angles
angles
scribed here, but they do not ?.et seem
scribed here, but they do not yet seem suitable for suitable ior must be
must be laid
laid out
out at at each
each site,
site, asas must
must three
three mu-
mu-
usein
use in the
the field
field (see
(see.'\isenoff,
Sisenoff, 1969,1969,forfor example).
example). tually perpendicular
tually perpendicular magnetometers.
magnetometers. A..I setup setup isis
From the
From the practical
practical pointpoint of of view,
view, there
there are
are shown schematically
shown schematically in in Figure
Figure 7. 7. The
The electrodes
electrodes
several improvements
several improvements which \vhich \\"ould
~vouldbe bedesirable
desirable in in pro\-ide low
prO\'ide low resistance,
resistance, low low noise
noiseelectrical
electrical connec-
connec-
present state-of-the-art
present state-of-the-art equipment.
equipment. Induction
Induction tions with
tions with thethe earth,
earth, for for the
the EE measurements.
measurements. The The
coilsof
coils oiadelJuate
adequate sensitivity
sensitivity are areclumsy
clumsy and and heavy,
heavy, inputt to
inpu to each
each ofof the
the E-signal
E-signal channels
channels isis the
the volt-
volt-
and the
and the vertical
vertical component
component coil coil requires
requires thatthat aa age difference
age difference between
between an an electrode
electrode pair.
pair. (Al-
(.\I-
holesix
hole sixft it deep
deepbe beaugered.
augered. Several
Several smaller
smaller coils
coilsinin though one
tbough one usually
usually thinks
thinks ofof the
the earth
earth as
asbeing
being atat
combination might
combination might be be much
much more more convenient
convenient to to zero potential,
zero potential, voltage
voltage differences
differences mustmust exist
exist ifii
use. A
use. A large
large looploop laid
laid flat
flat on
on the
the surface
surface isis the
the telluric currents
telluric currents flo\\"flow because
because the the earth
earth hashas aa
only alternative
only alternative at at this
this time
time toto the
the vertically
vertically em-em- finite resistivity,
finite resistivity, and andj=Ec.) The farther
j = E<T.) The farther apart
apart aa
planted coil.
planted coil. pair of
pair of electrodes,
electrodes, the the larger
larger thethe signal
signal voltage
voltage
For work
For work in in loose
looseor or unsteady
unsteady surface
surface materials
materials measured, so it is usually desirable
measured, so it is usually desirable to put the to put the
(marsh, ice-floes,
(mar:;h, ice-floes, loose
loosesoil
soil near
near trees),
trees), aa system
system of of electrodes as
electrodes as far
far apart
apart as as possible,
possible, subject
subject to to
Recor$mg Truck
Truck
Coils Cd -1CdCl,
Cd CdClp
Porous
Porous PO1
Pot
Electrodes
Electrodes
!
1:X. 7.7. Field
FIG. I‘ield setup.
setup
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 107
107
A 8 or
or aa T,
T, (Swift,
(Swift, 1967),
1967), and and that
that the coibcoils be ncar
near
the
the center.
center.
• CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE SEDIMENTS
SEDIMENTS
• Topographic
Topographic features
features can can cause
cause distortion,
distortion-
similar
similar to to those causedcaused by b!. resistivity
resistivity hetero-
hetero-
geneities.
cwleities. \\"hile
0’ \Vhile these can can also
also be modeled,
modeled, it it is
is
.. '" ''
better
better to to avoid
avoid them
them if if possible,
possible, especially
especially if ii the
.'",'
,: ..,.. 1. ..-.
relief
relief is
is more
more than
than 10 10 percent
percent or or so
so of
of the electrode
electrotl~
,,
-_
,-,.;.
-RESISTIVE
-RESISTIVE 8ASEMENL
BASEMENT’.’ ,-‘I. spacing.
spacing.
: 2 j .. _ Induction
Induction coil magnetometers
magnetometers are even
even mure
more
.; >
.‘L,<. :
,’ > .: ,: ,. sensitive
sensitive to motions
motions than than are the the ,,-ires
wires connecting
connecting
the electrodes.
electrodes. To To prevent
prevent theirtheir moving
moving or vibrat-
vibrat-
r ing due tu to wind,
wind, the the twot\vo horizontal
horizontal coils arc are
I-
buried
buried in shallo\\'
shallo\\- trenches
trenches 12 IL to 18 inches
inches deep.
cleep.
~
I-
(f)
~ The
The Hrtical
vertical coil is is placed
placed in a hole dug dug by auger.
auger.
if) A Coils
Coils are leveled
leveled to within
\vithin a fraction
fraction of oi one degree
degree
w
0: by means
means of oi sensiti\'e
sensitive levellevel bubbles.
bubbles. Horizontal
Horizontal
8
I-
Z azimuth
azimuth is adjusted
adjusted to similar similar accuracy
accuracy by
by a
w
o: -p-
I
- - - - simple transit.
simple transit. Burying
Burying the the coils has the added addetl
0:Q advantage
advantage of reducing
reducing thermal
thermal transients
transients andand the the
<l: resulting
resulting noise. Coils 1
noise. Coils having
laving permeable cores
permeable cores
LOW HIGH
HIGH
frequency
FREQUENCY
FIG_ 8. Diagrammatic
FIG. 8_ Diagrammatic two-layer annarent resisti~-ity
two-layer apparent resistivity
models shmvn.
curves for the models shown.
other factors,
other factors, such as obstructions,
obstructions, property
property /
boundaries, the
boundaries, the time
time needed
needed to layout
lay out connecting
connecting
CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE SEDIMENTS
SEDIMENTS
ITires, and
wires, and the the minimum
minimum spacing tolerable
spacing tolerable be-
tween
tween adjacent
adjacent measurement
measurement sites. For
For routine
routine r;
operations, it
operations, it is desirable
desirable to uscuse fixed
fixed wire
wire lengths.
lengths.
Finally, since
Finally, since the
the \vires
wires must
must notnot be permitted
permitted to to
move in
move in the
the earth’
earth's main magnetic
s main magnetic fieldfield as this
this
induces noise,
induces noise, clods
clods of dirt are
of dirt arc placed
placed every
every fewfe\\"
feet along
feet along the the wire
wire to to restrain
restrain it,it, a nontrivial
nontrivial
task. A
task. A. 2000.it
2000-ft spacing
spacing is common
common becausebecause itit
fits conveniently
fits conveniently within within a quarter
quarter section.
section.
The two
The two electrode
electrode pairs
pairs are
are intended
intended to mea-
to mea-
surc the
sure the twotwo perpendicular
perpendicular components
components of an an
electric field
electric field vector
vector nhicli
which exists
exists atat each
each site.
site.
However, itit is possible
However, possible for
for the
the electric
electric field
field on the
on the
surface to
surface to change
change in in both
both direction
direction and
and intensity
intensity
over very
over very short
short distances
distances, due due toto large
large lateral
lateral
resistivity changes
resistivity changes near near the
the surface.
surface. Large
Large elec-
elec-
trode spacings
trode spacings should
should be used in
be used in this
this situation
situation to to
average over
average over as much of
as much of the
thc variation
variation as possible,
as possible,
or the
or the resulting
resulting data data will
will apply
apply to to condition::
conditions
‘\'which
vhich are arc too
too localized
localized to to bebe 0io[ use.
usc. l:or
For best
best
averaging in
averaging these circumstances,
in these circunbtanccs, itit is alsu in-
is also im- LOW
LOW HIGH
HIGH
portant that
portant that the
the two
two electrode
electrode pairs
pairs form
form aa cross
cross FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
whose four
whose four arms
arms arearc as nearly equal
as nearly equal in in length
length as as I’hG.
rc. 9.
9. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic three-layer
three-layer apparent
apparent resistivit)
resistivity
possible, rather
possible, rather than
than being
being arranged
arranged to to form
form anan LL curve
curve for
for the
the model
model shown.
sho\\"n.
108
108 Vozoff
Vozoff
must be
must be separated
separated fromfrom each
each other
other byby several
several frequent!. band,
frequency band, because
becausenoise
noiseand
anti signal
signal arc
arc both
botk
times their
times their length
length when
when theythey are
are emplaced,
emplaced, to to variable and
variable and largely
largely unpredictable.
unpredictable.
avoid the
avoid the effects
efYectsonon each
each ofof the
the local
local field
field distor-
distor-
DATA ANALYSIS
tionssurrounding
tions surrounding the the others.
others. DATA ANALYSIS
Sitesmust
Sites must be bechosen
chosenwith
with care,
care,totoavoid
avoid possible
possible The purpose
The purpose of of data
data analy,;is
analybih isis toto extract
extract
sourcesof
sources oidisturbance
disturbance suchsuchas ascathodic
cathodic protection
protection reliable values
reliable values ofof impedances,
impedances, apparent
apparent resis-
resib-
circuitry, power
circuitry, poner and and fence
fence lines,
lines, unprotected
unprotected tivities, and the other earth response
tivities, and the other earth response functiOlb functions
pipelines, and vehicle and pedestrian
pipelines, and vehicle and pedestrian traftlc. traffic. (ERF) from
(ERF) from the
the field
field records,
records, and
and to
to present
present them
them
By the
By the useuse of
of separate
separate but but well-coordinated
\vell-coordinated in aa form
in form convenient
convenient for for interpretation.
interpretation. Opera-
Opera-
crews for
crews for recording
recording and and sensor
sensor emplacement,
emplacement, tionally, data
tionally, data analysis
analysis consists
consistsofoi(a)
(a) manual
manual edit-
edit-
efficient field
effIcient field operations
operations can can bebe achieved.
achieved. For For ing of records, to reject those judged
ing of records, to reject those judged to be con- to be COII-
further eficicncy, recordings can be

further eftlciency, recordings can be scheduled soscheduled so taminated by noise; (b) computer manipulation
taminated by noise; (b) computer manipulation of d
as to
as to avoid
avoid known
known or or anticipated
anticipated noise.
noise. Custo-
Custo- tape-recorded data
tape-recorded data toto transform
transform allall records
records into
into
marily, several
marily, several recordings
recordings are are obtained
obtained in in each
each the frequency
the frequency domain,
domain, to to derive
derive the
the ERF
ERF \\'hich
n-hi&
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
I
DEPTH
DEPTH
! 1
MODEL
LOG
LOG
Po
pa
~:t ~ El
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
I Hz I
~
] ~
TIPPER
IHl I
:I ~ <:::: RELATIVE
I Hli
°l~~
DE TH
DTTH CURRENT
FLOW
I
El
DEPTH
0 -aaaaaaaa00
--.. . . . .~~"'~::!I. . . . -- LINES OF H
DEPTH 0 0 0 0 0
1
<:> CURRENT
1
0 0 <:> 0
0 a 0 0
FLOW
1
<:> 0 0 Ell
0 0 <:>
FIG.10.
FIG. 10.Diagrammatic
Diagrammaticresponse
response curvesfor
curves for aasimple
simplevertical
verticalcontact
contac(at
at frequenc)
frequency-
f.,i.Horizontal
Horizontal
scales
scales aredistance.
are distance.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 109
109
SIT.E
SITE B SITE A
SITE A
I I
DEPTH
1 MODEL
Pol.
LOG
t-~::::=====- SITE
SITE A
A
LOG
PII
Po
Pa - - : : : : - - - - - SIT
SITEE B
B
LOW
LOW HIGH
HIGH
LOG
LOG FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY --,
-
FIG. 11.
11. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic response
response curve for a simple vertical
vertical contact. ,\pparent resistivity versus frequency.
_Ipparent resistivity
DISTANCE
DISTANCE ---+
-
I
DEPTH
p2 (>pI) MODEL
1 !
LOG
LOG
NI] APPARENT
APPARENT
FREQUENCY
frequency RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
MIN E II
~ t.>p~··P2
MAXi
LOG
LOG APPARENT
FREQUENCY
frequency RESISTIVITY
MIN E .1.
T.~~
MA
LOG
LOG
MA]
TI PPE R
FREQUENCY
frequency
MIN
FlG. 12.
FIG. 12. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic pseudosections
pseudosections for a simple
simpk vertical
vertical contact.
110
110 Vozoff
Vozoff
are u,;ed
used for interpretation,
interpretation, to screen each value value large
large enough
enough to dO\\'I1gradl'
do\vngratlr a record.
record Record,
Recortl-
computed,
computed, and and to plot plot in aa form form convenient
con\-enient jor ior degraded
degraded by by noi:ie
noise arc are not
not u,;edused ii ii their
their u,;e
use cancan Ill'I,(
interpretation
interpretation the values
values which
which pass the screen- screew avoided,
avoided, although although it it isis ,;ometime,;
sometimes necessary neceshar!. to
ing;
ing; and
and (c) manual
manual evaluation
evaluation of the results results so so asas reconsider
reconsider using using their their quieterquieter parts parts \\'hen
\I-hen inin-
to reject
reject suspect
suspect data data andand to attempt attempt to extract extract sut1icient
buliicient quiet quiet datadata exist.
exist.
u,;ciul
useful portions
portion5 of 0i previously
previousI>- rejectedrejected data \rhcn
data \\'hen Fourier
Fourier transformation
transformation oj
oi each of Oi the
the fi\'e
five re-
necessary,
necessary. corded
cordctl field field component,;
components is ib thcthe second
wcond step in
Later,
Later, in the interpretation
interpretation ,;tage,
stage, the thv ERF E:RF analy,;is.
analysis. Thi,; This ,;tep-tep yieldsyields in-pha,;c
inbphaw and and quadra-
quatlra-
arc
arc‘ compared
compared with \vith tho,;e
those computed
computed for iOr model,;.
models. ture
ture values
values for ior each
each componcnt
component at a,; as many
many fre- ire-
These
These earth
earth re,;ponse
response function,;
functions arc are cu,;tomarily
customaril! quencies
quencies as there there are arc samples.
samplcy. The The ERF E:RF an: are
(I)
(1) horizontal
horizontal direction eo
direction Ou of oi large,;t
largest apparent
apparent derived
derived from from the,;e
these number,;"
numbcr~..
resistivity,
resistivity, (2) impedance,;
impedances and and apparent
apparent re,;i,;- resis- It
It isis helpful
helpful at at thi,;
this point
point to de,;crihede>cril)e a ie\\' ie\v of 0i
tivities
tivities forfor E in the direction direction OOand eo and for ior E perper- the
the properties
properties of the the ERF,
I*:RE‘, anticipating
anticipating the
the sec-wc-
pendicular
pendicular to eo,
Bo, (3) pha,;es
phases oi 0i the the t\\'O
two apparen
apparent t tion
tion on interpretation,
interpretation, in order
order to explainexplain some oi cli
resistivities, (-±)
re,;istivities, (4) the portion
portion of Of lIzHz that
that i,; is linearly
linearI!- the
the procedures
procedures \\'hich lvhicli are are used in data data analysis.
analysis. In In
related
related to the the horizontal
horizontal field, field, (.1) (5) thethe direction
direction of oi t\\'o-dimensional
t\\-o~dimcnsion~~l structure,; structures \\'hen \vhen neither
neither of 0i thethe
the
the horizontal
horizontal magnetic
magnetic field field component
component most
most coordinate
coordinate axes is along along strike,
strilie, all all four
iour elemenb
elements oi Of
highly
highly coherent
coherent \\'ith I\-ith (-±),
(4), andand (el) (0) the phase phase dif- tlii- the
the impedance
impedance tensor tenior 7. Z,,ij are nonzero
nonzerc, and and han' have
ference
ference bet\\'een
bet\\-een (-t) (4) andand (5), (5). :'Ifoti\'ation
1IotivatiOn and
and different
different \·alues.\.alues. :'Ifagnetic
l\Iagnetic field
field components
components in
theory
theory for for the
the first
first three
three function,;
functions can be 1~ found
found the
the .r .i‘ direction
direction give gi\'e rise
ri,;e to to some
some currents
currents alongalong.Y, s,
in :'IIadden
~Iadden and and S\\'ift
Swift (19()9),
(1900), Cantwell Cantwell (1 <)()O),
(IWJ), in
in addition
atltlition to the the y-directed
y-directed currents, currents, \vhich which
:'Iladden
Madden and
and :\elson
Sclson (I <)()-l), and
(106-L), and SwiftS\vift (1967),
(1967). would
would be bc the only ones iiif the
the only the earth
earth \verc uniform
were uniform
Some
Some of the the analytical
analytical techniques
techniques for
for theirtheir or horizontally
horizontally layered . .\lagnetic
layered. .\Iagietic y components
? components
computation
computation are
are summarized
summarizetl anti di,;cu,;,;ed
and discussed by by are likewise
are like\vis;e associated
a:iSociated \vith \\'ith both
both EJ and E,,,
EI and E", so so
Sims
Sims and Bostick (1
and Bostick <)()9) , and
(1909), and \\'ord
\\-ord et al (1%9), (IOOO). that 7.
that u , 7.'<!I'
Z=.,, Z,!,, Z,,.,-, and 7.!I!I
Z!I.,., and Z!,!, \vill
will allall have
have somesome finite
finite
:'IIotivation
Motivation and
and theory
theory for for the the last last three
three func-func- values.
values. :\011' So\v ii ii thethe coordinate
coordinate axes are are rotated
rotated
tions
tions areare discussed
discussed in \-ozoff \*ozoff and and SwiftS\r-ift (I 961l),
(196X), (either
(either phy,;ically
physically or by by computation)
computation) until until oneone 0i of
Sims 2nd
Sims 2nd Bostick
Bostick (1969), (1969), and and Word \Vord et al (1%9), (1969). them is along
them along strike,
strike, then then currents
currents due due toto IfIi, I can
can
Their
Their computation
computation was
was devised
devised by by T, T. R,R. Madden
~Iatltlcn no longer
longer be deflected into
bc deflectecl into the the .r direction
direction and and
and
and is summarized
summarized below.
below. Rankin Rankin (1969)
(1969) and and those
those due to H!, HlI fo\r
tlo\\' only
only in in the
the .r direction, In
.x direction. In
Kunetz (1969)
Kunetz (1969) have have suggested
sugge,;ted techniques techniques for for this
this situation,
situation, Z.,, Z.," and 7.'1JJ must
and Z],?, must be zero. zero. The
The otherother
and advantages
and advantages of extractingextracting the the I<RFERF in in the
the timetime pair are
pail are nonzcro
nonzero and and unequal,
unequal, since since current
current
domain,
domain. densities will
densities will differ
differ in in the
the t\\o two directions,
directions, and and the the
The first
The first phase,
phase, manual manual editing,editing, involvesinvoh'es the the RE components
components must must alho also differ.
differ. If If the
the coordinates
coordinates
examination of both
examination both recording
recording log log hooks
book,; anti
and chart
chart are rotated
are rotated a further further 90 90 degrees,
degrees, the the same
same situa-
situa-
tion is loud,
-
records for
records for evidence
evidence that that artificial
artificial or or \vind
\\'ind noise
noise is tion iound, exceptexcept that that the the Z7. values
values are are inter-
inter-
DISTANCE
DISTANCE -
MoDEL
DEPTH
DEPTH pQ
pI
MODEL
!
