SINUSOID & PHASORS

SINUSOID
– is a signal that has the form of sine or
cosine function.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as
alternating current (ac). Such a current reverses at
regular time intervals and has alternately positive
and negative values.

Sinusoids is important for a number of reasons:

1. Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal.
Example, the sinusoidal variation in the motion
of a pendulum, the vibration of a string, the
ripples on the ocean surface, the political events
of a nation, the economic fluctuations of the
stock market
2. A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and
transmit.
It is the form of voltage generated worldwide
and supplied to homes, factories, laboratories,
business establishment and so on. It is the
dominant form of signal in the communications
and electric power industries.
3. Any practical periodic signal can be represented
by a sum of sinusoids. Therefore, play an
important role in the analysis of periodic
signals.
4. Easy to handle mathematically. The derivative
and integral of a sinusoid are themselves
sinusoids.
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SINUSOIDS
v (t ) or i (t )
90

Vm

r
y 1

3

2  2 2
180

0 0 t
 90 180 270
Mathematically, a sinusoidal voltage

v(t )  Vm sin  and   t

v(t )  Vm sin t

where:
Vm  the amplitude of the sinusoid
  the angular frequency in radians/s
 t  the argument of the sinusoid
 The sinusoid is shown in the figure as a
function of its argument and as a function of
time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself
every T second; T is called the period of the
sinusoid. Note that, 𝑤𝑡 = 2𝜋

2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
 The fact that the v(t) repeats itself every T
seconds is shown by replacing t by t + T in the
first equation.
2𝜋
𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 +
𝜔
= 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑣(𝑡)

v has the same value at t + T as it does at t

and v(t) is said to be periodic.
Periodic function
- one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t
and for all integers n.
PROBLEMS
Values in a Sine Wave
TWO SINUSOIDS WITH DIFFERENT PHASES
 A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or
cosine form. When comparing two sinusoids, it is
expedient to express both as either sine or cosine
with positive amplitudes.
Using the following trigonometric identities:

sin(ωt ± 180◦) = -sin ωt

cos(ωt ± 180◦) = -cos ωt
sin(ωt ± 90◦) = ±cos ωt
cos(ωt ± 90◦) = ∓sin ωt
We can use to relate, compare or transform a
sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or vice
versa by:
a.) Trigonometric Identities
b.) Graphical Approach
 The graphical technique can also be used to
add two sinusoids of the same frequency when one
is in sine form and the other is in cosine form. To
add Acos ωt and B sin ωt, we note that A is the
magnitude of cos ωt while B is the magnitude of sin
ωt
 v (t )

= ( + )

= ( + )

( )=

3/2π
0
3/2π
t
 2
SINUSOID-PHASOR
TRANSFORMATION
Phasor - is a complex number that
represents the amplitude and phase of a
sinusoid.

The notion of solving ac circuits

using phasors was first introduced by
Charles Steinmetz in 1893.
COMPLEX NUMBER
A complex number A can be written in rectangular
form as
A = x + jy
where
𝑗 = −1
x = the real part of A
y = the imaginary part of A

The variables x and y do not represent a

location as in two-dimensional vector analysis
but rather the real and imaginary parts of A in
the complex plane.
 Note that there are some
resemblances between manipulating
complex numbers and manipulating
two-dimensional vectors.
The complex number A can also be written in polar
or exponential form as

𝐀 = 𝑟∠ = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗
Where:
r is the magnitude of A
is the phase of A
Note that z can be represented in three ways:

𝐀 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 Rectangular form
𝐀 = 𝑟∠ Polar form
𝐀 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗 Exponential form

Rectangular to Polar form

𝑟 = 𝑥 +𝑦
− 𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥

Polar to Rectangular form

𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠
y = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛
Therefore,

𝐀 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )

𝑦−
𝐀 = 𝑟∠ = 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∠𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥
Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.

𝑒 ±𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛

Which shows that we may regard cos and

sin as the real and imaginary parts of 𝑒 𝑗
cos = Re(𝑒 𝑗 )
sin = Im(𝑒 𝑗 )

Where: Re the real part of

Im the imaginary part of
SINUSOID-PHASOR TRANSFORMATION

To get the phasor corresponding to a

sinusoid, express the sinusoid in the cosine form so
that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of
a complex number. Take out the time factor , and
whatever is left is the phasor corresponding to the
sinusoid. Suppressing the time factor, transform
the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor
domain.
SINUSOID-PHASOR TRANSFORMATION

Time Domain Representation Phasor Domain Representation

v(t )  Vm cos(t   ) V = Vm

v(t )  Vm sin(t   ) V = Vm(  90)

i(t )  I m cos(t   ) I = I m

i(t )  I m sin(t   ) I = Im(  90)

Difference between v(t) and V
1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain
representation, while V is the frequency or
phasor-domain representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not. (Often
forgotten)
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while
V is generally complex

