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SATELLITE

COMMUNICATIONS

Bernadeth B. Zari, PECE


DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Satellite- a spacecraft placed in orbit around the earth


which carries on board microwave receiving and
transmitting equipment (repeater) capable of relaying
signals from one point on earth to other points.
 Satellite System – a radio repeater in the sky
consisting of a transponder , a ground based station to
control its operations, and a user network of earth
stations that provide the facilities for transmission and
reception of communication traffic through the satellite
systems.
What is a Satellite?

 A smaller
Elliptical orbit (secondary)body
(Satellite)
revolving a larger body
Secondary body  May be natural
Primary body
(e.g, moon, planets
around the sun)
 May be artificial
(e.g, comm satellites)
Pros and Cons of Satellite

 Pros
– can reach a large geographical area.
– high bandwidth
– support for mobile users
 Cons
– high initial cost (equipment, launching, and limited
lifetime of 3 to 7 years)
– susceptible to noise and interference
– propagation delay and crowding
4
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1940’s – 1950’s
- moon was the first passive
satellite used

1945
- Arthur C. Clark &
John R. Pierce
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1954
- the U.S. Navy
conducted the Earth
Moon Earth

1957
- Russia launched the
SPUTNIK 1 the first
active satellite
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

Explorer I
- transmitted telemetry
information for nearly 5
months

19 58
Score - with on-board tape
recording, the first artificial
satellite used for relaying
terrestrial communications
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

Echo
- accomplish the first
transatlantic
transmission

Courier
- the first transponder type
satellite lasted only 417
days
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1962
- AT & T launched the
TELSTAR 1 the first duplex
satellite transmission

1963
- AT & T launched TELSTAR
H for telephone, TV, fax and
data transmission
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1965
- COMSAT launched the
EARLY BIRD( first
commercial operational
synchronous comm. Sat)
which transmitted
messages to five earth
stations with 66
telephone circuits using
EDM techniques
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1966
- The National
Development Company
and POTC established
the DOMSAT ushering
satellite technology to
the Philippines
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1967
- PHILCOMSAT;
Philippines, installed the
first earth station at the
foot of Sierra Madre
Mountains, Mount
Pinugay, Baras, Rizal
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1974
- Western Union launched
the WESTAR for TV and
data transmission

1976
- Indonesia launched its
first satellite; PALAPA A-
1
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1988
- India launched its first
satellite; INSAT-1C

- Russia launched the


OKEAN for remote
sensing
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1993
- Thailand launched its
first satellite; THAICOM
1.

- They also launched the


Microsatellite Program
through United NASA
and GE
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

1997
- Mabuhay Philippines
Satellite Corporation
launched AGUILLA II;
the first Philippine
Satellite

Sputnik 1
- the first active satellite
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology
Telstar I
- the first active satellite to
simultaneously receive
and transmit radio signals

Telstar II
- was electronically identical
to Telstar I, except it was
more radiation resistant
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

Syncom I
- was the first attempt to
place geosynchronous
satellite into orbit but was
lost during orbit injection

Syncom III
- used to broadcast the
1964 Olympic Games from
Tokyo
Significant Milestones in Satellite
Technology

Intelsat I (Early Bird)


- first commercial
telecommunications
satellite

Molniya
- first domestic satellite by
the Soviet Union
What Forces Keep the Satellite
from Falling?

Centrifugal Force
-throw the body outward
because of velocity

Gravity
-pulls it towards
earth center
ORBITAL VELOCITY AND ALTITUDE

 A rocket must accelerate to at least 25,039 mph


(40,320 kph) to completely escape Earth's gravity
and fly off into space.

 Earth's escape velocity is much greater than


what's required to place an Earth satellite in
orbit. With satellites, the object is not to escape
Earth's gravity, but to balance it.
 Orbital velocity is the velocity needed to achieve
balance between gravity's pull on the satellite and the
inertia of the satellite's motion. -- the satellite's
tendency to keep going.

 This is approximately 17,000 mph (27,359 kph) at an


altitude of 150 miles (242 km).

 The nearer to Earth, the faster the required orbital


velocity.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
 The centripetal force is the external force
required to make a body follow a circular path at
constant speed.

 The force is directed inward, toward the center of


the circle.

 Hence it is a force requirement, not a particular


kind of force.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
 Centrifugal force (from Latin centrum "centre"
and fugere "to flee") is a term which may refer to
two different forces which are related to rotation.