I
/
pz (>pI)
LOG Po ~IZ ~I---_______

r_ ~II 4- APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
Po
FIG, 13.
I:IG. Effect of burial
13. Effect burial on the apparent
apparent resistivity
resistivity of a contact.
contact. Comlw-r
Compare \\ith
with I‘Figure
igure 10
10
at the same frequency.
frequency.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 111
the other
changed. Some of the other properties
properties of the im-
im- greater degree of independence
have a greater
have independence (smaller
(smaller
elements are not
pedance elements not so
so apparent.
apparent. One
()ne of cross !lower)
cross than any
power) than other pair.
any other The denomi-
pair. The denomi-
that
these is that nator of (lath
nator each wwltinji
resulting c~lualion
cqua tion is
%,., = - A!,!, (9)
(‘
4 (ff,.4*)(rf,/3*j - (ff,/3*)(ff,.4*). (16)
the angle between
regardless of the between thethe coordinate
coordinate
If
If A and B are strongly
strongly dependent,
dependent, the two terms
terms
strike. Equation
axes and strike.
axes (9) was also
Equation (9) found by
also found by
denominator become
the denominator
in the nearly equal. Al-
become nearly Al-
computation to be valid
computation for an arbitrary
valid for arbitrary number
number
other pairs
though other pairs can and have occasionally been
horizontal layers, each of which is arbitrarily
of horizontal arbitrarily
used, (III, B,)
used, the (ZZ,, Hy) pair
pair is found practice to
found in practice
anisotropic. Another
anisotropic. Another important
important property
property is that
that
that are as
give results that as good or
or better
better than
than any
any of
XIii -
X1,, XUI =
XljI
ziil constant
= constant (10) the others in in terms of the numbers
numbers of points
points
passing acceptance tests. Exceptions
passing Exceptions havehave been
a t all orientations.
at orien ta t ions. particularly when one If
observed, particularly H channel
channel has
In three-dimcilsional
In structures, the tensor ele-
three-dimensional structures, been contaminated
contaminated by artificial
artificial noise.
noise. The
The na-
ments are stillstill well behaved,
behaved, according to Sims discussed below.
ture of the acceptance tests is discussed
and Bostick (1969). By
Bostick (1969). By plausibility arguments,
plausibility arguments, Performing the
Performing multiplications and solving
the multiplications solving the
the
they arrived
they arrived at equations give the follo\ving
equations following four expressions
expressions to
constant
%,, + LU,, = constant (11 ) evaluated:
be evaluated:
(11)
and
Z
(/';"./1 *)(H"B*)- (FxB* )(HyA
= ----- - --
*>
--------. (17)
ZI." -
LIJ, ZYI = constant.
Z,, constant. (12)
(12) n (lIT-A *)(lIyB*) - (lIxB* ) (lI y/l *»)
The Zij
The transformed
Zij are first found from the transformed (RxA *)(HIB*)- (FIB*)(HIA *)
*)(HxB*)- (FI8*)(HIA
data by solving equations (7) and (8). (8). This
This in-
in- Z = - - - - - - - - - -----
----~---- ~---~ --
-~ - ----.
~---. (18)
·X1l (HyA*)(IIIB*)-(HyH*)(HIA*>,
(H y A*)(III8*)-(Hy H*)(H I A*/
volves using two equations in four unknowns.
The apparent
The apparent discrepancy is resolved by taking taking (Hy,1
(Fy,1 *)(H"B*)- (/';,J3*)(IIvA *)
(19)
advantage of the facts that
advantage that the Zo very
Zij change very
XII'
£11' = (II~A*)(jj,);*>- (Hx8*)(HyA*)'
(H x B*)<Hy,1*)'
with frequency
slowly with frequency and can therefore
therdore be com-
puted at far fewer frequencies than there are
transform values. That
transform is, the ZiJ are
That is, are calculated
calculated as
%ij as
averages
averages over frequency bands with each each band
including many points of the transform.
transform. This has has Having computed the %ij,
Having computed Zjj, WC
Xij, we can then sub-
been done
done in a number
number of different
different ways, the most stitu
stitutete back into into equations (7) and (8) to to com-
com-
common of which is is that
that described by MaddenMadden pute values oi
pute values of E, and E,.
Ex and Ey. These
These values,
values, which
which areare
and ~elson
Nelson (19M).
(1904). Each equation
equation isis written
written asas predicted
predicted from from IIIII, and II
IIx and fly,
II,, have the
y , have the interesting
interesting
characteristic
characteristic that that they
they must
must be wholly wholly dependent
dependent
(/ii.l*) = %,.~((IZ,A*) + e,,,(z/,.l*) (13)
on the
the horizontal
horizontal field. Thus,
H field.
13 Thus, any any differences
differences
and between
between the observed E and the predicted
the observed predicted E must must
be
bc due to contamination
contamination of of either
either E or or 11H byby
(/LB*) = %,,(H,H*j + Zi,(H,H*), (11)
noise. For this reason,
For this reason, the the coherency
coherency between
between
where A * and H*
where A* H* are the complex conjugates of predicted
predicted and observed E components
and observed components has has proven
proven
any two of HI,
H,, HHlIlI ,, Ex,
E,, and
and E to bebc the mostmost sensitive
sensitive measure
measure of noise avail- avail-
H,, 1I ,, and
ET,,
1I and CD*
CD* is the
the
cross power and D,
power of C and D,
f), able. It
able. It is loosely
loosely called
called the the predictability.
predictability. At
At
(CD*)(Wl)
(CD*&,) =
1
&J
---
f W1
+ C..IW!2 1
w’+(iwi21CD*CD* tlw.
dw. ((15)
15)
"normal"
“normal”
teria
teria for
for the
sites a predictability
predictability
required of an E component
is required
the corresponding
corresponding apparent
of 0.95
component as one of the
0.95 or greater
greater
the cri-
cri-
resistivity to
L1w w,p(Aw
Wl-(..Iw 1’
21)
appear
appear on on the final plots.
Six different
different combinations
combinations are possible,
possible, so
so that
that Once the Zij
Once Z;, have
have beenbeen found iountl in thethe original
original
six different
different values
values of each Z,j can
each Z;j can be
be calculated (s, y, z) coordinate
(x, coordinate system,
system, they they can be rotated
rotated to
(HI'
(H,, Hy;
(HI) H,; HT-,
H,, E
E,,; ; etc). Most commonly, the two H
1I ; etc). Most commonly,
1I any
any other system (x',
other system y',
(x’, y’, z')z’) by an angleangle ()0 in
in the
the
components are used, used, as
as they arc
are expected to clocbvise
clockcvise direction.
direction. The The rotated
rotated impedances
impedances are are
112 Vozoff
Vozoff
of analysis and plotting

plotting is is to permit
permit interpreta.
intcrprcta-
225,(e) = (zu +
(Z,, + zYY)
Z,,) + (Zxx +
(Z,, - ZyJ cm 2fJ
Z,,) cos 28 tion, which is is now possible
possible only for two-dimen-
two-dimcn-
+ (Zc, +
+ (Xm + XYI)
&) sin 2fJ,
28, (21)
(21) sional
sional st ructures. Hence, only p~y
structures. and p~x
p:,. ami p{,, are
routinely
routinely plotted,
1)loticd, since
since they are arc the only two
L&(O) = (X.rJl ZJlr) +
(ZIY - Xyx) (Z.y!,+
t- (Z.ry + L".r) cos 2fJ
Z,.i) co;; 2O
which appear in two-dimensional
two-dimcnsion;tl l11ooels.
models. The ‘I’lic
- (ZII: - Z,,,) sin 28, (22)
(22) elements, p~x
other pair of clements, p:, and P;y,
pj,, is
is also
also useful
useful in
Although p~x
2&,(O) = - (Zxy Z,,) + (X
(Z,, - ZYx) +
Xy + ZYx)
(Zzg cos 2fJ
Z,,) cos 28 + interpreting
interpreting data from the field. Although
p~y
p(yyare often small compared with
p:, and
with the larger of the
- (Zxx
(Z,, - Zyy)
Z,,) sin 2fJ,
28, (23)
(23) others, they are never found to be zero. This This fact
2&(O) = (Zxx +
(L + ZUy)
Z,,) - (ZXT
(Z,, - Zyy) cos 2fJ
Z,,) cos 28 can be used
structure
used to judge
judge the degreedegree to which the
structure at a site departs from true two-dimen- two-dimen-
- (ZXy +
(Z,, + Zyx)
Z,,) sin 2fJ.
28. (24)
(24) If p~x
sionality. If
sionality. p:, and p~yp[,,, are both very small, we
The
The principal axes of Z are the values of fJ0 at
principal axes have either
either a well-defined
well-defined strike or horizontal
horizontal
which Z;'v
Z&, and Z~x
ZLz take on their
their largest and small- layers.
est values, respectively.
respectively. One way of finding these
these As noted above, both (X.cx+Zyy)
(&+Z,,) and (ZXy - Zyx)
(Z,,-ZU,)
directions isis to compute Z for many values of fJO independent of fJ,
are independent 8, as
as is
is their
their ratio.
ratio. The
The magni-
and interpolate
interpolate to find maxima
maxima and minima.
minima. It It is
is tude of the complex ratio of the quantities quantities is is
preferable
preferable to useuse an analytical
analytical technique if pos- called the skewness,
skewness,
sible, to reduce computation.
computation. However,
However, the only
1 Xu + X"y
such technique which has
such has thus far been developed s .
= ---- 1
(30)
does not directly
does maximize either Z:"v
directly maximize (0) or Z~x
Z&, (fJ) Z& (fJ).
(0). 1 ,ley - X yr 1
Instead it
Instead solves for the angle fJo
it solves O0at which
If S is
If is large, structure
structure at
at the site must appear to
1 Z~y(fJo)
Z:,(OO) 12
I2 + + 1 Z~x(fJo) Iz =
Z:,(O,) 12 = maximum.
maximum. (25)
(25) be three-dimensional
three-dimensional in thatthat frequency
frequency range.
Setting
Setting the derivative with respect to fJO of this
derivative with An aspect of this method
method isis that
that it
it must USC
usc a
sum equal to zero gives (Swift,
(Swift, 1967)
1967) very wide frequency
frequency range to be cffcctively
effectively inter-
inter-
- - - - - - - - - ---- -----
G -- Zyy)
(LIX &a>(ZXy
G, + ZYx)*
G/B)*+ (Zxx+ + +
ZlIY)*(ZXY + zj,J)
(Z,, + z,,)*(z,, ZI//) +
tan 4fJ
tan 400
----1 z.::-
o = ~~~~~______~
I zz.r - Z!lJ~rzXY
zww12 - j z,, + ZilI 1LT + z:-F----- (26)
(26)
This same
This fJo also
same value of Oo also satisfies
satisfies preted. Apparent
preted. Apparent resistivity
reslsttvlty curves are smooth
regular when they
and regular they arc plotted
plotted on log-log
Z:x(fJ o) 12
11Z:,(O,) I3 + X~!I(fJo) 12
+ 1.&(OO) I? = minimum,
minimum, (27)
(27)
scales. Semilog linear scales
scales give very
very steep
scales. Scmilog or linear
so that
so that in the case
case of two-dimensional
two-dimensional structures slopes very low frequencies and uselessly
slopes at very uselessly flat
flat
scheme finds the true principal
the scheme principal axes.
axes. In
In the slopes at
slopes at high irequcncics.
frequencies. Since Fourier
Fourier trans-
trans-
three-dimensional case,
three-dimensional case, the method
method picks a normally appear on a linear
forms normally linear frequency
frequency
slightly more general maximum,
slightly maximum, i.e.,
i.e., scale but
scale but interpretation
interpretation is done on a log-frequency
log-frequency
basis, it is helpful
basis, it helpful to do the integrations
integrations of equa-
1I Z~y(fJ) + Z;,(O)
Z:,(O) + Z~£(fJ) 1I = mnvimum
maximum (28)
(28) tion (15) with
tion with bands whose center
center frequencies are
If IIn such bands
logarithmic scale. If
equispaced on a logarithmic
Bostick, 1969). The
(Sims and Bostick, The results are seldom frequency decatle,
are desired in each frequency decade, thethe ratio
ratio of
as impedance
shown as impedance values. Instead,
Instead, the Z:, Z;j are center frequencies of adjacent
center adjacent bands is
converted
converted to apparent
apparent resistivities pij , with
resistivities pi?, with
fitl 1
log-= - . (31)
(31)
I
P:j
Pt., = ; 2.
Sf
1Z~.
I z:,;1z.i 1
2
• (29)
(29) fi 11
Bandwidth, in
Bandwidth, in terms
terms of the
the number
number of points
points of
Apparent resistivity
Apparent Z;j, that
resistivity has the phase of Z:,, that is, the transforms,
the transforms, must
must also increase with
with frequency
frequency
difference between
the phase difference between EC
Ei and Hi.
Hj . consistent smoothing
for consistent smoothing on a log-frequency
log-frequency scale.
Four different
Four different Z$ extracted at
Z;j are extracted at each fre- This is the
This the frequency
frequency domain
domain equivalent
equivalent of the
the
Z~x, Z:,,
quency:: Z:,,
quency Z~y, Z;,,
Z~x, and Zi,,.
Z~y. The
The main purpose time domain
time domain constant
constant QQ filters
filters used by
by Swift
Swift
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 113
113
(1967).
(1967). TheThe bandwidth
bandwidth consideration
consideration explains
explains the the “tipper.” Its
'·tipper." Its magnitude
magnitude in
in each
each frequency
frequency band,
band,
spacing of
spacing of points
points on on thethe plot
plot inin this
this and
and some
some
other papers
other papers onon :'lIT.
1\I’l‘.
(.I? + .1;+ m +
'/ <)
‘1‘11~other
The other ERF
l:RI’ arc arc*designcd
tlesigne~lto to usc
use the
die \'('rtical
\.ertical 8~)1
nlagnetic component
magnetic coml~onent liz I!, to
to help
help determine
determine which \vliich
0i the
of thetwotwoprincipal
1)rincipal impedance
impedance axes axes is
is the
the strike
strike sho\vs the
sholl's the relatil,(,
relati1.e strcngth 0iflo.
strength of II;. lts
Ltsphase
l)hasc is
is
direction. At
direction. At thethe same
same time, time the the remaining
remaining ERF ERF · -I [(
ttan-’
an ~ 12
[(.I? r + + 1'2)
/$!),)r / ~ i +
(.1
(_I,22 + 1'2)JI,2
R,2)]1,2.
) t • (3 i)
(37)
aid the
aid the interpreter
interpreter in in understanding
understanding the the cause
cause of of
apparent anisotropy,
apparent anisotropy, point out out distant
distant lateral
lateral For aa two-dimensional
For two-dimensional structure
structure striking
striking in the
conductivity changes,
conductivity changes, and and often
often provide addi- addi- direction (¢±
direction ($*90) degrees from .r,
90) degrees .I‘, A
;1 and B B will
tional warning when three-dimensional
tional three-dimensional structural
structural the same
have the same phasesif we we assume
assume noise-free data,
data.
conditions occur.
conditions occur. The The concept
concept which guides guides the the so that A
so A/B is aa real number and the tipped
/ B is
use of
use of lIz
Hi is
is the
the same
same as as that
that behind the the AF::\IAG
AFM4G horizontal component Hq,
horizontal H, is
is at an angle
angle ¢4 from
and somesome YLFVLF techniques of electromagnetic electromagnetic the xx:axis,
axis, where
propsecting at audio and \'LF VLF freljuencies.
frequencies.
arctan (8/.0.
¢+ == arctan (/<,‘.I). (38)
(38)
From the field data we \vc want to find the hori-
zontal direction in which the magnetic field is is (It
(It is
is important
important in the use 0i the tipper
use of tipper to kno\\'
knon
most highly coherent with lIz. II?. In two-dimensional
t\~o-tlim~llsional whether the phase
whether phase difference between Hz H, and II¢>
II,
structures that direction will be be constant, per- lies near 0 degrees
lies degrees or near 180
180 degrees,
degrees, since,
since, for aa
pendicular to strike, for reasons
pendicular reasons discussed
discussed in the contact, phase at a single site can be used
simple contact, used
section. It
next section. It is
is assumed
assumed that, that, if we wished, the determine both strike
to determine strike of the contact
contact and
measurement axes axes could be be physically
physically rotated
rotated at direction to the contact
direction contact from the site.)
each frequency to find this direction.
each direction. In the three-dimensional
In three-dimensional case,
case, when A and 15 H
The procedure, due to T. R, R. ::\Iadden
Madden (1968, different phases,
have different phases, ¢4 can be defined in several
unpublished), is
unpublished), is to assume
assume that that HzH, isis linearly
linearly ways. For For example, the definition
definition of ¢+ which
related to Hx
related H, and Hy H, and to write write at each
each fre-
frc- maximizes the cross
maximizes cross power
power of horizontal
horizontal and ver-
ver-
quency tical components is
tical
-1 (.l.;B,) + (-1; + Hq) tan-' (.li H,)

(39)
(39)
P
7“
H, = AH, + RH,, C.32)

(32) This
This is
is a weighted
weighted average of rotation
rotation angles for
the real and imaginary
imaginary parts
parts of the horizontal.
horizontal.
where A and B
B are unknown
unknown complex coefficients.
coeffIcients. Another
Another rotation
rotation criterion
criterion is maximum
maximum coherency
of a horizontal
horizontal component
component and 11,. lIz. Pleasures
J\Ieasures of
.1 = .IT
.1 +
-1, + i.l,,
i.I.,
(33)
(33) three-dimensionality
three-dimensionality are the the differences between
between
H
B = 13,
l3 +
r+ iH,.
iB,. the principal
principal axis direction
tensor rotation
direction obtained
obtained byby impedance
impedance
rotation and those obtained
obtained from
from ver-
ver-
Following
Following the derivation Zu, we integrate
derivation of the Zijj integrate tical-horizontal
tical-horizontal field relationships.
relationships, An An indicator
indicator
of the variations
variations in the
the latter
latter is the
the tipper
tipper skew,
(H~H$~ = A.t(~,~,*) + B(H,N,*) (34) definedas
defined as
Tipper
Tipper Skew
(A; + B,2)
(A.1,2
Skew = ~~
Bn tan-’ +
tan- I (-1r/Br)
(...J r / Br) -- en + ,!$)
B~) tan-*
(_‘lS + tan- I
(.1,/8,)
(-1 ~~‘Hi)
---. (-to)
(10)
________~_ T
and Tipper
Tipper skew is zero
zero ifif both
both the
the real
real and imaginary
imaginary
(H,H,*) = A(H,H,*) + I~(~Y,FI,*) (35) parts of HZ
parts Hz are
are most
most coherent
coherent nith
with the
the SUVZ~
same hori-
hori-
zontal
zontal component,
component, as as forfor t\vo-dimensional
two-dimensional struc-
struc-
and
and solve forfor A and B. This
A and This pair
pair of coefficients
coefficients tures.
tures.
can be
be thought
thought of as operating
operating on the
the horizontal
horizontal From
From A and B
A and B we
we cancan also
also calculate
calculate aa predicted
predicted
magnetic
magnetic field
field and tipping
tipping part
part of itit into
into the
the H,,
Hz, and
and determine
determine its its coherency
coherency with
with the
the mea-
mea-
vertical.
vertical. For
For that
that reason, (A, B) is called the
reason, (A. the sured vertical
vertical component
component by by
114
114 Vozoff
.1*(H,H/) + B*\lI,Ify*1
--~ ----------
(.+1)
([{,If/) I ~1.l.l*<flJI,*) + IW*(HJI,,*)jl
Taken
Taken together,
together, these 4uanlltles
quantities describe
clcscribc tile the model
model curvescurves can can be calculated
calculate(l as as accurately
accurately as
relation
relation of HzH, to the two two horizontal
horizontal component:;.
components. desired,
desired, for as many many layerslayers as desired,
desired, at compu comput-t-
They
They showshow the the importance
importance and
and locations
locations of lateral
lateral ing
ing costs of a few fe\v cents
cents each. each. Suites
Suites of 0i cunTS
curves
conductivity
conductivity changes
changes and and thethe reliability
reliability of H,N, forfor appear
appear in Cagniard Cagniard (1953),
(19.5.3), Yungul
Yungul (1961), (1961), and and
interpretive
interpretive purposes.
purposes. For For nearly
nearly two-dimensional
two-dimensional Srivastava
Srivastava (1967).
(1967).
structures,
structures, the
the tipper
tipper cancan be compared
compared directly
directly Figure
Figure 8 compares compares a pair
pair of oi two-layer
two-layer models
models
with
with the
the vertical/horizontal
vertical/horizontal field
field ratios
ratios com-
com- and
and their
their idealized
idealized apparent apparent resistivity
resistivity cun·es. curves. A.t At
pu ted for
puted for various
various models.
models. The
The absence
absence of
oi aa sutiiciently high
a sut1lciently /fig/l frequency,
frequency, the the skin
skin depths
depths are are
significant
significant (i.e.,
(i.e., smooth
smooth and
and consistent)
consistent) tipper
tipper small
small enough
enough that that practically
practically no energy
energy pene- pcne-
permits
permits one
one to use layeredlayered model
model interpretation
interpretation trates
tratcs to the the basement.
basement. A.pparent .\pparent resistivity
resistivity is
with
with somesome confidence.
confidence. IThe ‘h
’e tipper
tipper is also also a sensi-
sensi- therefore
therefore asymptotic
asymptotic to Pl pi at high
high frequencies
frequencies and and
tive
tive indicator
indicator of certain
certain noise
noise sources.
sources. the
the upper
upper layer layer is not not penetrated.
penetrated. When
\\Tlien fre-fre-
It
It has
has beenbeen pointed
pointed out out on theoretical
theoretical grounds
grounds 4uencies
quencies are are low enough, enough, the the toptop layer
layer has little little
that
that tippers
tippers could could be caused
caused by by factors
factors external
external effect
effect andand the the apparent
resistivity approaches
approaches P1. pr,
to thethe conducting
conducting earth.
earth. Fortunately
Fortunately for
for the the The
The transition
transition with
with frC4uency
frequency. is gradual, gradual, so ,,0
method,
method, and
and for for several
several possible
possible reasons,
reasons, the the :\IT
,\IT smooth
smooth curves curves result.result. ‘The greater layer
I’he greater layer thickness
thickness
data
data so far far studied
studied by by the
the writer
writer have
havre shown
shonn no model B requires
of model rC4uires goinggoing to to a 100yer frequency to
lower frequency to
evidence
evidence of of tippers
tippers of external
external origin.
origin. obtain
obtain the the samc
same amount amount of basement basement influence influence on on
the
the cun·e.
curve.
INTERPRETATION
INTERPRETA TION :\
-1 typical three-layer curve
typical three-layer curve is shownshown in in Figure
Figure 9
The
The general
general procedures
procedures of interpretation
interpretation arc
are for
for a second
second layer layer \vhich
\yhich is more more conductive
conductive than than
discussed
discussed in in this
this section.
section. Examples
Fxamples of
of their
their ap- ap- the
the other
other t\\'o.
t\vo. :\s expected, the
-1s expected, the curve
curve approaches
approaches
plication
plication to
to field
field results
results \\·ill
\vill he be shO\nl
sho\r-ii in the the pi at
Pl at high
high frequencies,
frequencies, drops drops toward
toward pZ P' atat lower
lower
iollO\nng
iollo\vmg section.
section. frequencies,
frectuencies, and and thenthen goes to p:l, P:j. :\Ithough
;\lthough Pu
pU
Interpretation
Interpretation consists
consists of Oi three
three stages.
stages. These
l’hese never
never reaches
reaches ~2, P2, thethe presence
presence Oi of aa conductive
conductive
are
are (1) (1) a general
general qualitative
4ualitative o\'en·ie\\·
o\-crvie\v of
of thethe re-re- second
second layer layer is obvious obvious as long long as it it is notnot too too
sults, (2)
sults, (2) fitting
fitting layered
layered models
models at at each
each site,
site, and
and thin. (\Vays
thin. (\Yays oi of interpreting
interpreting its its thickness
thickness and and re- re-
(3) t\vo-dimensional
(3) two-dimensional and and three-tlimcnsional
three-dimensional intcr- inter- sisitivity are
sisitivity are discussed
discussed belon-.) belo\\·.) The The extension
extension to to
pretation. i$%en
pretation. \Vhen properly
properly carried
carried out, out, this
this inter-
inter- cases of four four or or more
more layers
layers is clear.
clear.
pretation sequence
pretation se4uence resultsresults in in thethe best
best possible
possible The gradual
The gradual way way in in which
which the the effect
effect of of each
each
estimate of
estimate of coiiductivity
conductivity structurestructure Tvithin\\'ithin the the layer appears,
layer appears, as contrasted contrasted with with the the abrupt
abrupt onsetonset
survey area.
survey area. InIn practice,
practice, the the third
third stage
stage is 0itcll
often of a reflection
of reflection in in a seismic
seismic record,
record, characterizes
characterizes
followed by
followed by anan attempt
attempt to to assign
assign rock rock types
types and and a the n-eakncsses
the \\'eaknesses and and the t he strengths
strengths of this this method.
method.
structure to
structure to the
the results,
results, when\\·hen experience
experience indi- indi- If, for example,
Ii, for example, the the second
second layer layer I\-cre
\\'cre thin
thin enough,
enough,
cates the
cates the attempt
attempt may may bc be warranted.
warranted. Interpreta-
Interpreta- the apparent
the apparent resistivity
resisti\'ity curve cun'e would
would go smoothly smoothly
tion may
tion may draw draw on other other sources
sources of information
information irom p,
from PI to ~3: P3: the the second
second layer layer wouldwould not not be seen
about the
about the area
area or or about
about similar
similar areas.
areas. unless it
unless it were
were extremely
extremely conductive.
conductive. On On the the other
other
Since all
Since all geophysical
geophysical interpretation
interpretation is based based on on hand, this
hand, this tendency
tendency to to average
a \'erage together
together the the minor
minor
comparing ob.scrved
comparing observed earth earth response
response data data with with features permits
features permits the the method
method to to show
sho\\' up up weakly
weakly
model data,
model data, thisthis section
section \vill
will begin
begin withwith a tlis- dis- systematic variations
systematic variatiom; which which mightmight be be lost
lost with
with a
cussion of models.
cussion models. In In horizontally
horizontally layered layered struc-
struc- higher resolving
higher resolving po\vcr. power. ItIt can can be be thought
thought of of as
t!lres, a single
tures, single apparent
resistivity curve, curve, or or its
its emphasizing the
emphasizing the grosser
grosser (longer (longer n-avclength)
\\'avclength)
phase, contains
phase, contains all iniormation oi
all information of significance.
significance. structural ieatui-es
structural features at at the
the expense
expense 0iof the the finer
finer tlc-
de-
Strike and
Strike and tipper
tipper are are undefined.
undefined. 1)crivation
Derivation of of tails. This
tails. This characteristic
characteristic carries carries over over to to the
the two-
two-
apparent resistivity and and phase
phase curves curves for for the the dimensional case.
dimensional case. so that that structural
st ructural features
features ma! may
layered model
layered model appear
appear in in several
several published
published refer- refer- sho\y up
show up even even though though traverses
traverses do do not not cross
cross
ences, for
ences, for example
example Madden ;\Iadden and and Swift
Swift (1969),
(1969), directly over
directly over them, them, justifying
justifying large large traverse
traverse
Tikhonov (1950),
Tikhonov (1950), and and 1Vait
W ai t (1962).
(1962). Layered
Layered spacings.
spacings.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 115
115
Figure
Figure 10 10 shows the simplest simplest t\yo-dimensional
tn-o-dimensional current
current is continuous
continuous and and E =.iP, l~
I<=,ip, I:‘ change,
change- in
structure,
structure, the vertical fault. It
vertical fault. It displays
displays all of the the same ratio ratio as P; pa, which
p; Pa, jrhich depencb
tlependh on E2. I:‘?.
characteristics
characteristics of
oi more
more complicated
complicated two-dimen-
tn-o-dimen- changes
changes as the squa sylrure re of the changechange in p.
sional
sional models,
models, but but isis one of the few fen for which
which any an! Currents
Currents and and electric
electric fields
fields parallel
parallel to strike strike are
theoretical
theoretical solutions
solutions have have been found. found. Conse-Conse- able
able to adjust
adjust without
without having ha\-ing to cross the the bound-
bountl-
quently
quently it it makes
makes aa very very instructive
instructive example.
example. ary.
ary. The The parallel
parallel E component
component and
and the the cor-cor-
The
The gross differences
differences between between this and and the responding
responding Pa pn are continuous
continuous across the the contact,
contact,
horizontally
layered models
models examinedexamined earlierearlier are approaching
approaching the
the appropriate
appropriate uniform
uniform earth earth solu-
solu-
that
that (1) apparent
apparent resisti\'ity
rcsistivit!- and and phases
phases \'ary
vary with\vith tion
tion smoothly
smoothI!- with with distance
distance on each each side. Hc)\\'- How
rotation
rotation of measurement
measurement axes and and (2) the tippertipper is is e\'er,
ever, the the current
current densities
densities change change abruptly
abruptly here.
here.
nonzero.
noi1zero. \Ye \Ve consider two sites, onc
consider lIl"() one on each each side as illustrated,
illustrated, causing causing a magnetic
magnetic field that that cun'es
curve5
of the
the fault
fault (see Figure
Figure 11). 11). Whcn\Vhen measurement
measurement around
around the the higher
higher density
density region.region. This This is the the
axes at at site .\ ;\ are aligned
aligned with with the the structural
structural origin
origin of 0i the vertical H
the vertical II component.
component. Direction Ijirection of
axes, the two two apparent
apparent re,;i,;ti\'ity
rebistivity curvc,;
curves which which largest II
largest II in the the vertical
vertical planeplane i, is shown
shown by by thethe
result
result are shOlmshown (labeled
(labelctl .\) .I) in Figure
Figure 11. Il. :\Iea-
Area- lines
lines of oi II above E current
H above current 1101\'.
tlo\\-.
,;urements
surements made made at pointpoint B H gi\'e
give the t\\·o
t\\-0 cun'es
curves :\Iore
More rigorously,
rigorously, there
there \villn-ill be a vertical vertical II
II
labeled
labeled B, B. The
The subscript
subscript for ior each cun'c curve reicrsreiers component
component only
only if curl curl E has a vertical \.ertical com- con-
to the direction of E relative
the direction relative to strike. strike. HzII; and
and the ponent. Ii
ponent. If y is the the strike
strike direction
direction (a 'ay
say=()),
= 0),
tipper
tipper approach
approach zero zero with
rvith increasing
increasing frequency
frequenq then
then for currents across
for currents strike (Ey=O)
across strike (E,=(J) the the curl
curl
at
at each
each location
location. ..At \t low
10~ frequencies,
frequencies the
the tippers
tippers of E has no z component. component. Currents Currents parallel parallel to to
at
at both
both sites are asymptotic
asymptotic to the
the same
same constant
constant strike han'
strike ha1.c a nonzcro
nonzero value value for for dEyaEy 'ax,a‘ ,~, soso thex
they
values.
values. also ha haveve an associated
associa ted Zlf ll, coniponcnt.
componen t.
\Yhen
n’hen the
the \'alues
values of several several quantities
quantities are
are \\Iien measurements
\\"hen measuremcnts are are macle
made along along a traverhe
traverse
plotted
plotted versus
versus location
location alongalong a traverse
traverse crossing
crossing line as is natural
line natural in in t\\o-diiucnsiollal
two-dimensional situations. situations. a
the
the fault,
fault, cun'e:;
curves such as the the apparent
apparent resistivity,
resistivitv, more con\'enient
more convenient presentation
presentation of apparent apparent resis- resis-
tipper,
tipper, and and relati\'e
relati\-e I
/ H~I
Nll of oi Figure
Figure 10 are ob- tivities than
tivities than that that of Figures
Figures 10 and andl1 11 is essential.
essential.
tained,
tained. TheThe features
features to note note are the the following:
following: One such presentation
One presentation is the the pseudosection,
pseudosection, sug- sug-
gested
gested by by :\ (1 (57). Figure
eves (1057).
Seves Figure 12 shows shows pseudo-pseudo-
1. PupU varies
varies smoothly
smoothly forfor currents
currents ROIying
flon-ing along
along
sections for
sections for the the fault.
fault. The The horizontal
horizontal scalesarc scales arc
to strike,
strike, but
but varies
varies discontinuously,
discontinuously. with
with
distance; the
distance; the vertical
vertical scalesscales are are frequency
frequency with \"ith
an overshoot,
an overshoot, forfor currents
currents across
across strike.
strike,
lowest
lowest frequencies
frequencies at at bottom.
bottom ..;\pparent
\pparent resistivity
resistivity
2, Pa
2. asymptotic to
p" is asymptotic to the
the appropriate
appropriate resistiv-
resistiv-
value is plotted
value plotted beneathbeneath site site location
location at at the
the ap-ap-
ity \-aluc
it,- value at
at large
large distances
distances from
from the
the fault,
fault.
propriate
propriate frequency
frequency for for each
each site,site, andand the the results
results
largest near
lIz is largest
3. ZIz ncar thethe fault
fault, decreasing
decreasing
are
are contoured.
contoured. Separate Separate pbeudoscctions
pseudosections have have to to
smoothly to zero
smoothly zero in
in both
both directions.
directions.
be constructed
constructed ior for R parallel
parall"l and and IIII parallel
parallel to to
1.
-1,. The horizontal H component
The horizontal component across
across strike,
strike,
strike,
strike.
H,L, varies
N-1, varies significantly
significantly nearnear the
the fault.
fault.
.\s
As a means means 0i of further
further explaining
explaining the the logical
logical
:\Iost these effects
Alost of these effects can
can be understood
understood by
by basis
basis of the the second
second stagestage of interpretation,
interpretation, \ve we will
will
examining the
examining the current
current flon-
Rmy patterns
patterns near
ncar the
the discuss three three additional
additional models. models. l’These hose are arc thethe
fault in
fault in Figure
Figure 10. .-\t
At a large
large distance
distance from
from the
the buried steeply
buried steeply dippingdipping contact,
contact, the the thin
thin dipping
dipping
interface, currents
interface, currents are
are crowded
crowded closer
closer to
to the
the sur-
sur- conductive
conductive dike, dike, and and the the thinthin dipping
dipping resistiveresistive
face on
face on the
the conductive
conductive side.
side. Currents
Currents across
across dike.
dike.
strike must
strike must be continuous
continuous through
through the
the contact,
contact, When a cover
When cover of of resistivit)-
resistivity PO laid over
po is laid over the the
and they
and they adjust
adjust smoothly
smoothly as shown.
shown, Far
Far away
away previous model,
previous model, the the result
result is to to smooth
smooth and and atat-
from the
from the contact,
contact, the
the values
values of
of current
current densit!
density tenuate all
tenuate all of of the
the boundary
boundary effects effects n-hi& which were were
and electric
nntl electric field
field are
arc appropriate
appropriate to
to the
the uniform
uniform seen.
seen, The The tlegrcc
degree of of smoothin,
smoothingtr incrrasesincreases xvitli with the the
medium ...\l)proachin,
mccliuni. \pproaching(r the
t he contact
contact from
from the
t he coii-
con- thickness
thickness anti and corltlucti\-ity
conducti\'ity of of die the overl,urclen
o\'crIJllT<len
ductive sitlc,
cluctivc side, 111~~
the currenl
current tlt,nsity
density xlat thv
the suriacca
,;urface (Figure I1-').
(I;igurc .i). .\~)parc.nt
.\pparent rvsisti\,ily
resi,;ti\'ity cur\.cs
cunTS ai at IarK<,
large
hence, IIl~ aiitl
decreases; hence,
tlecreases; and P,~ decrease. Although
p" (Iccrcasc. :\lthough the
the distances from
tlistanccs from the the contact
contact im are thchc
tho,;l' of
of die the appr~,-
appro-
current densities
current densities on the
the t\\o
two sides are
are identical
identical at
at priate two-layer
priate t \\'o.layer motlcl.
model. The The t\\-ot In) pscutloscctions
IbClldoscctions
the contact,
the contact, the
the abrupt
abrupt resistivity
resistivity change
change causes
causes for I<
for E parallel
parallel and and R R perpendicular
perpendicular become become veq vcry
an abrupt
an abrupt change
change in R, and
in R, and hence
hence in
in pa. Because
Because similar. Although
similar. Although the the transition
transition in in apparent
apparent
116 Vozoff
Vozoff
resistivity
resistivity will still be
be more abrupt
abrupt for currents on
On thc
the E across it
E field acroys it does
docs not become large
flowing across
across strike, the actual discontinuity
discontinuitl- until
until the dip is
is very
vcry shallo\\-,
,;halhm', \vhcn
\vhen the dike start,
starts
vanishes because
because both current
current density and re- to behave as
as a conductive
conductive layer. Figure
Figure 1+ shO\\·,
11 sho\\~s
sistivity
sistivity are continuous. TheThe tipper
tipper then becomes
becomes behavior of
the behavior of the dike ",hen
when it isis vertical.
n.'rtical. TheThe
a more important
important clue
clue to strike. E,
E, apparent resistiYity responds
apparent resistivity responds at a substantial
substantial
:\Iany
Many fault,;
faults in older consolidated and meta-
distance on either
either side, gi\'in~
side, o’
~v~ng the dike the ap-
morphosed rocks
rocks ha \'C the appearance of narrow
have narron
pearance of a conductive valley. Ii
conductive valley. actually
Ii this actual]!.
conductivc
conductive dikes.
dikes. Shale beels,
beds, \vhich
which often arc
are the
\vere
n-we a conductive valley, ho\re\-cr,
conducti\-e valley, howen.'r, the EL E .... ap-
imbricate faultin~,
loci of imbricate iaulting, also
also behave like con-con
elucti
ductiveve dikes. _\ steeply dipping thin
thin conductive
conductive parent
parent resistivity would also
resistivity \~ould also sho\v
sho\\' it. The
The lack of
dike has
has a pronounced effect on parallel
parallel current
current E1- is
response in El
response dia~nostic oi
is diagnostic of the narron-
narro\\' steeply
and electric field and is is therefore effective
effective in dipping
dipping conductor. The The same
same lack of response
response
generating
generating a tipper.
tipper. HO\\'ever,
Han-ever, the dike's
dike’s effect holds even for dips as as shallow as as 45-15 degrees.
degrees.
1 km
CD 1--- -I CD
O-~~I------------------------------------------------------~I~
10 ~i-m
: ~ ;:======10:rr=.m:7;:;=:::'II,;;lr~c~~:c:~~.==~:::;::::::::::::;' ~
w
I
f- 1000 rr -m .1 fT,
o
a..
w
o
4 -
4- 175 km
o
:::;:
~~~====--~~~=~
50 - --i f-I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------41 ~
10 rr'm
>-
N
3--- 18
10
f-
:>
I 30 i=
(/)
&
>-
u
5
.3---
.3--
-- 100
100
55
55 i7l
w
(1)
-'"
Z Ct: E E,
w ----------------------------180---------------------
I80 f-(/)
::)
2
aw .03 -
.03 Z
W
""
~
Ct: !80 ------------------------- Ct: W

~
LL
.003-- 100 ------------------- a..
<!
>-
3-- f-
I
N
:>
i=
<[]
>- (1)
u .3-=~ "" (/)

W ';::
-'"
E
Z
.03 - -\100 ~ n:::(;,1
~
Ct: -/
55
~
f-=~
Zw
i±!
LL
.003- - ~ ~
a..
<!
N 3-
I
>-
u .3·
z
w
::)
aw .03 - Q;
>
Ct: I
LL
.003 -
FIG.
FIG. 1+.
14. Computed
Computedmodel
model of a buried
buried vertical conductive dike.
vertical conductive dike.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 117
117
100
Ikm
I km
~
40
1000 1000
10D -m
3,8---v--
3.8-- - - - - .2km thick
LAYERED
LAYERED MODELS
MODELS WHOSE
WHOSE APPARENT
APPARE NT
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY CURVES CLOSELY
CURVES CLOSELY MATCH H
MATC
THOSE
THOSE OF THE
OF THE ABOVE
ABOVE MODEL
MODEL
0 A
A II
II
0OBII B II
II IQQ
100 I 100
100
1.8 10QO
loo0 1000
1000
3
1.9
I.9 10
lo 30
3.5
3.5 3o
1000
1000 1000
1000
A.J.
AlANDAHD B.J.
BI
I
too
100
1000
1000
I;Ic.
FIG. 15. Result
15. Result of
of fitting layered
layered models
modelsto
to response
responsecurves
curvesof a
a two-dimensional
two-dimensional structure
structure
sitesA
at sites ,4 and
and B.
B.
The result of fitting

Thc fitting horizontally
layered models and homogeneous. The The results
resulb further
further illustrate
illustrate
at
at two locations over a conductive
conductive dike is shown that the dip must
that must be fairly
fairly shallow (here less less than
than
in Figure 1.5. Site X
Figure 15. A is 0.8 km from from the
thc trace of degrees) for the thin
30 degrees) thin conductors to have much
the dike, and B is 1.8 km from the trace. tracc. The
The effect on EL. EJ...
EJ.. components
E_L components show no evidence evidencc of the dike. If the
If the thin
thin dike
dike is more resistive
resistive than
than itsits sur-
In
In the Eli components,
thc EI( components, the dike has much the roundings, the
roundings, the situation
situation is reversed:
reversed: EL EJ.. apparent
apparent
same effect on apparent
resistivity asas does
does a resistivity
resistivity is the the component
component most affected affected and
conductive
conductive layer.
layer. If Ell interpretations
If the El/ interpretations werewerc little effect
little effcct is seen in the thc El; apparent resistivity
E!i apparent resistivity
used to construct
construct an electrical
electrical cross-section, theythey until the
until the dip
dip is small
small enough that that the
the dike
dike begins
begins
would
would show a conductive
conductive bed dipping
dipping in the
the right
right behave as a resistive
to behave resistivc layer.
layer. This
This behavior
behavior can
direction.
direction. Although
Although the the interpreted
interpreted thickness be seen in in the
the previous
previous (anisotropic
(anisotropic layer)
layer) model
model
and conductivity
conductivity of the the bed would
would notnot be in-in- if the
if the 100 ohm-m ohm-m of the the second layer layer is now
now con-
dividually
dividually correct,
correct, thethe conductivity-thickness
conductivi ty- thickness sidered due due to to many
many thin thin resistive
rcsistive beds
beds in in aa 10
10
products
products would
would be be reasonably
reasonably close to to that
that of the
the ohm-m
ohm-m matrix. matrix.
dike
dike (0.01 and 0.015
0.01 S versus
versus 0.02).
0.02). ‘IThe picture just
’he picture just tliscussetl
discussed is is seen
seen in
in the
the imme-
imme-
Tn
Tn the
the extreme
extreme case, many thin
ca,;e, many thin conductors
conductors in ;Ia vicinity oi
diate vicinity
tliate of an
an isolatetl
isolated resistive
resistive tlike(Figurc
dike(Figure
more
more resistive cau,;c the
matrix causi('
resistive nlxlrix the malarial
material to
to Iwlla~c*
heha\'(' IT). ()i,lgnostics are
17). I)iagnoslics arc :man anc)maly
anomaly in in resistivity
resistivity
a,; aa uniiorm
as uniform l)ut
hut anisolroj)ic
ani,;otropic m~~l~ri~tl.
material. Such
Such :L
a aero,;,; strike,
across strike, \vith
with little
little oror nono effect
dTeet onon /!!I and
fiij antI
model CZIII
m0tlcl can 1~ used toto stutly
be USCY~ st udy the effects d
t he effects of (lil,
dip tip1)c.r
tipper (not (not sho\vn).
sho\\·n). ‘lThe
‘hc thin
thin resistive
rcsistivc (like
dike seems
scems
on
on apparent
apparent resistivilies.
resistivities. Figure
Figure 101() sho\vs
shows the the to represent aa fault
to represent fault in in young,
young, unconsolidated
unconsolidated
apparent
apparent resistivities
resistivities for
for an
an anisotropic
anisotropic model.
model. In In sediments,
sedimcnts, as as \vell
\\'ell as
as salt
salt ritlges
ridges andand intrusive
intrusive
this
this case,
case, the
the anisotropy
anisotropy waswas confined
confined toto aa second
second dikes.
dikes.
layer,
layer, the
the first
first and
and third
third layers
layers being
being isotropic
isotropic ItIt is
is observed
obscrvcd that that the
the ELEJ.. pseudosections
pscudosections COIII-COI11-
118
118 Vozoff
Vozoff
ROTATED
ROTATED TENSOR
TENSOR RESISTIVITIES
RESISTIVITIES
10,000
10.000
NODEl
YODEL
-:: P·lon-m
f m 100-m
•E, 1,000 "'- ~oon" ~ }
Ikm
E ~on-~"",
2izsy.L \,. 2km
~
.! 100n-m
lOOn-m
a
Cl.
>
t 100
> Pa fM E.l. ttrik7
l-
II)
in 8 60·
11.1
II:
I- 10
z
11.1
II:
C
IL
IL
C
.001I .ut
.01 .1
.I I.
I. 10
IO
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY (Hz)
(Hz)
FJG.
1’1~. 16.
16. Changes in apparent
qqxxent resistivity
resistivity with
\vith dip of principal
principal conductivity
conductivity- RYES
axis in an aniwtropic
anisotropic medium.
medium.
30
30 A-m
a-m
100
100 A-m
P-m
3 -;I,
.2
10000
1000
A-
APPAREy* R;;;~;~lTY (A-m)
(n-m) A&
t);
APPARENT RESISTIVITY
EJ. STRIKE
.02
'N
P
:ci 100
100
ci 200
200 300
300
11.1
; -.002
II: ·002
LL
LL
-.2,2
145
145 150~
~/
N
:t:
9
ci
ci .02
-.02
w
11.1 ~--------------
140
140
a
II:
I&_
LL
-----------------------
.002
002 PHASE
PHASE E.1.
E I STRIKE
STRIKE
t.
hG.
FlG. 17. Computed
17. vertical resistive dike. Ei
Computed model of a vertical 1c.i resistivity
resistivit), is not distinguishable
distinguishable from that
that of
the two-layer
two-layer case
case with
with the dike absent.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 119
N'IV G, GO G2 G3 G4 G55
G ~E:.
5
5 10 10
/0 5
33AI~
10 2 5
25 2
Z ,8 ? 2
A\ 6.8 ---- "---- /
'.8 4 2 8 F..2
3.8 Z 5
25 2 9 4 :3, 4 2 I ••~
5
i:
.3 5.9 25
Z 5 1.5 2 9 2.3
70 ,3 4
4 , 3
1:3 ,7
17 I 95
03 6 4 4 ,
43
0, 5 4 4 2 87
.003 IO~
10~ 13 :3
3 5 7 2 2 2 6 .62 68
0o, 20~ 11.7

17~ 99~!
20 10
5 5 5 I
1
2
Nw G,
GI GO GZ G3 G4 G5 SE
10 10
5
~
10 2.02 3.5 7 2Z 9 I 5
204 ,3 99 57 6.5 6 8
"
3.'
2.4
i:
.3
2.5
3.7
2.6
24
33
2.4
4 5
3. ,I
'~'
3.2 I 4
3.5 1.2 i.9~1.95 13

"
:==:
03 23 2.7 13
'3 1.4
'.4 I 24 ' 2
.01 2 4 2.5 1.5 , .9

1.9
003 21
2 I 4.6 3,1
3.1 3.1
3.'
C .70
001
"
3' 8 4
°
8 0
8
6.2
2
1.5 I 2
5
5
0
liiiiooiii
10 30 == E II Tost"ke
(APPARENT
IbPP4RENT RESISTIVITY
RESISTl”lTI IN
IN OHM-METERS)
OHM-METERS,
FIG. 18. Pseudosections,

Pseuclosections, South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse.
monly
monly have a greater
greater range of values and more E::, pseudosection, so
E’ so it
it is the one most often
often used
used
lateral
lateral variation
variation in values than do the E,, E" pseudo- for the first
first (horizontal
(horizontal layer)
layer) interpretation.
interpretation. (In
(In
sections.
sections. This
This is not unexpected,
unexpected, since
since even in the important
important casecase in which a narrow
narrow resistive
resistive
the simplest
simplest models the apparent
resistivities for structure
structure extends upward upward into
into a more conductive
conductive
El
E.l commonly
commonly display an overshoot, while a section, EI~ E I' may
may not resolve the structure
structure and
smooth transistion
transistion is more typical E~"
typical of those for El,. therefore El
therefore E.l will
will yield
yield a better
better depth
depth estimate
estimate on
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the simplest
simplest real earth
earth is far more the structure.)
structure.) If If many
many contours are found be-
complex in its variability
variability than
than any
any model we tween adjacent
adjacent sites on the the E_L
E.l pseudosection, it it
might
might have the incenti\-e
incentive to construct,
construct, even is taken
taken to indicate
indicate a “break”
"break" betrveen
between the sites,
sites.
though there appears to be more regularity regularity to and the interpretation
interpretation is IS usually
usually confirmed
confirm cd by
confirmed by
the broad averages for geological unitsunits than
than there
there tipper
tipper behavior.
behavior.
IS to the fine structure
is structure (Keller,
(Keller, 1068;
196R; Harthill,
Harthill, In
In some areas, the t\vo two pseudosections are
1968). As a result, we are seldom very very far from
from nearly
nearly indistinguishable,
indistinguishable, indicating
indicating no more than
than
some lateral
lateral conductivity
conductivity change. These two gradual
gradual changes between between sites. In In other
other areas,
factors explain
explain the larger
larger variance
variance typical
typical of El.
E.l. the two are quite quitc different
quite different and change rapidly
rapidly
:\ny continuity
;\np continuity of structure
structure or lithology
lithology which with
with location,
location, indicating
indicating sharp lateral
lateral breaks.
breab.
may exist is therefore
therefore more easily followed
followed in the Figure
Figure 18 shows gradual gradual changes at at the south-
SOli th-
120
120 Vozoff
Vozoff
eastern end, end, and apparent

apparent anisotropy at the north- north- tended half way to each each adjoining
adjoining site, weobtain
\\-e obtain
nest.
west. the first-try
first-try two-dimensional
tno-dimensional model. motlel. TheThe pa-
Obviously, the smoothness
smootl~nc~~ of
ol pscuc\osection:i
pseudosections rameters
ramctcrs of 0i this model
niodcl can
can tI hell
Ilen be
be modified
motlifictl "ys-
5~s.
depcnds
tlcpc‘n~ls in
in part on
on the
the spacing
spacing between
I~rt\vcrn sites,
sites, since
since tematically
tcniatically until
until the pscu<iosections
psw~Io5cctions match the
even with shal\OI\"
CH'n Aallw dips
dips the resistivity-depth
rexis;livity-depth curHcurve firltl data. In
field In practice,
practirc, only
only a il'lI'
iv\\- sllch
~urh trials arc
may change change considerably betwcen bctneen sitessites 1010 or
or usually made becausebecause oi of tthe
he large Ilum numhrrber oi
1"1l0re
rutire milcs
milts apart,
apart, asas in aa reconnaissance
reconnaissance survcy.
survey. variables involved,
involved, and the fact that that the geology
gcolog)
Here
Here again the tipper tipper cancan be helpful,
helpful, since
since it isis usually departs enough from being two-dimen- two-dimen-
found to be be negligibly
negligibly small 111 in the absence
absence of sional that
that the end result will not be quantitative
quantitative
sharp lateral
lateral breaks. no
no matter
matter how good good the fit.
If
If the layered model fitted fitted at each each site is
is ex-
cx- Waeselynck
Waeselynck (1967)(1067) outlined an approach to
O!Ot OINtNSlO'IAL Noon
O.lE 05
'l.u 94
APPARENT DEPTH (KM)

RESISTIVITY
•••
Ul-M) tl4 tl 5 tl6
•
~
7
C
.6-
-1-.6
-.6 - r--.6
-.6 -
N
, D.l[ tIS I
~
I -2.3 - I- 2.6 -
2.0 - 1-2.3
S
I 5
S
5.0- - 5.3 -
5.0-1-5.3- 5.6-
5.6 -
5.6
20
D.lI lit
o
"" --"'- ~
"I, ~ II-...
~
i;:
"".....
1"""'
.....
--
'
I -
•• l:: ~ It'"
It""
t--.... ""'
"""l:: "FIELD DATA -
FIELD DATA
0.11 ol
0.1s 01
~ t:--.
f:::-.
- IOi""'
iO'""
I Ill11 I I I111111 I I I111111 I I I111111 I I Illll

0.11-01
O.W-08 O.U-OI
0.11-01 fJ.lC
D." 0000 O.U 01
o.tc 01 D.II ‘)~I
O.lC e
~nLwc*CI 9 w:
MODEL: G-2
MODEL: G-2
1:~
FIG 19. Cut-and-try layered
layered model
model fit, South
South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse. Model no.
no. 6 fits best
best the
dashed
dashed curve
curve drawn
drawn through
through the
the field
field results.
results.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 121
C l R ~ I I~
MANUAL FIT
CCM?UTER FIT - - - - - l-
f-
I
,. ~ , • :1;;:tf.'i
j \. ';r-:t;,.
---- .. j; I I
1
-t t l ~ i i ~ ---
, I"
I : Ii:I
O.I[ 01 , Ii: I,'
1.0
0.11 DO
1-
II
.+ •• ~
I
O.,‘-0, 0.&1"0.
O.,‘
-0, o. tl 00
0.11 00 O.IC 0,
0.1( 0,
A' B.IC or
('.. 1[ ot
0.001 0.01
0.01 0.1I
0. 1.0 10.0 Hz
Hz
Interpretation of apparent
FIG. 20. Interpretation resistivity data
data from
from Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, showing manually
manually fitted
fitted and
computer-fitted model curves. Corresponding
computer-fitted Corresponding models are
are shown
shown in Figure 21.
l'igure 21.
computing three-dimensional
computing three-dimensional models, but
but no The
The more common of these use use least squares
usc squares
examples have thus far appeared. fitting,
fitting, where the computer
computer attempts
attempts to find a
model which fits every
every data
data point,
point, so so as
as to produce
CURVE MATCHING
CURVE MATCHING the smallest sum of squared errors (~VU, (V,u, 1968;
(\"'u,
Most layered
Most layered model curve matching
matching to date has Patrick
Patrick andand Bostick,
Bostick, 1969).
19(9). InIn the first
first reference,
reference,
manually, by cut-and-try
been done manually, cu t-and- try methods.
methods. only
only apparent
resistivity curves are arc matched,
matched,
Numerous sets of computed
Numerous computed model curves are whereas in the the second,
second, both
both apparent
resistivity
available (Yungul,
available (Yungul, 19611901;; and Srivastava,
Srivastava, 1967)
19(7) ant]
and phase can be fittetl.
fitted.
but efficient
but efiicient computer
computer programs
programs for arbitrary
arbitrary In methods ttilc
]n least squares mclhods Iic number
the number of pa-
numbcr pa-
. horizontal
horizontal layering
layering arearc common. Time-sharing
Time-sharing rameters
rameters iountl (layer 1tthicknesses
iound (la!er Iiiclinesscs
ilickllesscs plus plw; layer
layer
systems have been found very very useful anal
and inex-
inex- rcsistivities)
rcsisti\-itics) cannot cxccecl
rcsisti\'itics) exceed the number
excccd number 0i of data
data
application. An
pensive in this application. An example
example of a cut-
cu t- points, and all data
points, and data points
points usctl
used as as computer
compu ter input
inpu t
and- try fit
and-try
and-try fit is shown in Figure
Figure 19. are usually
usually n-eighted
\ycighted equally;
equally; that
that is, there
there is no
In addition
In addition to the cut-and-try
cut-and-try technicme,
technique, direct
direct way
way to distinguish
distinguish good data data fromfrom poor data.data.
computer curve
computer curve fitting
fitting techniques are available.
available. Alore
:\Iore significant,
significant, there
there is no simple,
simple, objective
objective
122
122 Vozoff
Vosoff
way
may to tell
tell how
how goodgood the
the data
data are.
are. Indirect
Indirect indi-indi- quate,
quate, andand ofof showing
showing xhen\yhen thethe model
model itseli
ibclf isis
cators
caters are
are smoothness,
smoothness, predictability,
predictability, and
and con-con- inadequate.
inadequate.
sistency
sistency with
with time;
time butbut these do not not distinguish
distinguish In
In both manual and
both manual and direct
(lirect in\-ersion,
in\'crsion, the
the choice
choice
between
between good good one-dimensional
one-dimensional data
data and and good of starting parameters can
starting parameters can be critical,
critical, so
so that
that an!
any
three-dimensional
three-dimensional data,
data, where
where thethe dimensionality
dimensionalit?. prior
prior knowledge
knowledge mustmust bebe used
used asas early
early as
as possible.
possible.
refers
refers to the
the model
model used to fit fit the
the data.
data. TheThe gen-
gell- To
To compare
compare thethe results
results of curve
curve matching
matching b\ by
eralized
eralizcd inverse
inlrerse technique,
technique, suggested
suggested first
first (in
(in thi"
this manual
manual cut-and-try
cut-and-try methods \vith
methods \\·ith direct
direct (ge11-
(gen-
application)
application) by
by T. R. ~ladden
T. R. Madden and and developed
developed by by eralized
eralizcd inverse)
inverse) computer fitting,
computer fitting, data
data were
were
Harter
Harter and ~Iadden
and -\Iadden (in
(in preparation),
preparation), has the the analyzed
analyzed from site in the
from a site the ;\nadarko
,\nadarko Basin.
Basin. TheThe
virtue
virtue of being
being able able to ignore
ignore badbad data
data points,
points, of computer
computer output apparent resistivities
output apparent resistivities are
are sho\vn
shown
indicating
indicating \yhen
\rhen the the data
data are otherwise
otherwise inade-inade- in Figure
Figure 20.20. Two
Two curves,
cun'e:;, the
the manually
manually fitted
fitted
MACHINE
MACHINE MANUAL
MANUAL ~
B PARALLEL
PARALLEL TO STRIKE
STRIKE 0
12A-m Z
I
....
.62
.62 k-ft.
k-f?. 1.3k-ft
1.3k-tt 7 It)
{) 2.3 2
2.3 2.1
0
28 30
5.6
5.6 ~.I 1.&.1
0
§ .,. ~
~
0 6
.c!
.,;
en
30
30 CD 1.&.1
.(\1
9
03.4
... ....
» II
~6
56 ...
0 0
-..
1.&.1 1.&.1
1.7 0 en
>
c( 0
~
104
6.8
6.8
430
7
PERPENDICULA
PERPENDICULAR R TO
TO STRIKE
STRIKE 0~
A It)
Q1 1.1 k-ftot
1.8 ~
CD
0~
~
1.3k- It
1.3k- ft
2.1
7
1.5
I.5
0
I
...•
22
3.4 •
.. ...
..
0
(\I
II
0
100
100 ..
0
1.&.1
@ 1.&.1 ..
~2
52 01
>
®
0 I7
78
76
01.&.1
r
>
c(
aE
-W
-.
0
~
67
67
10
IO
200
200
c(
.,J
en
1.&.1
I:IG. 21. :Models

FIG. Models corresponding to the fitted curves of the previous figure. Errors
Errors for the manually
manually fitted
fitted
curves are estimated.
estimated.
Magnetotelluric Exploration 123
123
/ /
(
/ I
,
/
I
I
/
I
!'
\
YOKum
/
/
/
/
<
J
TEXAS t
N -
f BeeIJllle
.M.
• 0 10 MILES
X=MTSite
X q MT Site
•0 =
= Well Log
Log (deep)
(deep)
1’~.
FIG. 22. Location
Location map, South Texas traverse, showing sites deep wells used
sites and deep used for control.
control.
and
and the
the direct
direct fitted,
fitted, are superposed
superposed on each each set portions
portions of thethe models
models arc arc remarkably
remarkably consistent
consistent
of
of points;
points; and
and the
the resulting
resu!ting modcl8
mod& are compared
compared \vit-h-
with the resul-t-s- to the nort-h-,
results t-o-t-hG north, prGscnt-ed-
prcx~ntcd inin a-
a later
later
in Figure
Figure 21. No No error
error is calculated
calculated for thethe man-
man- section.
section. They
They indicate
indicate the the bottom
bottom of horizontal
horizontal
ually
ually fitted
fitted curves;
curves; in this
this case, the average
average error
error layering
layering to be at at about
about 3.J-OO
3400 ft f1 "ub,urface.
subsurface.
appears to be 10-1
appears 10-15S percent
percent forfor the E.l
E-1 data
data and
and The
The circled
circled values
values on the the machine-fitted
machine-fitted
5-10
j-10 percent
percent forfor the EI'.El’. The
The computer
computer fit is
is model"
models, Figure
Figure 21,2 1, indicate
indicate layers
layers whose
\vhose param-
param-
obviously
obviously closer
closer in each case, bu butt the models
models are eters
ctcrs are
are individually
individually best
best resolved
resolved andand most
most
not
not very
very different
different in thethe upper
upper few thousand
thousand feet.
feet. stable.
stable. These
These areare unlikely
unlikely to differ
tliffcr much
much ifii other
other
Considering
Considering the the apparent
apparent anisotropy,
anisotropy, the
the deeper
deeper starting
starting models
models are used,LISC~, for
for example.
example
124
124 Vozoff
Vozoff
124
1-1-
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 125
125
o.tE 03
, P
PV\.l
[1y ,"
0.1.[
D.1.E 02
~ rr
't It-I'4
... ' ,
..,.. Ir
1.1
LI"
~
~ ,,1\
I-
Ir
~
- •
:?t..
....... .... . II
,. •
A 111
....... !
~
o. \IE: !.11
!.11.
~
~
IT'~y
VV
c
" ?
I
I!!
I'I"r
'l"J
l. I' 00
o.ll-or 0.11-01 a.tf

O.lf 00 Ot
0.11 01 0.11 Ot
......NCy. Mr
FIG. 24. Rotated apparent resistivities, site G-l, South Texas.
FIELD
FIELD EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES sites were set up along the traverse. One addi- addi-
Two examples of the results of field surveys
Two tional site, G-2,
tional G-2, was set up 16 miles to the north- north-
are presented here. One is a wide-spacing
wide-spacing recon- east of site G-3 to examine
cast examine the continuity
continuity of data
data
naissance
naissance traverse
traverse in South Texas. The
The other
other is an traverse. Word
off the traverse. Word et et at
at (1969) have continued
continued
intermediate-spacing
intermediate-spacing traverse
traverse in the Anadarko
Anadarko MT measurements in the
MT the up-dip
up-dip direction,
direction, but
but
Basin. Both
Both would
would be considered basin evaluations
evaluations their traverse
their traverse is offset about
about 40 miles to the the north-
north-
if they
they had been carried out out in unknown
unknown areas. east.
As itit is, new data
data were developed
developed which
which gave This area, which
This which is relatively
relatively well
well known
known
information
information about
about the
the deeper portions
portions of both
both geologically, is an important
geologically, important one to the the oil
oil in-
in-
basins. dustry of the
dustry the United
United States. With With the the good
control, itit was possible to set up sites
geologic control,
South
South Texas that each succeeding site to the
such that the southeast
southeast
The
The first
first of these surveys (Figure
(Figure 22) trends
trends showed the the effect
effect ofof later
later deposition.
deposition. Therefore,
Therefore,
northwestward
northwestward for 115 miles, from
from Port
Port Lavaca,
Lavaca, the traverse
traverse enabled us to see, sec, on
OIl
OIl a gross
gross scale,
Texas,
Texas, on the Gulf
Gulf Coast to a point
point 9 miles south- magnetotelluric cross-section oi
a magnetotclluric of the
the Gulf
Gulf Coast.
west of Lockhart,
Lockhart, Texas.
Texas. Five
Five magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric We also attempted
We attempted to detect
detect the
the presence
pre:,;eIlce
pre:;ence of high
126
126 Vozoff
Vozoff
pressure
pressure shales.
shales. This
This area was selected
selected partly
partly The
The traverse crossed a series
traverse crossed senes of the "down-to-
“dowin-to-
because
because itit is
is open-ended to the (;ulf,
Gulf, so
so that
that con-
COW the-coast” fault
thc-coast" fau It /llcxure
/tlexure zonc’ s.
zone,;.
ditions and results ought to resemhle rt~5~mhle those
tliosc Results arr
are tliscusscvl lirst ittr
discussed first earh sitv
for (.;)<-I1 site ;tn(l
and
offshore. then for the cntirc
entire traverse.
traverse_ :\I1
All apparent
apparent resis-
The
The traverse line extended from from the flank
flank of tivities shown ha\,e
tivities have been rotated
rotated by equation
equation
the Ouachita
Ouachita folded belt on the northwest,
northwest, south- (26). These data were analyzedanalyzed before the tipper tipper
eastward
castward across
across the tremendous deposits of Gulf and direct curve-fitting
curve-fitting computations
computations had been
Coast sediments (Figure
(Figure 23). The line was along started. The
The vertical
vertical magnetic
magnet ic component was
the San Marcos
Marcos arch between the Houston Houston and analyzed in terms
analyzed terms oi of coherency ratio
ratio and phase
Rio Grande
Grande embayments.
embayments. The The stratigraphic
stratigraphic relative each of the horizontal
relative to each horizontal component.
component.
units strike northeast
northeast and dip to the southeast. From
From thesea tipper was
these a rough tipper was estimated
e;;timated mentally.
mentally.
Thus,
Thus, the traverse extended in a down-dip
down-tlip direc-
dircc-
from (~-1
tion [rom (i-1 to G-.'i.
G-5. In
In general, [rom
from northwest
northwest sire {;-1
,'-,'ilc (i-1
to southeast the sites encountered youllgersedi-
youngersedi- The rotated
The rotated apparent
resistivity curves of
ments and a thickening
thickening of the older sediment.
sediment. Figure2.Jc indicated that 22-10
Figure 21 indicated ohm-m values prc-
-10 ohm-m pre-
Numerous
Numerous faciesfacics changes
changes within
within the units exist. dominate beneath
dominate beneath this site. Increases in apparent
apparent
-I - - --- -
I I '1
r-~r
'., .It: '.'.
i I .
I
It ,
:::: -- I--~- -- •
~ - t- -
1,
:
.~ _..
II
I:
- --
--- I-- r- II :
N- I
t -
I
-- r- 1--
t
'.i. tE ':\3
--
~
~
•
I~ I~ • I
•. 8 •
'.'.IE 01
L~ I
1 I.
.
•
.
i I
II
'II II'
5
jj I i I'
--
-
-
C"1.l[ ~':i
t-
r- --
.-
0.1[-0\ D.lt no D. IE 0\ O. tE ot
'''£iUENCY. HZ
FIG.
~;IG. 25. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities, site G-O, South Texas.
Texas.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 127
D.ll: D4
O.l[ 03
!l,U 01:
•
--' •• .I•
I ••
,
lJt..
-. .
III
LLl
.,
.• r •i III
0
~D
~ 0 B = , i IEIII
'I •• ~ I = [A
o.n: 01 4 ..A.
..A A
D.IE 00
o.II·or
o.II-or
O.lC-ot 0.11-m o.IE 00
0.11 DD 0.u
D." 0,
01 0.N
O.I( OI
01
J'IIUI&IIC'. nz
ntmmu1. HZ
IiIG.
FIG. 26. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities, site G-2, South Texas.
Texas. E:i
Ell is curve
curve 1%.
B.
anisotropy
anisotropy with
with decreasing
decreasing frequency
frequency coulti
could be the
the that resistivity
that resistivity may
may increase
increase slightly
slightly toward
toward the
the
result
result of increasing
increasing dips,
dips, of increasing
increasing resistivit)
resistivity east at
east at shallow
shallow depth
depth, but
but below
below 3000-4000 ft, itit
3000-4000 ft,
contrasts
contrasts between
between layers,
layers, or
or both.
both. Pronounced
Pronounced increases
increases strongly
strongly towartl
toward the
the IVest.
\I·est. Plot
Plot criteria
criteria
lateral
lateral conductivity
conductivity changes
changes at
at depths
depths or
or hori-
hori-
hori· are skew
are skew less
le,.;s than
than 0.2 and pretlictability
0.2 anti predictability greater
greater
zontal
zontal distances
distances of
of 3-S
3-5 miles
miles cvoultl
would give
give similar
similar than 0.95.
than 0.95.
effects.
effects.
Strike
Strike at
at shallow
shallow depth
depth is either
either ENE
ENE or
or NIYW,
NNW, Site G-O
Site
with
with a 90
90 degree
degree ambiguity
ambiguity which
which requires
requires Although
Although the
the rotated
rotated apparent
resistivities at
at
another
another site
site for resolution. l ESF,
for resolution.* EX E is believed
believed to
to be G-O (Figure
G-O 25) were
(Figure 2.5) were similar
similar to
to those
those at G-1, ap-
at (i-1, ap-
more
more likely
likely of
of the
the two
two directions.
directions. At
At greater
greater parent
parent anisotropy
anisotropy (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the gap
gap between
between sets of
of
depths,
depths, the
the strike
strike direction
direction is very
very nearly
nearly north-
north- points)
points) is much
much smaller
smaller at
at G-O.
G-O. Another
Another major
major
ward.
wartl. difference between
difference between the
the two
two sitcx
sitcs is the
the greater
greater
Ncar-surrace <lips are minoT. The data indicate thickness of
thickness of motlcrately
Illoderately contluctivc
conductive material
material at
at
(;-0.
(;-0. These
These two
two observalions
observatiolls arc’
arc rcllectetl
reflected in
in the
the
1
1 Choose one of the
t he directions
directions as strike
strike and set smaller vertical
smaller verlical magnetic
magnetic field
field component IIz
component 11,
another
another site several miles away
away along
along that
that direction.
direction. If
If
the choice is correct
correct the two sets
sets of results will Ix
be very
very and the
and the smaller
smaller skew
skew at
at (;-0.
(;-0.
similar.
similar. If
If not, a difference
diITerence will
will Ix
be observed. Apparent
Apparent electrical
electrical strike
strike direction
direction is &finite
definite
128
128 Vozoff
Vozoff
from
from 0.05 hz downward,
downward, varying
varying from
from N3OW
:\T 30W atat 4000-5000 ftft at
Below 4000~5000
quencies. Below at G-3
G-3 (Figure
(Figure 27)27)
0.05 hz, to N50W
N50W at at 0.005 hz and back
back to N30W
:\T30W there is a pronounced
there pronounced resistivity
resistivity increase to the
at
at 0.001 hz, with with the
the 90 degree ambiguity
ambiguity KW. This
KW. This may
may continue
continue northeastward
northeastward pastpast G-3,
G-3,
throughout.
throughout. Regional
Regional geology suggests
suggests that
that true
true but is not
but clearly indicated
not as clearly indicated there. According
there. According
strike
strike is at
at 90 degrees
degrees to these directions.
directions. Re-Re- the phase
to the phase information
information (not(not shown),
shown), thethe low
low
sistivity
sistivity in
in the
the uppermost
uppermost several thousand feet feet frequency apparent
frequency apparent resistivities
resistivities atat G-3
G-3 rise
rise toto
appears to increase eastward.
eastward. larger values than
larger than those
those atat G-2 before
before starting
starting to to
decrease again. Hence
decrease thicker, more resistive
Hence a thicker, resistive
Sites G-2 nlzd
and G-3 section is expected at at depths 25,000-30,000 ft
depths of 25,000-30,000 ft
As shown on the location
location map, G-2 is 16 miles beneath
beneath G-3.