Bear in mind that phasor analysis applies only when

frequency is constant; it applies in manipulating two or
more sinusoidal signals only if they are of the same
frequency.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the frequency, their maximum values
and the phase angle between the two voltages
𝑣 𝑡 = 12 sin 1000𝑡 + 60° 𝑉 and 𝑖 𝑡 =
− 6 cos 1000𝑡 + 30° 𝐴. Show graphically.
𝜋
2. Given the voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 120 cos 314𝑡 + 𝑉 ,
4
determine the frequency of the voltage in Hertz and
the phase angle in degrees.
3. Three branch currents in a network are known to
be as enumerated below, determine the phase
angles by which 𝑖 (t) leads 𝑖 (t) and 𝑖 (t) leads 𝑖3 (𝑡).
𝑖 𝑡 = 2 sin 377𝑡 + 45° 𝐴
𝑖 𝑡 = 0.5 cos 377𝑡 + 10° 𝐴
𝑖3 𝑡 = −0.25 sin 377𝑡 + 60° 𝐴
PROBLEMS
4. Evaluate the following complex number
1
a) (30∠60 + °
20∠−20° )2
30∠−30° +(4−𝑗3)
b)
(3+𝑗4)(4−𝑗5)∗
c) [ 5 + 𝑗2 −1 + 𝑗4 − 5∠60° ]∗
0+𝑗5+3∠40°
d) + 10∠30° + 𝑗5
−3+𝑗4

5. Transform the following sinusoids to phasors

a. 𝑖 𝑡 = 6cos(50𝑡 − 40° ) A
b. 𝑣 𝑡 = 12cos(377𝑡 − 30° ) V
c. 𝑖 𝑡 = −4sin(30𝑡 − 50° ) A
d. 𝑣 𝑡 = 18sin(2513𝑡 − 25° ) A
PROBLEMS
6. Find the sinusoids represented by the following
phasors.
°
a) 𝑽 = 𝑗4𝑒 −𝑗30
°
b) 𝑽 = −𝑗8𝑒 𝑗45

c) 𝑰 = −𝑗(4 − 𝑗3)
d) 𝑰 = −30∠(−20° )
e) 𝑽 = 𝑗(−12 + 𝑗5)
f) 𝑰 = 40∠(−20° )

7. Given 𝑖 𝑡 = 6 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 40° A and 𝑖 𝑡 =

8 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 20° A, find their sum, their
difference and conjugate of each.
PROBLEMS
8. Given the following sinusoids find their sum,
their difference, their product and their
quotient:
a) 𝑣 𝑡 = −12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 30° and 𝑣 𝑡 =
5 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 30°
b) 𝑖 𝑡 = −6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 45° and 𝑣 𝑡 =
8 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 60°
c) 𝑖 𝑡 = 15 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 25° and 𝑣 𝑡 =
− 8 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 50°

9. Given 𝑖 𝑡 = 6 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 30° A and 𝑖 𝑡 =

8 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 30° A, find their sum, their
difference and conjugate of each.
PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

For Resistive circuit, R

If the current through a resistor R, is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ),

the voltage across it is given by Ohm’s law as 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 =
𝑅𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + and the phasor form is 𝑽 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 ∠

But the phasor representation of the current is 𝑰 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠ ,

hence 𝑽 = 𝑅𝐼

Note that voltage and current are in phase.

Peak value - the maximum instantaneous value of
a function as measured from the zero-volt level.
The peak amplitude and peak value are the same,
since the average value of the function is zero volts.

Peak-to-peak value - denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p,

the full voltage between positive and negative
peaks of the waveform, that is, the sum of the
magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.
Periodic waveform - a waveform that continually
repeats itself after the same time interval.
Period (T ) - the time interval between successive
repetitions of a periodic waveform as long as
successive similar points of the periodic waveform
are used in determining T.

Cycle - the portion of a waveform contained in one

period of time.

Frequency ( f ) - The number of cycles that occur

in 1s.
 To get the phasor corresponding to a
sinusoid, express the sinusoid in the cosine form so
that the sinusoid can be written as the real part of
a complex number. Take out the time factor , and
whatever is left is the phasor corresponding to the
sinusoid. Suppressing the time factor, transform
the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor
domain.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Waveform - the path traced by a quantity, such as
the voltage in plotted as a function of some variable
such as time, position, degrees, radians,
temperature, and so on.
Instantaneous value - The magnitude of a
waveform at any instant of time; denoted by
lowercase letters (e , e ).
Peak amplitude - The maximum value of a
waveform as measured from its average, or mean,
value, denoted by uppercase letters (such
as 𝐸𝑚 for sources of voltage and 𝑉𝑚 for the voltage
drop across a load).
Alternation - Corresponds to one-half cycle of
alternating voltage or current. (also, one-half cycle
of revolution of a conductor loop rotating through a
magnetic field).

Average value - the arithmetic average of all

values in a sine wave for one alternation. (Average
value, 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637 peak value).

Cycle – the variations between two successive

points having the same value and
varying in the same direction (ac waveform).
- one complete revolution of a conductor loop
rotating through a magnetic field.
Effective value - another name for an rms (root-
mean-square) value. 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑉𝑚2
SUMMARY OF VOLTAGE-CURRENT RELATIONSHIP

Frequency
Element Time-Domain
Domain
R 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈
𝑑i
L 𝑣=𝐿 𝐕 = 𝑗ω𝐿𝐈
𝑑𝑡
C 𝑑𝑣 𝐈
𝑖=𝐶 𝐕=
𝑑𝑡 ݆ωC
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS