2.

Matrices

2.1 Introduction
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers
arranged in rows and columns and enclosed in
a pair of brackets.
Examples
 1  2 6  2 
 2 2    
  ,  7 9 3  ,   3
  1 5   2 0 3  4 
   

If the matrix has m rows and n columns it is

called an m n matrix or a matrix of order m n .
A matrix is denoted by a single capital letter. If
matrix A has m rows and n columns it is
denoted by Amn .
Consider the following matrix

16
  a11 a12 .. .. a1n 
 
 . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . 
 ai1 ai 2 . aij ain  . This matrix can be
 
 am1 am 2 . amj amn 
 

written as A  (aij ) mn .

2.2 Some Special Matrices

Square Matrices
A matrix is called a square matrix when the
number of rows is equal to the number of
columns.
 a11 a12 . . a1n 
 
 a21 . . . a2 n 
 . . . . . 
 
In a square matrix  . . . . .  the
a . . ann 
 n1 an 2
elements having equal subscripts i=j , such as
a11, a22 ,...ann form the diagonal of the matrix.

17
Zero matrix
A matrix whose elements are all zero is called a
zero matrix or null matrix and is denoted by
Omn . m is the number of rows and n is the
number of columns.
i.e. aij  0 for all i and j
 0 0 0
 
Then  0 0 0   O33
 0 0 0
 

Unit matrix
A diagonal matrix whose elements of the
diagonal are all equal to 1 is a unit or an
identity matrix and is denoted by I
1 0 0
 
I 33   0 1 0
i.e. 0 0 1
 

Diagonal matrix
A square matrix whose only non zero elements
are in the diagonal is called a diagonal matrix.

18
 1 0 0
 
0  3 0
i.e.  0 0 2
 
Transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained from a given matrix by
interchanging its rows and its columns is
called the transpose of this matrix
If the given matrix is A the transpose of A is
denoted by AT.
3 1
3 2 5  
 
If A=  1 4 7  then
AT   2 4 
  5 7
 

Column matrix (Column vector) and Row

matrix (Row vector)
A column matrix is the matrix having only one
column while row matrix is the matrix having
only one row.

19
Triangular matrix
A square matrix A  (a ) is called an upper
ij nn

triangular matrix if all its elements below

the diagonal are zero. If its elements above
the diagonal are zero it is called a lower
triangular matrix.
A matrix is called a triangular matrix if
and only if it is upper or lower triangular.
 1 0 0
 1  3  
A    is upper triangular and B   2 1 0
 0 1    3 2 1
 

is lower triangular.

2.3 Operations with matrices

Addition of matrices
The sum of two matrices of the same order
is defined as the matrix whose elements are
the sums of the corresponding elements of
both given matrices.
20
If A  aij mn , B  bij   m n then A  B  aij  bij mn

Example
 1 3  0 2   1 5 
       
 2 5   1  3   3 2 

Scalar multiplication
A matrix is multiplied by a number, when
all its elements are multiplied by that
number.
A  aij mn then kA  kaij mn

Example
1 3 5  1 0 0
   
A   2 4 1 B   0 2 3
If  3 1 4
and  1 0 2
find the
   
matrix X such that 3( A  2 B  2 X )  2 A  B  4 X

Product of two matrices

The product A  B of two matrices is defined
only if the number of columns of the first

21
matrix is equal to the number of rows of the
second matrix.
The product A  B is equal to a matrix C
whose elements are the sums obtained when
the elements of a row of the first matrix are
multiplied by the elements of a column of
the second matrix as shown below
 b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13    b 
   21 22 
b
 a21 a22 a23   
 b31 b32 
a b a b a b a11b12  a12b22  a13b32 
  11 11 12 21 13 31 
 b  a b a b  a b 
 21 11 22 21 23 31 21 12 22 22 23 32 
a b a a b

 c11 c12 
=  c21 c22 

In general if A  aij mn and B  bij n p then

A  B  aij mn  bij n p  C  cij m p

Where cij  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ......  ainbnj

B  A  bij n p  aij mn

This is possible if m = p. In general

A B  B  A
22
Exercise
Show that A  B  B  A when
 1 3 3
 
A   2 5 1
  3 1 2 and
 

 2 0 3
 
 1 3 5
B=  2  4 1 .
 