G-3.
off the traverse
traverse line
line to the
the NE
NE from
from G-3,
G-3, along Apparent electrical
Apparent electrical strike N70W to N85W
strike is N70W N85W at at
what
what was believed
believed to be regional
regional strike.
strike. Results
Results G-2, and probably
G-2, probably indicates
indicates a real strike
strike direction
direction
at
at the two sites differed
differed in some important
important fea- N5E to
of NSE N20E. The
to N20E. The apparent
apparent electrical
electrical strike
strike atat
tures, with
with those from
from G-2 being the more complex
complex alternates randomly
G-3 alternates randomly between
between these same two two
(Figure
(Figure 26). Apparent
Apparent anisotropy
anisotropy at
at G-2 is better
better For a shallow strike
values. For strike direction NS-lOE,
direction of NS~lOE,
developed,
developed, rotation
rotation angles are more definite,
definite, and projected farther
G-2 should be projected farther to the SE
SE on the the
skew is generally
generally larger
larger except
except at
at the
the lowest
lowest fre-
fre- interpreted resistivity
interpreted resistivity cross-section, although
although its its
,----
~-
I
f-- --
-r-----
-
f---
I. 1£ 'I~
I •
~
•
.
I .. ItIi t :!
•• IIII &, " , ~
ii iI
1
I r
'l.lE '1\
• I
I
'j' I I I illlll I I lllllll I I I111111
I,! j I I I llllll1 I I llllll1 I
~1~4--+
~-4 - - --+.
I
'I i
: I':
I I,
I·
I.l(
·l.ll '1'1 ; i Ii I I
I
1‘ .,c-‘
'I. ll 'It
l(~ I‘. 1c41 l‘.,t
'l.lt 1‘ 4
'1'1 I.IL I‘I 'I,ll 'It
t..
••• c-s.-.‘,LC
"'~-.C.L[ O,T,
O.fl . . .
••• r.~wt9c~ I‘T
FIG. 27.
FIG.
FIG, 27. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities,
resistivities,site
site G-3,
G-3, South
SouthTexas.
Texas.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 129
129
0.11: 0.
0.11: OS
O.n: at ••
--'-~
• II I II t
• 1
•
0.1[ 01 • l
• D •
o.n: 00
0.11-01 0.1f-Ot
O.IPD‘ D.n
0.u DO
00 D.lI
P.,, IH
01 0." 01
,_t
,I.UKI,.. ItC', "I
“I
FIG. 28.
FIG. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities,
resistivities,site
site G-4,
G-4, South Texas.
South Texas.
projection
projection is
is correct for the deeper strikes. Plot
Plot scatter in the data, about
scatter about +5± 5 percent
percent over most
criteria
criteria are skew less
less than 0.2 and predictibility
predictibility frequency range (Figure
of the frequency (Figure 29). Rotation
Rotation
~reater
greater than 0.85 (G-2)
(G-2) and 0.95 (G-3).
(G-3). angles are poorly
angles poorly defined except at at the highest
frequencies.
site G-4
Site G-4 The most unusual aspect (not
The (not shown here) of
Apparent
Apparent resistivities
resistivities (Figure
(Figure 28) decrease
decrease very
very data are large values of Ii,
the G-5 data Hz atat the higher
higher
gradually
gradually before rising sharply
sharply at 0.002 hz. Ap- Ap- frequencies, decreasing linearly
linearly with
with decreasing
parent
parent anisotropy
anisotropy is minor;
minor; apparent
apparent electrical
electrical frequency and closely correlated
frequency correlated with Hy. The
with H,. The IIII
strike direction
direction isis poorly defined but changes
changes vector in the II-z
vector y-z plane is tilted
tilted downwards
downwards to the
smoothly
smoothly with
with frequency from K20\V X20\\; (low fre- east, indicating north-south conductor
indicating a northsouth conductor lying
lying
quency) to X 10E (high frequency).
SlOE frequency). Noise isis large near the sitc
site and to the west of it. This This may-
may he
ie!lrlow frequency points of P21
and few p2, are passable.
passable. caused
caused by an unseen
unseen pipeline.
pipeline ..;\n
\n alternative
alternative ex-
cx-
Plot
Plot criteria
criteria arc
are skew less less than
than 0.5 and pre- planation invoh'es
planation involves near-surface
near-surface salt-Ivater
salt-watcr inva-
inva-
dictability
dictability greater than 0.85. sion to the vest,
west, possibly as as a result of locally-
locally
porosity. The
enhanced porosity. The University
University of Texas data data
Site
Site G-5
G-5
at Port .\ransas
.Iransas to the south and west \\'est ot
oj G-5 have
ha\'c
Anisotropy is abou
Xnisotropy IS aboutt the same
same order as
as the high frequency apparent resistivity
frequency apparent resisti\'ity less
less than 1
130
130 Vozoff
Wozoff
ohm-m (Smith,
ohm-m (Smith, 1968). Plot
Plot criteria
criteria are skew less
less monoclinally folded
monoclinally folded beds
beds of alternating
alternating resistive
resistiyc
than 0.5 and predictability
than predictability greater
greater than
than 0.95. conductive materials.
and conductive materials. Bands
Bands of graphitic
graphitic
black shaly
or black shaly materials,
materials, which
which could provide
provide thethe
Traverse
Traverse
lower resistivity
lower resistivity value,
value, have
have been
been observed in in
Layered models were matched
Layered matched to each of the the beneath the
and beneath the thrust
thrust zone,
zone, both
both in East
East Texas
Texas
Eli apparent resistivity
Ell apparent resistivity curves byby trial
trial and error;
error; and in thethe exposed Precambrian
Precambrian nearnear Llano.
Llano.
correlation between
and a correlation between stations
stations was carried
carried from Kw’
Going from NW to to SE,
SE, these
these materials
materials become
become
out, with
out, with the result
result shown in Figure
Figure 30. These buried beneath
buried beneath an increasing thickness of the the
correlations are obviously
correlations obviously open to question and conductive isotropic
conductive isotropic rocks and, in particular,
particular, by by a
adjustment in view
adjustment view of the large spacings between
between nearly isotropic
zone of nearly isotropic 0.6-L
0.6-2 ohm-m
ohm-m resistivity.
resistivity.
sites. Minor apparent
Minor apparent anisotropy,
anisotropy, indicating
indicating minorminor
The interpreted
The interpreted resistivity
resistivity section shows
shows three
three with small
dips with small true
true anisotropy
anisotropy (probably
(probably inter-
inter-
ranges of values: 0.5-30.5-3 ohm-m,
ohm-m, isotropic;
isotropic; A-10
4-10 bedded sands and shales)?shales), persists through
through the the
ohm-m, isotropic;
ohm-m, isotropic; and >2 > 2 ohm-m,
ohm-m, anisotropic.
anisotropic. entire traverse.
entire traverse. The
The computed
computed resistivity
resistivity rotation
rotation
The last category
The category is predominant
predominant at at depth,
depth, par-
par- angles and skews suggest that that these dips are due
ticularly in the north-west
ticularly north-west near
ncar the thrust.
thrust. The
The minor local structure,
to minor structure, and thatthat itit might
might be
anisotropy was interpreted
anisotropy interpreted as
as due to dipping
dipping or possible byby careful
careful model work
work to interpret
interpret strike
strike
0.\[ 0.
D.lI[ 0'
D. u: or
D.t( Ot
0
. I
II. I II •
III I IflU1 •
~ .• •
•
--"
'"
• i•
"
•• •• ~ .
O.SI 00
o.u"'Ot D.U 00 D.tl Ot 0.11 01
FIG. 29. Rotated apparenl

apparent resistivities, site G-5, South Texas.
Magnetotell
Magnetotelluric u ric Exploration
Exploration 131
131
G1 GO G2 G3 G4 G5 SE
,----?--,~~_----------~~~-
~---?~.~,~r---------~~~r- __--__
--__
--------~?--J/-O--'''~?_--~-~?----~8~~--------------_-----~+-
---------L?--~/O--~"~?-_--~_~?~__
--~8~7n--------------_-----~t-
-?~_I~ __ ::?
10/5................
50~O-
.....
"- "-
"-
"-
"- 2
- -'1-
10
-?- ---...:-- - -
_?_ ?_ .65
10
3/3 "- "-
10/2.5
" \
\
"-
\
"-
--------""'?'
1.4 /,,'
~
~
\ \\ /o/4
10/4 " .6
10 .65
\\ \\ -
i" \\ \\ 5 "
~
12
\\
? " "-
0 14
\ "-
.......
'-
I.
I
\\
--
I ?-
-- -
-_
30/1.5 7 \\
?7
18 20 ...... .......
\ 10
'28 . . . . . . .
20 \\ '-- ......
"- 10
BOO/80
800/80
27
600/80
FIG. 30.
FIG. 30. Interpreted
Interpreted rcsistivily cross-section,
resistivity cross-section,South
South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse,
----
o
o 5
.... ERTICAL EXAGGERATION
'0
RESISTIVITIES , ....
20
~ 13x
OHM -METERS
30
and
;tn(l dip
(lip variations \vith depth beneath the site.
variations with from various drill holes holes along the traverse were \vrre
‘I‘he resemblance betwecn
The bct\veen this figure and the gen- gew obtained and compared with
obtained with the interpreted
interpreted sec-XC-
eralizetl geologic
eralized geologic section
section (Figure
(Figure 23) is is unmistak-
unmistak- ‘The location
tion. The location of the drill holes
holes relative
relative to the
able. sites is
sites is shown in Figure
Figure 22. The The comparison of
There are some
There some interesting
interesting differences which electric log information
information and interpreted
interpreted structure
structure
appear to tobe significant. For
be significant. For example, the tendency is shown
is sholvn in FigureFigure 31.2
31. 2 For
For this example,
example, the
resistivity boundaries to be more nearly
of the resistivity nearly electric logslogs were subdivided
subdivided by hand into into seg-
seg-
horizontal than
horizontal than the geological boundaries ap- ments, each segment being given the average
pears to be be real, and may be a result of water water and conductivity for its depth
conductivity depth range. A segment then
distribution and of compaction. Resistivity
clay distribution Resistivity represents a layer.layer. Overall,
Overall, the agreement
agreement is quite
quite
in the Eocene decreasesdecreases systematically
systematically scaward,
seaward, good. Disagreement at D.II.
good. Disagreement D.II. 6 (bottom)
(bottom) is within
within
possibly because
because of a systematic
systematic increase in clay the limits
limi Is of accuracy; D.H. D .H. 7 is further
further from
from
content. It
content. It has been suggested
suggested that
that the 1010 ohm-m
ohm-m G-l
G-1 than
than is D.H.D.H. 8 and probably
probably reflects lateral
lateral
material
material near the surface indicates indicates fresh waterwater variations
variations in near-surface
near-surface structure.
structure. The The dis-
invasion.
invasion. crepancy
crepancy betweenbetween D.H.D.H. 3 and the interpreted
interpreted
One of the targets chosen chosen was high-pressure section at at G-3
G-3 may related to the age d
may be related of the
the log
log
shale, i.e., a shale having having a resistivity
resistivity substan- (1949) .
(1919).
tially
tially less
less than 1 ohm-m,
ohm-m, whichwhich was known
known to be .\ more detailed
A detailed interpretation
interpretation was carried
carried out
out
present
present in large amounts amounts beneath
beneath G-4G-4 and vir- vir- at
at one location,
location, while
while testing
testing the
the direct
direct model
model
tually
tually absent beneath beneath G-2.G-2. The
The apparent
apparent re- fitting
fitting program.
program. The The program
program usesuses the
the generalized
generalized
resistivitiesat
sistivities at G-4 G-4 and G-5G-S could notnot be matched
matched matrix
matrix inversion
inversion program
program developed
developed by by R.
R. Harter
Harter
without
\\'ithout the thick
\\"ithout thick 0.6 ohm-m
ohm-m zones.
zones. h’Noo amount
amount and T. T. R.R. Madden
Madden (in (in preparation).
preparation). The The results,
results,
of reinterpretation
reinterpretation can modify modify thethe basic result.
result. comparing
comparing G-2 and D.H. D.H. 6, arcare summarized
summarized in
The
The method
method is unable
unable to resolve the the fine structure
structure the
the four
four curves of Figure Figure 32. The The heavy
heavy solid
,,f
"i the
the interbedded
interbedded sands withinwithin the
the overpressured curve
curve is the the result
result of smoothing
smoothing the the induction
induction log
zone, but but is able to map map features
features beneath
beneath it.it. for D.H.
D.H. 6 (No. J. Orsak,
(No.11 J. Orsak, ;\Iobil
:\Iobil Oil
Oil Co.,
Co., lY60-
1960-
The
The limited
limited contrasts
contrasts and simplesimple structure
structure 61, mud resistivity=O.$
resistivity = 0.4 atat 108 degrees) ox-er
over steps
permit
permit us us to
to evaluate
evaluate resistivity
resistivity with
with \vhat
what is is still
still of 10 percent
percent of of depth.
depth. The
The dashed
dashed curve
curve is is aa
a surprising
surprising amount
amount of resolution.
resolution. InIn such situa-
situa- portion
portion of of the
the four-layer
four-layer model
model which
which was was pre-
pre-
tions
tions ?\IT
1\1T takes
takes on the
the aspect of a regional
regional strati-
strati-
22 Induction
Induction logs
logs commonly
commonly use
use millimhos/meter
millimhos/meter
graphic
graphic tool.tool. Cmmho/m)
(mmho/m) as as units
units of measure. To
of measure. To convert,
convert, 11 mho,‘
m
mho/m
Upon
Upon completion
completion of the the interpretation,
interpretation, logs == 103
10 mmho/m.
3
mmho/m.
SITE SITE SITE SITE

GI G4 G5
DH
I'
~~ ~
. 2.
40. 1-2 n-M
5. 5-lon-M
5-lon·M
4000'
~
1.5
3n-M .6 -1.1
~
8000'
8000'-1 \ .3- .4
8
\
\? .5
.S -.8 n-M
2 IIOn-M .?
12000'
12000'-1 --
-- ? \ .5
\ \ ? ----
------
16000'~ 5-lon-M
\
16000'
? ~
80n-M ------- - ----------
?
~ 1.7
n-M
2/30 n'M
20000'J
20000'
~
24000' '"
20-50n-M(?) ' "
20-S0n-M(?) ~~~
o 10 20
___ ::I
30
-=-='3
40
" MILES
80n-M
FIG.
FIG. 31. Comparisons of digitized well logs with models filled manually. \\'clliocations
\rclliocations are shO\\'Il
shmYll in Figure 22.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 133
133
CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY mm/m
mm/m
IITOO
00 1000
IgO0 I 500
spq . , , 0
2
WELL
WELL LOG
LOG SMOOTHED
IN
IN STEPS
STEPS OF
OF 10%
10%
OF
OF DEPTH--....
DEPTH - 3
-55
•••••••••• to •••••••
7400 ~
6~
-.,.,
CUT AND
AND TRY.
TRY, 4 LAYER
LA -+1 . _ . ~'.;I
.B._.
I
7 .5?-
~
%:
8 ....
---- -:-==,~
I: I 9
0..
I&J
Q
I:
10
I'
I: II
I:
I:
I: 12
COMPARISON OF WELL
COMPARISON WELL LOG DATA
DATA I:
I~:-;
WITH INTERPRETED
WITH INTERPRETED
DH 6
DH 6
M-T
M-T SECTION"--........
SECTIO
SECT10
I:
I: 13
SITE
SITE G-2
G-2 ;i
I: I
.. . .. .Li ...... L: 14
14
‘IT8,
T
FIG. 32. Detailed
FIG. Detailed comparison
comparison of digitized
digitized well logs
logs with direct
direct computer
computer
interpretations
interpretations at site
site G-2.
G-2. Conductivity
Conductivity is
is in millimhos,‘
meter.
millimhos/meter.
viously
viously fitted
fitted by by cut-and-try
cu t-and- try forfor El
E.L (curve
(curve A,A, which
which both
both layer
layer thicknesses
thicknesses and
and their
their resistiv
resistiv
Figure
Figure 26).
26). It
It can be seenseen to fit
fit the
the major
major features
features ities
ities were
were permitted
permitted toto vary.
vary. These
These early
early inver-
inver-
of the
the smoothed
smoothed log rather rather well,
well, especially
especially the
the sion results
results were
were considered encouraging.
breaks near 2000 ft ft and
and 8500 ft. ft. The
The significant
significant
low
low conductivity
conductivity zone from from 6.X0-8000
6500-8000 ft ft was A nadarko Basin
missed,
missed, and
and conductivity
conductivity was was underestimated
underestimated in in The
The second field
field example
example is
is aa traverse
traverse across
across aa
the
the thick
thick conductive
conductive zone zone from
from 2000~6300
2000-6500 ft. ft. portion
portion of
of the
the Anadarko
Anadarko Basin,
Basin, Oklahoma.
Oklahoma. The
The
The
The two
two direct-fit
direct-fit models
models labeled
labeled .AA and
and UB are for
for basin
basin has
has an
an area
area ofof approximately
approximately 35,000
35,000 square
square
the
the t\vo
two apparent
resistivity curves at at the
the site, miles
miles in
in western
western Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, thethe northern
northern part
part of
of
HB being
being a fit
fit to
to p;l.
PII. Six-layer
Six-layer models
models were
were used
used in
in the
the Texas
Texas Panhandle,
Panhandle, andand southwestern
south\\·estern Kansas.
Kansas.
134
134 Vozoff
Vozoff
In terms
Tn terms of of itsit> depth
depth and
and volume,
\~olume, itit isisone
one of0i the
the general ba:,in configuration is "l1myn in Figure 3-1-.
major crustal
major crust;11 icatures
icaturr; oi d :\orth
Sorth .\merica
.\nicrica (Base-
(I&k+ This section was constructed iro1ll data \\"hich arc
mtmt .'-lap
nlt'ut Alap oi 0i :\urth
Zvrtll .\l1lcrica,
.\nicrica, l'Jc>i).