 Both of them are oriented away from the axis of


rotation, but the object on which they are exerted
differs.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND ANGULAR
VELOCITY FORCE

m = satellite mass
v = satellite velocity in the plane of orbit
µ = Geocentric Gravitational constant
= 3.986004 x 10 5 km3/s2
r = radius from the center of the earth
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Satellite Link- a communication path formed
between two or more ground stations transmitting
and receiving radio communications traffic via a
satellite.
Uplink – that portion of the satellite
communications link involving the transmission of
traffic from the ground station up to the satellite.
Downlink – the portion of a satellite
communications link involving the transmission of
traffic from the satellite to the earth terminal.
 Satellite Altitude – refers to the satellite orientation
with respect to the earth.
Orbital terminology
 Orbit - the path of a celestial body or satellite in
“unpowered flight”
 Ascending node - point where the orbit crosses the
equatorial plane going from South to North
 Descending Node - point where the orbit crosses the
equatorial plane going from North to South.
 Apogee - The highest point of the orbit or it is the point in
an earth satellite orbit, which is farthest away from earth
 Perigee - The point in an earth satellite orbit, which is
closest in the earth
 Eccentricity - a number between zero and one which
describe the shape of an ellipse. A circle has an
eccentricity of zero.
Eccentricity
Characteristics of Satellite Orbit
 Height
 Speed
 period
 Angle of inclination
 Angle of elevation
 Angle of Inclination – the angle between
the line that passes through the center of
the earth and the north pole and a line
that passes through the center of the earth
but which is also perpendicular to the
orbital plane.

 Azimuth – angle measured clockwise with


respect to north.
Angle of
elevation
 angle that
appears
between the
line from the
earth’s
station
antenna to
the satellite.
Coverage angle - the measure
of the portion of the earth's
surface visible to the satellite
Kepler's laws

Johannes Kepler
(December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630)
was a German mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer, and a key figure in the 17th century
astronomical revolution. He is best known for his
eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later
astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova,
Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican
Astronomy.
KEPLER’S LAW
First Law: Satellite will orbit a primary
body following an elliptical path.

KEPLER'S FIRST LAW


 The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the
sun at one of the foci.

 An ellipse is characterized by its two focal points;

 Thus, Kepler rejected the ancient Aristotelean


and Ptolemaic and Copernican belief in circular
motion.
PHYSICAL LAWS
KEPLER’S 1ST LAW: LAW OF ELLIPSES

The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun


at one focus
KEPLER’S LAW
Second Law: (Law of Areas) Equal
intervals of time a satellite will sweep
out equal areas in the orbital plane,
focused at the barycenter.

KEPLER'S SECOND LAW


 A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out
equal areas during equal intervals of time as the
planet travels along its orbit.
 This means that the planet travels faster while
close to the sun and slows down when it is
farther from the sun.
 With his law, Kepler destroyed the Aristotelean
astronomical theory that planets have uniform
velocity.
PHYSICAL LAWS
KEPLER’S 2ND LAW: LAW OF EQUAL AREAS
The line joining the planet to the center of the sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal times

T4 T3
T5
T2
A4 A3
A5 A2 T1
A1

T6 A6
PHYSICAL LAWS
KEPLER’S 3RD LAW: LAW OF HARMONICS
The squares of the periods
of two planets’ orbits are
proportional to each
other as the cubes of
their semi-major axis:
T12/T22 = a13/a23
TYPES OF SATELLITES
 Communications Satellites
 Navigation Satellites

 Weather Satellites

 Military Satellites

 Scientific Satellites
SATELLITE ELEVATION
CATEGORIES
 LOW EARTH ORBIT  MEDIUM EARTH
(LEO) ORBIT
 OPERATES IN THE 1  OPERATES IN THE
GHz – 2.5 GHz 1.2 – 1.66 GHz
 LOWER PATH LOSS  ORBIT BETWEEN
 LOWER TRANSMIT 6000-12000 MILES
POWER, SMALLER  HIGH ALTITUDE
ANTENNAS AND EARTH ORBIT
LIGHTER
 2 – 18 GHz
 19000 -25000 MILES
SATELLITES

44
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) 22,300 miles (in
equatorial orbit)

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)


4000-12000 miles

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)


300-1000 miles
WAYS TO CATEGORIZE
COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES
 Coverage area
 Global, regional, national
 Service type
 Fixed service satellite (FSS)
 Broadcast service satellite (BSS)
 Mobile service satellite (MSS)
 General usage
 Commercial, military, amateur, experimental
COVERAGE AREA

 National / Domestic Satellite


(DomSat) – provide satellite services within a single
country.
 Regional Satellite – provides services confined to
specific regions only.
 Global Satellite – provides services globally.
SERVICE TYPE
 Fixed Satellite Service (FSS) – covers links between
satellites and earth fixed stations.
 Mobile Satellite Service – covers satellite links
stations that maybe in motion.
 Broadcast Service – include TV (DBS-TV) and audio
(DBSA)
SATELLITE ORBITS
 Elliptical Orbit
 It is inclined at an angle of 64º with respect to the equatorial plane.
 This orbit is particularly stable with respect to irregularities inn terrestrial
gravitational potential.
 It also enables the satellite to cover regions of high latitude for a large fraction
of the orbital period as it passes to the apogee.
 Circular Inclined Orbit (Polar Orbit)
 In this orbit, the altitude of the satellite is constant and equal to several
hundreds of kilometers
 The period is of the order of one and a half hours.
 With near 90º inclination, this type of orbit guarantees that the satellite will
pass over every region of the earth.
 Circular Orbit with Zero Inclination (Equatorial Orbit)
 The most popular is the geostationary satellite orbit.
 The satellite orbits around the earth at an altitude of 35,855 km, and in the
same direction as the earth.
 The period is equal to that to the rotation of the earth and in the same
direction.
ORBITS TAKEN BY
NON-SYNCHRONOUS
SATELLITES
 Prograde or Posigrade Orbit
 A type of orbit taken by a nonsynchronous
satellite that is orbiting in the same direction
as the earth’s rotation with at an angular
velocity greater than that of the earth.
 Retrograde Orbit
 A type of orbit taken by a nonsynchronous
satellite that is orbiting in the opposite
direction as the earth’s rotation with at an
angular velocity less than that of the earth.
CLASSIFICATION OF SATELLITES
ACCORDING TO ORBITAL PATTERN
ELLIPTICAL INCLINED-ORBITING
SATELLITE

 any other orbit not


classified as polar or
equatorial used where
communications is
desired to regions of
high latitude.
CIRCULAR EQUATORIAL-ORBITING
SATELLITE

 The satellite rotates in an orbit above the equator


CIRCULAR POLAR-ORBITING SATELLITE

 Rotates in an orbit
that takes over north
and south pole.
 It follows an orbit
close to earth and
passes over or very
close to the poles.
 Inclination is close to
90 degrees (800 to
1000 km)
 Used for earth
observation and
surveillance
Satellite orbits
Types of Satellite Transmissions:
 Payload- actual information conveyed through the
system
 Bus Transmission- includes control mechanisms
that support the payload operation.
Types as to functions;
 Passive Satellite- a communications satellite not
equipped with electronic devices to retransmit
communications. Such satellite act as a reflector of
radio waves.
 Active Satellite- a satellite equipped with electronic
devices to receive, amplify, convert and retransmit
signals.
Types as to Axis Stabilization
 Spinners- use angular momentum of its spinning
body to provide roll and yaw stabilization.
 3-axis Stabilizers- body reeamins fixed relative to
earth’s surface while an internal subsystem provides
roll and yaw stabilization.
CATEGORIES OF SATELLITES
Based on Axis Stabilization

1. Spinners – use angular


momentum of its spinning
body to provide roll and yaw
stabilization

2. 3-axis Stabilizers – body


remains fixed relative to
earth’s surface while an
internal subsystem provides
roll and yaw stabilization
Satellite frequency band

Downlink, Bandwidth,
Band Uplink, GHz
GHz MHz

L 1.5 1.6 15

S 1.9 2.2 70

C 4 6 500

Ku 12 14 500

Ka 20 30 3500
Frequency Bands Available for
Satellite Communications
SATELLITE SYSTEM LINK
MODELS
COMPONENTS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS
Up
Converter

IF RF
Modulator BPF Mixer BPF HPA
Base Band in FDM or
PCM/TDM

Microwave
Generator
COMPONENTS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS

Frequency
Translator

BPF LNA Mixer BPF LNA

Microwave
Shift Oscillator
2 GHz
COMPONENTS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS

Down
Converter

BPF LNA Mixer BPF Demodulator

Microwave
Generator
FREQUENCY REUSE
Multiple Coverage Areas
- the use of the same frequency
beamed towards different
geographic areas on earth
multiple spot beam antennas.

Dual polarization – sending


different information signals
using vertical or horizontal
electromagnetic polarization.
This is similar to Polarization
Diversity in order to improve
system stability
Satellite Network Configurations
Satellite Footprint
- a geographic representation of a
satellite’s radiation pattern, with
contour lines representing limits
of equal receive power density.

1. Spot Coverage – beams concentrate the radiated power in a


very small geographic area

2. Zonal Coverage – covers less than one-third of earth’s surface

3. Earth Coverage – covers approximately one-third of earth's


surface (42 %) using a 17-degree beamwidth
4. Hemispherical coverage – covers up to 20% of the earth’s
surface.
SATELLITE SYSTEM
 A radio repeater in the
sky consisting of:

- a transponder

- a ground based station


to control its operations

- a user network of earth


stations that provide the
facilities for transmission
and reception of
communication traffic
through the satellite
systems.
ASSIGNMENT:
ANSWER THE FF.:

1. QUESTIONS 1- 22;
2. PROBLEMS 1-28
REF.: TOMASI 6TH ED pp 601-603
Satellite System
Parameters
Orbital Calculations
ORBITAL VELOCITY
 Any satellite orbiting the earth needs to satisfy this
equation: 2  h  R 
4 x1011 v
v T
(d  6400)

Where v = velocity in meters/second


d = distance above the earth’s surface in km
h = distance above the earth’s surface in m
R = earth’s radius in m
T = satellite’s period in sec
DECLINATION

Actual Path Length

d  (r  h) 2  (r cos  ) 2  6400 sin 

d= distance to the satellite in km


r = radius of the earth in km
(6400km)
h = height of the satellite above equator in km
(36x103 km)
Θ = angle of elevation to satellite at antenna site
Earth station design parameters

Orbital Height (Vertical Height)

gR 2T 2
h3 R
4 2 Where:
g = acceleration due to
gravity
= 9.81 m/s2
gR2 = gravitational
constant
Orbital Period = 4 x 105 km3/s2

T  2
h  R 3 h = height of sat. (m)
R = earth’s radius (m)
gR 2 T = orbital period (s)
Earth station design parameters

Propagation Time (one-way)


d
Ptime  Where:
c c = speed of light
= 3 x 108 m/s
f = frequency (GHz)
Propagation Delay (two-way) d = distance (km)

Pdelay  2 Ptime

Free Space Loss

FSL  92.4  20 log f  d 


Problems:
1. What is the satellite's velocity and period
orbiting in a circular pattern with elevation
of 600 km?
2. Find the angle of declination for an
antenna using a polar mount at a
latitude of 45°
Problems:
3. Find the length of the path to a
geostationary satellite where angle of
elevation is 40°
4. Calculate the signal strength at the
receiver if the satellite transmitter
operates at 5 GHz with transmitter power
of 9 W and antenna gain 50 dBi. The
receiver has 1.5m diameter.
SATELLITE
LINK
BUDGET
GENERAL ARCHITECTURE
NOISE CALCULATION
Noise Density
 The amount of noise present in a one Hertz bandwidth
due to a noise source.
 Noise density in Watts/Hz
N
No 
BW
N o  KT eq
 Noise density in dBW/ Hz

N o  N dBW  10 log BW
Carrier-to-Noise Density Ratio
unitless
C C

N o kTe
in db

C
 CdBW  N o(dbW)
No

C G
 EIRP(dBw )  FSL(dB)  (dB)  K (dBw )
No T
Energy of Bit –to- Noise Density Ratio
Bit Energy
in Joule/bps
 Unitless
C Eb  Pt  Tb
Eb fb
 in dbJ or dbW/bps
No N
BW Eb  Pt ( dBW )  10 log Tb

 in db
 Eb   C  BW 
       
 N o  dB  N  dB  f b  dB
Satellite system parameters
Gain-to-Equivalent Noise Temperature Ratio
unitless
G Ar  ALNA

Te Te
in db
G
 Ar ( dB )  ALNA( dB )  Te ( dBK )
Te
G/T (Gain to System Noise Temperature)
• This is the Figure of merit of any receiving system
• It is the ratio of gain of the system and system noise temperature