2 4 
 1 2 0  
A    and B   1  2 
If   3 1 7 1 we can
 2 

show that AB  0 .
This proves that if A and B are matrices
such that A  0, B  0 the product AB can
be a null matrix.

NOTE
If AB = 0 it does not necessarily follow
that either A= 0 or B=0.

23
The Associative Law
For three matrices A, B, C ,
(AB)C=A(BC)

The Transpose of a Product of two matrices

For A, B matrices, (AB)T = BT AT

2.4 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

For three matrices A, B, C

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C

(ii) (A+B)C = AC+BC
(iii)A(B+C) = AB + AC
(iv) AI = IA = A where I is an identity
matrix.

24
Exercises

Given the following matrices verify that ,

(AB)T = BT AT .

 2 1 1
 2  1
   
3 0 1   0 3 
A=  1 3  2
, B= 1 2 
   

2.5 Determinant of a square matrix

If A = ( aij ) nxn then the determinant of A is

n

denoted by A and defined as A = a A

j 1
ij ij

where Aij is called the co-factor of aij and

Aij = (1) M
i j
ij

M ij is the matrix obtained deleting i th row

and j th column of A and is called the minor
of aij .

25
 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
Thus, =
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

2.5.1 Properties of Determinants

(i) The value of the determinant of a

matrix is zero if every element of a
row or a column of the matrix is zero.

(ii) If the rows and columns are

interchanged then the value of the
determinant of the matrix will not
change.

(iii)If two columns or rows of a matrix are

identical then the value of the
determinant of the matrix is zero.

(iv) If A and B are two square matrices

then AB  A B
26
 (v) The value of the determinant of a
matrix is not changed if a scalar
multiple of a row or a column is added
to any other row or a column.

(vi) If a square matrix B is obtained from

another square matrix A by an
interchange of two columns or rows
then B   A .

(vii) If every element in any row or

column is multiplied by some
number, then the whole determinant
is multiplied by that number.

Exercises

a b c 1 1 1
1
a1 b1 c1  a1bc b1ca c1ab
1.Prove that abc
a2 b2 c2 a2bc b2ca c2 ab

27
a b c abc b c
1
a1 b1 c1 a1bc b1 c1
= bc a bc b c2
a2 b2 c2 2 2

abc abc abc

1
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
(bc)( ac)( ab)
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

1 1 1
abc
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
(bc)( ac)( ab)
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

1 1 1
1
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
abc
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

28
 3
1 a a
1 b b3
2.Express 1 c c3 as a product of

linear factors in a, b, c.

1 a a3 1 a a3
1 b b 3  0 b  a b 3  a 3 , R2  R2  R1 , R3
1 c c3 0 c  a c3  a3

b  a b3  a 3

c  a c3  a3

1 b 2  ab  a 2
 (b  a)(c  a)
1 c 2  ca  a 2
29
 (b  a)(c  a)(c 2  ca  a 2  b 2  ba  a 2 )
 (b  a)(c  a)(c  b)(c  b  a)

3.Using properties of determinants show

that

1  a1 a2 a3
a1 1  a2 a3
=1+ a1  a2  a3
a1 a2 1  a3

2.6 Elementary Transformations on

Matrices

The following three types of transformation

of a matrix are known as elementary
transformations.

1.Interchange of any columns or rows

30
 2.Addition to any column or row a
multiple of any other column or row.
3.Multiplication of each element of a
column or a row by a non zero constant.