19Oi). lh'spitc
JJcsI)itc it,;
iti not as (CCCllt or a, clo,;cly controlled as Illight 1)('
long history
lung history uf of oil
oil production,
production, the Anadarko
the ;\nadarko desired, bu t which seem to be the best available.
Basin isiscurrently
Basin currently the the site
site of
of intensive
intensive exploration
exploration .\t
At the
the ,;outhern
southern end
end ofof the
the traverse
traverse arc
arc the
the
and some
and some of of thethe deepest
deepest drilling
drilling inin the
the world.
world. A A \richita
\Tichita :'Iountains,
Mountains, consisting
consisting ofof Cambrian
Cambrian rocks
rocks
location map
location map showingshowing our our traverse
traverse appears
appears in in of
of the
the Wichita
\\‘ichita granite
granite group.
group. Immediately
Immetliately to
to the
the
Fi~urc 33.
Figure .I.<. ;\.-\ geological
geological cross-section
cross-section showing
showing the the north
north where
where the the bascnwnt
basement is ih still
still near-suriace,
near-suri;lw,
26W/25 24 23 i 22
21N
20
13 I Magneto-Telluric
12
- -J-.---+--
5N
OKLAHOMA
OKLAHOMA I 3
3 ~I
I1~1
I~ SURVEY ~~~_--+-________- J -
~A-It-us~-~'~
VsURVEY
LEGEril
~ET/ON
LEGEN)
NET/ON 2• I '1 o
~
IN if~
I
I
:
1- /
M-T SITES
6~~~g~~~ STRIKE
10 _
~
~
SCALE
SCALE
_ _ "'I0__
__ ,I
_IDr.101es
IN""es
..i.~
1$ I 1 ~ OIL FIELD
FIG.
FIG. 33.
33. Location
Location map,
map, .4nadarko
Anadarko Basin
Basin traverse,,
traverse, Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, Ranges
Ranges 2O\V-2 I\\
20W-21W
(after
(after Lang,
Lang, 1955
1955 and
and Tulsa
Tulsa Geologic
Geologic Society,
Society, 1951).
1951).
N
12
OJ
0,
*-
In
II 13 16 17 19 20N
II
PC
7N 9 14 15 18
-
al
0,
E
8 10
-
SURFACE
,I Hi
Sia - sh, ss, (evap, Is)
sh,ss,(evap,ls) Guadalupe -Leonard-
- Leonard - Permian
Lovil
LOVII
Wolfcamp - Potontoc
-5 -
w~aLS~h_(~S~h~)____________~~~----------------------------------------p_e=n~nLS:YI=v=a=n=ia~n~
g Pennsylvanian
Virgil -
r
-10 - ~
gr a carb wash (sh) Missouri
L-----:
~
Magnetotelluric
f-
LL III
cg
I ::I
::.: -15 - ...
(1)
I
F-
~
a..
w
W
.,r:::
EI -20 - t;'
1"1
Exploration
><
'tl
.,0'
-25 - ...
III
0'
::I
-30 -
SCALE
-35 -
granites, gabbros, etc.
"cooL
"ocoL 6MILES
FIG. 34. Geologic cross-section 25 miles west of the A.nadarko Basin traverse.
traverse,
....w
135
()1
...
136
-
-
-
-
-
I·
-
W
TWP 10 12 I~ 16 17
!?
;
~N 7 13 14 18 19N
aI
-
6 8 9 II
2
Q)
21 _ _ 20 __ G _ _ _ _ _ _ .lQ _
"" - - - 2¥~
~
-~ --t-- =-~-
_---
I 14 30
=- 2~
2~
=-=,=,J...-=-__ U -
~
U'-22
ii
SEA l77J u -
=
..l ...L_? _ 2.5
10_ ~1 - --;
-::: :: -1. -
d
LEVEL" - - - - - - 3
1
10-11001 5
’
)I
3 3 3
3.6 3 3.8
---_.--h
4.3 ?
I II 6
-5
?~ 10 --- 5 "
./ 6.~
6.5
;"
5 --- >100
Y)
30 ./
5 , 7
\
5
?
--I /
\
/'
ID
-10 6
\
- '-
I
\
\
-.
\
,200
n
8
---
\
*I
I
I
I
i
/
4)
18
-
-I~ 14
/
i 20
::
30
m
18
.
:§
:2
/
*
18
-
g~ 25
.
2
-20 /
I
~
<
Vozoff
Q.. .......
,‘B
’
/ o
\
~
~ -2~ ...-- 200....... "- N
/
" ./
...... _--- ./
o
\o
,---- -
\I 8
-2~
/
IR
:::::
I
0‘
1%
200
\
200 200
\
\
1%
I
\;a
;"
0
200
I‘
./ 500
-30
1200
\an‘
/
?
-3~
/0 ;'
/ /
/
SCAlE
-L
-40
ABRUPT LATERAL CONDUCTIVITY CHANGE
INDICATED BY H VERT RESISTIVITY IN OHM-METERS
6 MILES
J
1
FiG ..15. rnterpreted resistivity cross-section, .\nadarko basin traverse.
Magnetotelluric Exploration 137
Mag netotell u ric Exploration 131
36,000 IOHrs.
O"'ovg =
IOm/m
9 Hrs.
32,COO
8Hrs.
28,000
Vi 7 Hrs.
'0
c
=
u
0 24,COO
5!
a::
I- 66Hrs. I
I
Hrs. TR 40 D2 &vg seconds
T R "" 40 D2 O"'ovg seconds
I
~
I-
<..?
Z
w
20,000
//
MAGNETO-TELLURICRECORDINGLENGTH
LENGTH I
..J MAGNETO-TELLURIC RECORDING
0 55Hrs.
Hrs.
~
[cl
a:: 16,COO
w /
l.L..
<[ 4 Hrs.
(/')
~
::::>
~ 12,COO /')NAOARKO
z
~ 3Hrs.
3Hrs. BASIN
""'.3
8,000
2Hrs.
2Hrs.
4,COO
o~~~--~====~------.-------.-------.------,------~
° 5 10 15
DEPTH D (K-FTI
DEPTH D (K - FT)
20 25 30 35
1’~.
FIG. Recordingtimes
36.Recording
36. timesunder
undervarious
variousconditions section
conditionsofofsection conductivit?
conductivity
encountered
encountered inintypical
typicalsedimentary
sedimentary basins.
basins.
basement rOEks-
hasement rocks toto a a depth
depth ofof approximately
approsimate!y -&ructura! feature encountered is t!re Meers
s-t-ruEt-ura-l fea-tur-e enGGunter-ed- is- the lVI-ccrs
8000ftft are
8000 arclayered
layered Cambrian
Cambrian gabbros
gabbrosofof the the Fault, where the basement drops abruptly from
Fault, where the basement drops abruptly from
Raggedy Mountain group, a thick, layered
Raggedy :VIouniain group, a thick, layered intru- intru- near-surfacetotoa adepth
near-surface depthofofapproximately
approximately 10,00010,000
sionmade
sion madeupupofofgabbros,
gabbros,anorthosite,
anorthosite,and anddiorite.
diorite. ft. North of the Meers Fault is an area
ft. ~ orth of the Meers Fault is an area of complex of complex
Wherepresent,
present,thetheWichita
Wichita granite
granitegroup
groupover-
over- faulting culminating in the Mountain View Fault,
Where faulting culminating in the Mountain View Fault,
liesthe
lies the Raggedy
Raggedy Mountain
Mountain gabbro
gabbro asasa athin thin beyondwhich
beyond whichpoint
pointthe
thebasement
basementis isatata adepth
depth
veneer.
veneer. of more than 35,000 ft. (The faults
of more than 35,000 ft. (The faulb are not shownare not shown
Moving from
Moving fromsouth
southtotonorth,
north, the
thefirst
firstmajor
major ononthisthis section.)
section.) Sediment
Sediment thickness
thickness thenthen re-
re-
138
138 Vozoff
Vozoff
mains fairly
mains fairly constant
constant for for aa distance
distance of of approxi-
approxi- The field
The field program
program was, was:, to to the
the be"t bezt oi of (lurour
mately 2()
mately 20 kmkm \\"llcn
\v11cn basement
I,ascmcnt hegins
l~r~ills ~llallo\r
a;t shallo\\' kno\~lctljir, til<'
kl1o\\'kdge, 111~flr,t
fiht ulldertakt'll
untlrrtakc~ll cornl~~~rci;~ll~~ ill
C()llllllCrrialh' in
lll)\vartl slopc
upward S~II~)C‘ to\vartl the
t"wanl die Central
C’cntral Kan,asK:lilias lIpliJt.
ul)liil. S~~rtll .\nlcriva, lit-ltI\\~trl, hlarlinz
:\orti, .\lllcrica, tif'l<hlork ,tartillg ill "arly i')hi. ill mrl!- lOh7.
Nortli of the Aleers Fault,
:\ ort h of the :\ I eers Fault, thc hasemen t COIl- the basement coI1- ITor pu
For I~ui-,xhcb
rpos(" oj ()iobj
ol)jccti\.ity,
I'c( i \'i t y, ttllrc,c, ~:c~d~gi~l~ \\'('f1'
hrl'l' gl'ologi,t,.; \vc3-c’
Gsts of
sists of layered
layered rhyolite
rhyolitc flows flows of of thethe Carlton
Carlton involved independently
in\'olved independently in in fitting
fitting layered
layered models models
rhyolite group
rhyolite group of of Cambrian
Cambrian age. age. This
This has has been
been to the
to the apparent
apparent resistivities.
resistivities. Each Each interpreted
interpreted
inferred from
inferred from drilldrill holes
holespenetrating
penetrating through through the the several nonadjacent sites,
several nonadjacent sites, and the results \\'ere and the results were
Arbuckle group. The Carlton rhyolite group isis
Arbuckle group. The Carlton rhyolite group assembled and correlated
assembled and correlated by a fourth person, by a fourth person,
thought to
thought to be
be underlain
underlain by by aa fairly
fairly thin thin granite
granite with the
with the result
result shown
shownin in Figure
Figure 35. 3.5.
zoneand
zone and then
then bedded
bedded basaltic
basaltic flows.flows. Korth of
Korth of Twp Twp 77 N N therethere was was insufticien
insufficientt
The sedimentary
The sedimentary sequence sequence isis summarized
summarized on 011 anisotropy to
anisotropy to justify
justify two-dimensional
two-dimensional models. models.
the cross-section. At the
the cross-section. At the top arc Permian red top are Permian red Such models were fitted
Such models were fitted to the more complex to the more complex
shalesand
shales and sandstones
sandstones with with subsidiary
subsidiary evaporites
evaporites southern zone
southern zone and and resulted
resulted in in some
some significant
significant
and limestones.
and limestones. The The major
major part part of of the
the section
section isis reinterpretation of
reinterpretation of the the subsurface
subsurface geological geological
Pennsylvanian, which
Pennsylvanian, which may may exceedexceed 1l5,OOO S,OOO itit at at information there.
information there. For For example,
example, the the trace
trace of of the
the
its thickest. It includes substantial
its thickest. It includes substantial granite and granite and large Mountain Vie\v Fault
large :\Iountain View Fault was shifted sou th- was shifted south
carbonate washes,
carbonate particularly at
washes, particularly at the the south,
south, ward from
ward from its its mapped
mapped location location by by overover aa mile.mile.
underlain by
underlain by shales
shales withwith decreasing
decreasing amounts amounts of of The resistivity
The resistivity values values correlate
correlate directlydirectly with with
sands and
sands and limes.
limes. The The underlying
underlying Mississippian
Mississippian rock type.
rock type. Resistivities
Resistivities in in thethe 100-200
100-200 ohm-m ohm-m
consists primarily
consists primarily of of limestones
limestones with with subsidiary
subsidiary range correlate
range correlate with with low low porosity
porosity carbonates
carbonates ancl and
shale and sandstone beds,
shale and sandstone beds, while the Cambro- while the Cambro- with some of the (probably
with some of the (probably factured) granites. factured) granites.
Ordovician Sylvan,
Ordovician Sylvan, Viola, Viola, Simpson,
Simpson, and and Arbuckle
Arbuckle Values greater
Values greater than than 1000 1000ohm-mohm-m seem seemto to indicate
indicate
are primarily
arc primarily carbonates.
carbonates. The The basal basal Reagan Reagan more competent
more competent crystalline crystalline rocks. rocks. The The 18-30 18-30
sandstone, not shown in the
sandstone, not shown in the section, is very thin section, is very thin ohm-m resistivities at depth
ohm-m resistivities at depth show the moderately show the moderately
and intermittent, thickening
and intermittent, thickening to an estimated 100 to an estimated 100 porous limestone
porous limestone and and sandstones,
sandstones, while while the the com-com-
ftft in
in basement
basement topographic
topographic lows. lows. pactive effect
pactive effect of of burial
burial may may drive
drive the the resistivities
resistivities
Cutting diagonally
Cutting diagonally across across the the traverse
traverse from from of limey
of limey and and sandy
sandy shales shalesinto into this
this range
range as as well
well
Nil’ to SE is a hinge
)JW to SE is a hinge zone, which crosses thezone, which crosses the (McCrossan,
(l\lcCrossan, 1961). 1961).
traverse in the region
traverse in the region of Twp 17 N. Facies of Twp 17 N. Facies Considerable resemblance
Considerable resemblance isis evident evident between between
changesin
changes in the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian are are substantial
substantial and and the electrical
the electrical and and geological
geologicalcross-sections.
cross-sections.Where \Vhere
well-documented here,
well-documented here, as as well
well as as farther
farther south south they differ,
they differ, the the electrical
electrical section section isisin in closer
closeragree-
agrec-
where the
where the washes
washesgradually
gradually terminate
terminate away away fromfrom ment with present geologic
ment with present geologic concepts of the basin. concepts of the basin.
the mountains. The thick
the mountains. The thick Arbuckle is also re- ,4rbuckle is also re- The Permian consists of three
The Permian consists of three major subdivisions: major subdivisions:
ported to
ported to contain
contain major major facies
facieschanges
changesfrom from lime-
lime- aa thousand
thousand feet feet or or so so of of 10-30
lo-30 ohm-mohm-m material material
stone to
stone to dolomites,
dolomites, and and from from impermeable
impermeable to to at the
at the surface,
surface, aa similar similar thickness
thickness of of 11 ohm-m
ohm-m
very porous zones. From discussions
very porous zones. From discussions with several with several material, and then 2000-3000
material, and then 2000-3000 it of 3-4 ohm-m it of 3-4 ohm-m
geological specialists
geological specialists in in this
this region,
region, itit appears
appears to to rock. The
rock. The Virgil
Virgil and and Missouri
Missouri are are made made up up of of
be generally
be generally believedbelieved that that the the faulting
faulting at at thethe 6-30 ohm-m
6-30 ohm-m materialmaterial in in the
the granite
granite wash wash facies
facies
south end
south end of of the
the basin
basin isisof of anan overthrust
overthrust nature, nature, and of
and of aa consistent
consistent 5-7 5-7 ohm-mohm-m materialmaterial farther farther
with the crystalline rocks overthrust
with the crystalline rocks overthrust to the north. to the north. north. The remainder of
north. The remainder of the Pennsylvanian, the the Pennsylvanian, the
An intensive effort was
An intensive effort was made to estimate themade to estimate the Mississippian, and portions
}'dississippian, and portions of the Arbuckle com- of the Arbuckle com-
resistivities
TeSktiVitieS ofof the
the rocks
rocks in in the
the basin
basin from from su sub-
b- prise aa massive
prise massive thickness, thickness, with with resistivities
resistivities
surface logs,
surface logs, but but this this effort
effort was was unsuccessful
unsuccessful averaging about
averaging about 20 20 ohm-m,
ohm-m, within within which which little little
becauseof
because of the
the extremely
extremely conductive
conductive drilling drilling mud mud detail can be resolved.
detail can be resolved. Beneath this mass, re- Beneath this mass, re-
used in the area. The values
used in the area. The values which were estimated which were estimated sistivity rises again by
sistivity rises again by an order of magnitude. an order of magnitude.
apply only
apply only south
south from from Twp Twp 99 ~. N. These
These are: are: The low-resistivity
The lowresistivity values values at at depth
depth at at the
the south
south
Virgil and
and :\Iissouri
Missouri Washes
Washes lo--25 ohm-m
ohm-m end strongly
end strongly suggest suggest that that the the resistive
resistive rocks rocks
Virgil 10--25
Mississippian andandlower
lower forming the Wichita JIountains
forming the Wichita :\Iountains have been thrust have been thrust
Mississippian
Pennsylvanian 2-j
2-5 ohm-m
ohm-m over aa large
over large thickness
thickness of of more
more concluctive
conductive rocks. rocks.
Pennsylvanian
;\rbuckle 50-250 ohm-m
50-250 ohm-m The resistivities
The resistivities of of thethe latter
latter are are typical
typical of of the
the
.\rbuckle
Hasement
Basement 100-5000
100-5000 ohm-m
ohm-m Lower Pennsylvanian
Lower Pennsylvanian and and Mississippian
Mississippian rocks rocks
(locally 55ohm-m).
(locally ohm-m). inin the
the basin
basin proper.
proper. The The majormajor lateral
lateral breaksbreaks of of
Magnetotelluric
Magnetotellur ‘ Exploration
ic Exploration 139
139
the
the electrical
electrical cross-section
cross-section bear bear aa one-to-one
one-to-one various regions
various regions are are shOlnl
dho~n in in Figure
Figure 36 .36.
..;\notlicr
\nothn
correlation
correlation with the faults of Ham Ham et al al (196.J,).