Te = Ta + Tr

Ta = antenna noise temperature


Tr = receiver equivalent noise temperature
Problem 1
 Find the energy per
bit for a transmission )(0.02
rate of 50 Mbps and µs)
total transmit power of
1000 W.
 SOLUTION:
Problem 1
 Find the energy per bit for a transmission rate of 50
Mbps and total transmit power of 1000 W.
Problem 2:
 Find the EIRP for an earth station
transmitter with an antenna output power
of 40 dBW, a back off loss of 3 dB, a total
branching loss and feeder loss and
transmit antenna gain of 40 dB.
Problem 3:
 Find the equivalent noise temperature of 4
dB noise figure using 300 K environmental
temperature.
Problem 4:
 Find the noise density and equivalent noise temperature
for an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10 MHz and total
noise power of 0.0276 pW.
Satellite System
Link Equations
C At Pin ( L p Lu ) Ar At Pin ( L p L u ) G
  x
No KTe k Te
C 4D G
 10 log At Pin  20 log( )  10 log  10 log Lu  10 log K
No  Te
C G 1
 EIRP ( dBW )  L P ( dB )  ( dBK )  Lu ( dB )  K ( dBWK )
No Te

Lp
Lu

Uplink Equation
Lf
Pin

HPA:
Pt LBO LB
C At Pin ( L p LD ) Ar At Pin ( L p LD ) G
  x
No KTe k Te
C 4D G
 10 log At Pin  20 log( )  10 log  10 log LD  10 log K
No  Te
C G 1
 EIRP ( dBW )  L P ( dB )  ( dBK )  L D ( dB )  K ( dBWK )
No Te
Pin At
Lp
Lu

Downlink Equation
Pin

E/S Rx
Te G/Te Eb/No C/N
Problem 4: Complete the uplink budget
Solution:
Problem 5:
Solution:
SATELLITE ACCESSING
TECHNIQUE
Access Techniques – refers to the way a communication
system uses a satellite transponder.

 Multiple Access – In communications satellites, those


satellites so equipped that they may function as a portion
of a communications link between more than one pair of
ground stations simultaneously.

 Multiple Access Back-off refers to the satellite output


power that is lost due to the necessity for backing off on
the earth station radiated power to avoid generating
excessively high intermodulation products in the satellite.
It ranges from 1 to 2dB.
SATELLITE MULTIPLE
ACCESSS TECHNIQUES
1. Frequency division Multiple Access (FDMA)

A satellite transponder is divided into smaller frequencies hand


segments where cash segment is assigned to use for his uplink or
downlink frequency.

Pre-assigned – a given number of available voice hand channels from


each earth station are assigned dedicated destinations. This method is
only economically feasible in situations where sources / destination
locations have very low traffic density during the busy hour.

Demand- Assigned - voice band channels are assigned on “as-needed”


basis. It provides more versatility and more efficient use of the
frequency spectrum.

Random Access Distributed Control – uses a processor controller at each


earth station accessing the system. All earth stations in the network
monitor status information by means of the digital order wire circuit.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

 Works in the time domain and is applicable to digital


systems because information storage is required. In
this method, stations are restricted to precise time
slot. It has no restrictions on frequency or bandwidth.
Presently it is the most dominant method used of
provides the most efficient method of transmitting
digitally modulated carriers.

Store and forward – a technique in which a message


received from earth termed is held in storage until
the satellite is in view of a second earth terminal, at
which time the message in transmitted.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) or
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA)

Spread spectrum multiple accessing has no


restrictions on time or bandwidth. Each station
may transmit whenever it wishes and can use any
or all of the bandwidth allocated. Transmissions
are separated through envelope, encryption, and
decryption techniques/ it uses unique binary words
called “CHIP CODES” to receive a particular earth
station’s transmission. A “correlator” checks or
compares orthogonal codes with original chip
codes to allow access to users.
Frequency Hopping:
Is a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to continually
change the frequency of the carrier.

INMARSAT (International Maritime Satellite Organization


Recommended by the panel of experts commissioned by the
intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO).

INTELSAT – International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium


Founded in 1964 at Washington D.C. by COMSAT of the United
States, Overseas Telecommunications Commission of the Australia
and nine other world communications agencies.

MARISAT
Ship- to- shore and shore-to – ship communications via a dedicated
geostationary satellite system, providing high-quality telephony, data
and telex/telegraphy circuits.

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