Note
1.A square matrix is said to be symmetric
if it is equal to its transpose.
2.A square matrix which is equal to the
negative of its transpose is called skew
symmetric.
3.For two matrices A and B

(i) ( A )  A (ii) ( A  B)  A  B
T T T T T

(iii) ( kA) T
 k AT
(iv) ( AB)T  BT AT

31
Exercises
1.In the case of a skew symmetric
matrix show that all the elements in
the principal diagonal are zero.
A is a skew symmetric marix
 A   AT

Let A  (aij ) nxn then aij   a ji

For elements along the diagonal i=j
aii   a ji  aii  0
2.Show that any square matrix can be
expressed as the sum of a symmetric
and a skew symmetric matrix.
1 1
A  ( A  AT )  ( A  AT )
2 2
( A  AT )T  AT  A  ( A  AT ) is symmetric
( A  AT )T  AT  A  ( A  AT ) is skew smmetric

32
Definitions
1.Adjoint of a matrix
If A  (aij ) nxn is a square matrix and Aij is

the cofactor of aij in the determinant of

A then the transpose of the matrix ( Aij ) nxn
is called the adjoint of the matrix A and
is denoted by adj A .

Example
 1 2 0
 
A   1 3 4
  2 5 6
If   find adj A .

T
 A11 A12 A13 
 
 A21 A22 A23 
adj A =  A A33 
 31 A32

3 4 1 4 1 3
A11   2 A12    2 A13  1
5 6 2 6 2 5

33
 2 0 1 2
A21    12 A22 
1 0
6 A23    9
5 6 2 6 2 5

2 0 1 0 1 2
A31  8 A32    4 A33  5
3 4 1 4 1 3

  2  2 1    2  12 8 
T

   
  12 6  9     2 6  4 
Adj A =    1 
 8  4 5    9 5 

Inverse matrix
If A and B are
square matrices such that
AB  BA  I then B is called the inverse of
A and is denoted by A1 . i.e. B  A1 .

Note: If B is the inverse of A then A is the

inverse of B .

34
Theorem
If A is a square matrix then
A . adj A = adj A . A = A I

Exercise:
Using the above theorem show that
adjA
A1 
A

A . adj A = adj A . A = A I
adjA adjA
A . A = A .A= I ( If A 0
)

1 adjA
A 
By the definition of inverse A

Note: A matrix A is said to be singular if

A  0 and then its inverse is not defined.
1
i.e. A exists only if A is non singular.
35
Exercises
1.Find the adjoint and the inverse of the
following matrix.

 1 2 3 
 
A 0 2  1
 4 5 2 


2.If A and B are two non-singular

matrices of the same order then show
that
 AB 1  B 1 A1
A and B non singular  A1 , B 1 exists.
( AB)( B 1 A1 )  A( BB 1 ) A1  I
( B 1 A1 ) AB  B 1 ( A1 A) B  I
( AB)( B 1 A1 )  ( B 1 A1 ) AB  I
 ( AB) 1  B 1 A1

3.For a square matrix A show that

A   A  .
T 1 1 T

36
 AA1  A1 A  I
( AA1 )T  ( A1 A)T  I
( A1 )T AT  ( A)T ( A1 )T  I
A   A  .
T 1 1 T

1 1
4.Assuming that A , B exist and if
 AB 1 ( A  I )  2 B solve for A in terms of B
and I.
Theorem
The elementary row transformations which
reduce a given matrix A to a unit matrix ,
when applied to the unit matrix give the
inverse matrix A1.
Example
Using elementary row operations find the
inverse of the following matrix
 2 3 4
 
 4 3 1 
 1 2 4
 

37
 References:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAh573i_qn8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4n-tQZnU6o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lP1DGtZ8Wys

Exercises
l m
1. (i) Show that if A    then
r s
 s  m
A 1    .
 r l 
 1 2
(ii) If C    find a matrix P of
 4 1
1 1
the form  a b  such that P 1CP is a
 
diagonal matrix.

 s  r   s  m
T

AdjA      
 m l   r l 

38
 1 1  s  m
A   
(ls  mr)   r l 

1  b  1   1 2   1 1 
ab
1
(ii) P CP        ,
(b  a)   2 1   4 1   a b 

1  (b  4  2ab  a) (b  4  2b 2  b) 

  
(b  a)  (a  4  2a  a) (a  4  2ab  b) 
 2

For a diagonal matrix

2b 2  2b  4  0 and  2a 2  2a  4  0
 b  2 or -1 and a  2 or -1
 1 1 1 1 
P   
  1 2
or P   
 2  1
since a  b

39
40
41