(1964). major cost
major cost factor
factor i,;
i? the
the amount
amount of of geophysiciot-
geopliysicizt-
geophysici,t-
The
The abrupt
abrupt resisth'ity
resistivity change
change at at depth
depth in in the
the geologist time spent
geologist spent on on planning and and interpreta-
interpret;+
hinge zone
hinge l(iN-17~)
(Townships l(iN-17~)
zone (Townships 16N-17X) may may represent
represent tion. This
tion. This can can bebe limited
limited in in aa routine investiga-
investiga-
the effects
the effects ofoi the
the cxtelbive
extensive facies
facies changes
changes kno\\n
kno\vn tion
tion once
once itit has
has been
been e,;tablished
established that no 110 unu,;ual
unusual
to
to occur
occur here
here (e.g.,
(e.g., see
see Cambridge,
Cambridge, 1970). 1YX). problems
problems exist,esist, but may require rcquirc nearly iuli iull timc
time
The
The smaller
smaller features
features arcare ofof questionable
questionable sig- big- ior junior
ior junior andand senior
senior interpreter
interpreter in in the interpreta-
interprctn-
nihcance. For
nificance. For example,
example, the the apparent
apparent structure
structure tion stage,;
tion stages oi of aa nonroutine problem. Total Total cosb
cost>
beneath Twp Twp 1.J, 14 at 23,000 ft
at 25,000 it can
can certainly
certainly be be in
in area,;
areas ofof road acces,;
accesshavehaye aaveraged
H'raged abou
aboutt S2()()()
SZOOO
smoothed
smoothed out out with negligible effect effect onon curve
curve fitfit per site
Ate onon aa oneone site
site per day ba,;is.
basis. Thus,
Tliu>, the co,;t
coyt
by
b>- minor changes
changes in in the shallower
shallower parameters. of
of the entire
entire South Tcxa,; Texas tra\'er,;c
traverse was ~vas about
The
The structure
structure at 10,000 ft could
at 10,000 could likely
likely bebe reduced S12,000, while that
S12,000, that of the ,\nadarko
.inadarko Basin tra-
in
in size
size by similar
similar reinterpretation,
reinterpretation, althoughalthough it it yerse
\-erse was
I\-as about $25,000.
would require more effort to do do so.
so. Where
n’here logistics are more difficult, diilicult, their coohcost-.
In
In thi,;
this basin, the bulk resistivity
resistivity is is seen
seen to can completely
can completely overwhelm
ovcr\vhelm those those of the basicbasic sur-
increase with depth, from 11 ohm-m near the sur-
increase sur- \-ey. Here
\·ey. Here the relatively
relatively small .'.IT AIT crew
crelv and the
face, to
face, to aa few hundred ohm-meters
ohm-meters in the base- base- ncar-portability
near-portability of
Oi the
the equipment
equipment lead leatl to t(J
ment. The apparent resistivity curves
curves typically
typically logistics costs
logistics costs which are much much smaller than thosethose
rise gradually with decreasing
rise decreasing frequency over aa of, say,
of, say, aa reflection
reflection sei,;mic
seismic crew in the same same arca.
area.
very wide frequency range. :Uatching Matching that that por-
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
tion of the curves requires only that that resistivity
resistivit!-
increase at aa well-defined
well-defined average
a\-erage rate with The results presented here clearly clearly show
show the
depth. K Neither
either the boundaries between bet\vecn layers amount of significant geological information
vast amount information
resistivity within
nor the average resistivity within each each layer
layer can \vhich the ]\IT
which AlT method can yield through careful
7
accurately determined
be very accurately determinedinin thatthat depth
dcpthrangc.
range. application. Equipment
application. Lquipment and computer computer programs
programs
A model made up of many thin
.\ thin layers, each each more now
non available are functional,
available functional, practicable,
practicable, and
resistive than the one one above, can be con,;tructed
constructed generally reliable;
generally reliable; but but they
they could benefitbenefit from
that leads to practically
that practically the same same result as as the additional development.
additional development. ,\ .A higher
higher speed
speed (albeit
(albeit
model consisting of a few feTvthick
thick layers. reconnaissance capability,
cruder) reconnaissance capability, as as practiced
practiced in
The limits
The limits of interpretability
interpretability of any set of data the USSRUSSR (k’ ungul, 1971), leads to more favor-
(Yungul, favor-
are
arc sholvn
shown clearly
clearly by two of the computer computer curve able consideration
consideration of the method method when rapitl rapid
matching
matching techniques now now in use, use, the :'I10nte
Jlonte coverage at at low cost is more important important than than
Carlo searches
searches (Grcenfield,
(Greenfield, personal communica-
communica- great accuracy. Better Better display
display techniques would
tion) and the generalized
generalized inversion
inversion technique
technique be of great
great help in comprehending
comprehending and explaining
explaining
(Harter
(Harter and .Hadden,
Madden, in preparation).
preparation). Obviously,
Obviously, the results.
supplementary
supplementary information
information regarding
regarding some some pa- Improvements
Improvements continue continue to be made. For For ex-
rameters
rameters can be extremely extremely useful in narrowing narrowing ample,
ample, the the accuracy and convenienceconvenience of two- t\\'o-
these limits
limits for the remaining
remaining unknowns.
unknowns. dimensional
dimensional modelingmodeling can now be greatly greatly eIl-
en-
hanced by by using the the computer
computer to space the the net-
net-
ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS works whichwhich itit thenthen solves. Nevertheless,
:\evertheless, other
other
An
An MT
:'lIT operation
operation involves
involves field
fieJd support,
support, inter-
inter- approaches to modeling, modeling, suchsuch as those of Parr) Parry
pretive
pretive data
data processing, and logistical
logistical support.
support. and Ward Ward (1971) and and Hohmann
Hohmann (1971), (1971), should
In a region of road access,
In access, a field crew would would con- be pursued,
pursued, as should the development oi
the development of analog
analog
sist of 6-X
6-8 men, twotwo of whomwhom operate
operate the
the equip-
equip- models and and analytical
analytical solutions
solu tions for their
their obvious
ment
ment while
while the
the rest install
install and retrieve
retrieve induction
induction advantages.
advantages. Research
Research planned
planned or in in progress
progress ma)
may
coils, porous pots, and mire. wire. IfIf surveying,
surveying, line-
line- in
in the nextnext few years years permit
permit AIT }IT measurements
measurements
. cutting,
cutting, and station
station clearing
clearing are necessary,
necessary, more to be made offshore and on unstable u nstahle surfaces
men
men may
may he be needed
needed ifif no
no recording
recording time
time is toto IX
be \vhere
where they they arc
arc not
are not no\v
now I)ossiblr.
possible.
lost
l(bt in
in \vaiting
waiting for site preparation.
preparation. DataData procei+
process- With
\\‘
ith the
the range
range of of quyitions
que,tions that
qU("tions that arise
arise in
in the
the
ing
ing requires
requires part
part or full
full time
time of one one man,
man, tle-
de- application 0i
application of .\I’ I‘ and
.'.['1' and the variety 0i
the variety of to&
tools which
which
pending
pending on thethe number
number of of sites per
per day.
day. Alinimum
J\linimum are available
available to to thethe interpreter,
interpreter, eacheach sur\rey
survey de-
de-
recommended
recommended recording
recording timestimes perper station
station forfor mands
mands that that decisions
decisions be be made
made based
based on on subjective,
subjective,
140
140 Vozoff
Vozoff
Vozoff
preliminary evaluation.
preliminary
preliminary evaluation. The
evaluation. The correct
correct decision
decision is is assistance, and
assistance, and to 1)r.
to Dr.
Dr. S.S. H.
H. Yungul
H. Yungul for
1-~1ngul for aa de-
de-
often critical
often critical to
to thethe technical
technical and and economic
economic tailed reading
tailed
tailed reading and
reading and comments.
and comments.
comments.
success of
success
success of the
the survey.
survey. However,
However, both
However, both our
our total
total Funding
Funding for
Funding for about
for about half
about half of
half of this
this project
this project was
project was
understanding of
understanding
understanding of the
the MT
MT technique
MT technique andand our
our total
total provided
provided by
provided by aa group
group of
group of two
two major
t\\o major oil
major oil companies,
oil companies,
companies,
knowledge of
knowledge of the
the gross
gross electrical
gross electrical properties
properties which
which while
while the
while the remainder
the remainder was
remainder was sponsored
sponsored by
sponsored by Geoscience,
by Geoscience,
Geoscience,
it measures
it measures are
are still
still very
very limited.
limited. Hence,
limited. Hence, inin order
order Inc., of
Inc.,
Inc., of Cambridge,
Cambridge, :\Iassachusetts.
Cambridge, :\Iassachusetts.
Massachusetts.
to obtain
to obtain the
obtain the best
best possible results from
possible results from thethe
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
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method, planning
method, planning and
planning and interpretation
interpretation of
interpretation of survey"
survey"
surveys
Cagniard,L., 1953, Basic theory
Cagniard, theory of the magneto-telluric
magneto-telluric
will probably
probably have to continue to rely on spe- spe- method of geophysical prospecting: Geophysics, v.
some time to come.
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The alternative
alternative 18, p. 605.
18,
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Chairman, 1967, Basement Basement Map Map of
The
The magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric method has has advanced North America:
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Hascmcnt Rock Project project Committee,
Committee.
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tremendously in the past five years as as a result of AAPG
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Scale-11
5,000,OOO.
5,000,000.
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E., and Merritt,
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Basement rocks and structural structural evolution.
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southern
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method is well suited for mapping mapping the broad Harthill, ""J.,
Harthill, N., 1968, The The CSM
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features of porosity distribu
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poorly suited veying
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mapping fine detail.
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I ts major potential con- Heirb-:ler,
Heirtzler, ]. R., and Davidson!
J. R., Davidson, 11. M. J., ]., 1967, Synoptic
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1, CU.1-67 Konr 4259(05),
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important logical Ohservatory
Observatory (AD (AD 66.1037).
66.5037).
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Hohmann, W., 1971, Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic scattering scattering hy by
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secondary application exploration of areas
areas
conductors in the earth earth near a line source source of current:
current:
difficult to explore by con-
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ventional such asas areas
areas of near- Hopkins, G., 1965, Instrumentation
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s-ur-f-a-(:e volcanic
volEa-nic or metamorphic
s-urf-u-(:e vO]Ea-nic met-a-morphic rocks or of very
very Keller,
Keller, G. V., V., 1968, Electrical
Electrical prospecting
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thick sands
thick sands or gravels. Quart.
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Kunetz,
Kunetz, G.,
Kunctz, G., 1969, TraiLemenL
Traitcment et interpretation
interpretation des des
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS sondages
sondages magneto-telluriclues:
sondagcs magneto-tclluriques: Kev.
magneto-tclluriqllcs: Rev. de de I’I'TFP,
TFP, v. 25,
p. 685.
p.685.
The
The lessons
lessons and results reported derive
reported here derive Lang,
Lang, R. C., C., III,
III, 195.5,
1955, AA geologic cross cross section from the
Wichita
Wichita Mountains
Mountains to the Elk Elk City City pool: Shale
from the efforts of a highly highly professional team.
Shaker Digest,
Digest, p. 5.
Dr.
Dr. G. H. H. Hopkins
Hopkins was responsible for the Madden, '1'.,
Madden, T., and Nelson, 1'., I’., 1964, A A defense
defense of Cag-Cag-
equipment;
equipment; Dr. Dr. B. J. Woznick,
Woznick, for the data niard’s magneto-telluric
niard's magneto-telluric method: method: Geophysics Lab. Lab.
MIT Project
MIT Project NR-371-401
NR-371-401 rep.
analysis programs; and Dr. Dr. J. ~.
X. Galbriath,
Galbriath, Jr., Madden,T.,
Madden, T., and Swift,
Swift,, C. M. Jr.. 1969, Magnetotelluric
M. Jr., Magnetotelluric
for the data editing,
editing, data bookkeeping, and studies of the electrical
conductivity structurestructure of the
model-plotting
model-plotting routines. Messrs. A. Orange and crust and upper upper mantle:
mantle: l\GU AGC Monograph
M,;nograph 13, The The
Earth’s Crust
Earth's Crust and Upper Upper Mantle,
Mantle, 1’ p.. 469.
H.
H. S.
S. Lahman
Lahman ablyably supervised the field operations McCrossan, R.
::'vlcCrossan, R. G.,
G., 1961, ResistiviL,y
Resistivity mapping
mapping and petro- petro-
and data processing,
processing, and Mr. Mr. D.
D. Halpin
Halpin brought
brought phi-sical study
physical study of UpperC"pper Devoman
Devonian inier-reef
inter-reef calcare-
calcare-
ous shales
ous shales of Central
Central Alberta.
Alberta, (‘ anada:Bull. AAPG.
Canada:BlIlI.
Canada:Bull. AAPG,
the essential outlook of the structural
structural geologist to v. 45, p. 441.
v.45,p.441.
the interpretation
interpretation group. Mr. Mr. R. Harter
Harter con- Neves, A. S., 1957, 195i, TheThe magneto-telluric
magneto-telluric method method in in two-
two-
tributed
tributed significantly
significantly to development
development of the dimensional structures:
structures: Deljt.
Dept. of GeologyGeology and and Geo-
physics, MIT,MIT, Ph.D.Ph.D. thesis.
thesis.
generalized inversion technique and also also did Xsenoff. M..
Kisenoff, II
1969. Superconducting
M., 1969, IL
Sunerconducting magnetometers
., _
magnetometers
much of its coding.
coding, urith sensitivities anoroaching
with approaching
aDDroaching 10- 1O-‘10
o gauss: Paoer
10 gauss: Paper pre-
PaDer ore-
Dre-
sented at C.N.E.S~
sented C.N.E.S. Conference 011' on Low I,ow Magnetic
Magnetic
The
The novel analytical
analytical and interpretive
interpretive tools
Fields, Paris.
which we used
used in this work were developed in the Parry, J. R.,
Parry,]. R., and Ward,Ward, S. S. H.,H., 1971, Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
incisive researches
researches of Prof. T. R. "Madden
Madden and a scattering from cylinders
scattering cylinders of arhitrary
arbitrary cross-section
cross-section in
aa conductive
conductive half-space: Geophysics.Geol)h\xics. v. 36, p. 67.
group of outstanding
outstanding students, notably,
notably, C. M.M. Patrick, F.
Patrick, I*‘. W.,
W., and Bostick, F. I:. X.,
k., 1969,
1060, Magnetotel-
Magnetotel-
Swift, Jr., R.
Swift, Jr.,
Swift, R. J.J. Greenfield,
Greenfield, P.
Greenfield, P.. Nelson,
1’ Nelson, ami
and T.
1‘
T.. modeling techniques:
luric modeling techniques: EE F:I<Kl.?
EI';RL,
RL, U Ilniv.
Univ. Tech.
Texas, Tech.
niv. Texas, Tech.
Cantwell,
Cantwell, at
Cantwell, at MIT.
at. MIT.
MIT. Rep. No.
Rep. No.
No. 59.5’).
59.
Kikitake,
Rikitake, T.,
Rikitake, T.,
T., 1966, ~l~ctroln;tgnrtisnl
1966, Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism and antI
and the earth’
the earth'ss
earth's
Drs.
Drs. R.R. L.L. Caldwell
Caldwell and
Caldwell G. L.
and G. L. Hoehn
Hoehn sug-
sug- interior:
interior: Amsterdam,
interior: Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, ElsevierElsevier PuhLI’PuhL
ul)l. Co.(‘
0.
Co.
gested many
gested many improvements
improvements of
improvements of presentation
presentation in
presentation in Sims, W.
Sims, W. E.,E., and Bostick,
and Bostick,
Bostick, F. 1;. X., Jr., 1969,
X.,
F. X., 1969, Methods
Methods
Methods of of
early magnctotelluric analysis:
magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric analysis: EGRL EGRL T('ch.
E(;Iil. T('ch. Rep.
Tech. Rep. Ko.
Ko. 58,
Xo. 58,
early versions
versions of of this
this material.
material. II am
material. am also
also in-
in- Univ.
Univ. of
Univ. of Texas
Texas at Austin.
at Austin.
Austin.
debted
debted to to the
the Rev.
Rev. James
James Skehan,
Skehan, S.J.,
S.J., for
for his
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1968, The magneto-tclluric
The magneto-telluric
magneto-telluric methodmethod-
method-
Magnetotelluric
Exploration 141
141
field examples,
field examples, Texas: Texas: Engineering
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Dept., Vozofl, 1:.,
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Magnewtelluric
Univ. Calif.,
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Sorth German
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Basin: Geophys.
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Srivastava, S.S.P.,
Srivastava, P., 1967,
1965,~Iagnetotelluric
Xlagnetotelluric t\\'(]-
twc;-andand three-
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16, p.
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45-l.
layer master
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curves: Dom. Dam. Ohs. 01)s. Pub!.,
Puhl., \'.v. 35.
35. no.
no. \Vaeselynck, :\1., X., 1967,
1967, Etude
Etude de dc structures
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\Yaeselynck,
7,7, Canada
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Ener_Q, Ottawa.
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1961, ~Iajor
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417.
.\uadarko Basin
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81. Bul!. \'.
~\nadarko
Swift, C.C. ~1.,
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11.53. ----- 1971, Personal
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communicaLion.

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THE MAGNETOTELLURIC

THE MAGNETOTELLURIC METHOD

.. ~ -: .---'- ~ --; .. ;--- ---. . ..... - '- - ~-

F1: == VC’ l.1. "'" !Vp,]

where/ frequency, w == 27r/,and,u

=:: == === == - - - , DIGITAL

that frequency. Since

,001 ,01 ,I 1.0! 10 100

further eficicncy, recordings can be

LOG Po ~IZ ~I---_______

of analysis and plotting

-1 (.l.;B,) + (-1; + Hq) tan-' (.li H,)

H, = AH, + RH,, C.32)

Ct: !80 ------------------------- Ct: W

u .3-=~ "" (/)

.03 - -\100 ~ n:::(;,1

The result of fitting

0o, 20~ 11.7

3.5 1.2 i.9~1.95 13

.01 2 4 2.5 1.5 , .9

FIG. 18. Pseudosections,

eastern end, end, and apparent

O!Ot OINtNSlO'IAL Noon

APPARENT DEPTH (KM)

I Ill11 I I I111111 I I I111111 I I I111111 I I Illll

I:IG. 21. :Models

o.ll-or 0.11-01 a.tf

FIG. 24. Rotated apparent resistivities, site G-l, South Texas.

o.u"'Ot D.U 00 D.tl Ot 0.11 01

FIG. 29. Rotated apparenl

SITE SITE SITE SITE

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