Livelihoods for women in Mindanao

- A post-conflict reconstruction approach

저자 Karina R. SANTILLAN
(Authors)

출처 Asian Journal of Women's Studies 21(1), 2015.03, 15-30 (16 pages)

(Source)

이화여자대학교 아시아여성학센터
발행처
Asian Center for Women`s Studies Ewha Womans University
(Publisher)

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APA Style Karina R. SANTILLAN (2015). Livelihoods for women in Mindanao. Asian Journal of
Women's Studies, 21(1), 15-30.

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Livelihoods for women in Mindanao: A

post-conflict reconstruction approach
Karina R. Santillan
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Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 2015
Vol. 21, No. 1, 15–30, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2015.1029232

Livelihoods for women in Mindanao: A post-conflict reconstruction

approach
Karina R. SANTILLAN*

The conflict in Mindanao has displaced over two million people in the period 2000 to 2009. As it
subsides, the displaced return to their communities and begin the process of reconstruction. This
paper studies how women contributed to the post-conflict reconstruction of Mindanao by
engaging in livelihood activities. It explores five different livelihood intervention projects
implemented in Mindanao between 2000 and 2010. The extent of women’s contribution to
post-conflict reconstruction is measured by identifying the benefits gained at household and
community levels, generated by women’s livelihood work. I argue that women’s participation
in such activities have led to economic, social and political reconstruction of the communities
affected by in Mindanao. This paper also compares the women’s livelihoods approach with
other reconstruction strategies. It also illustrates that interventions for reconstruction therefore
must include livelihood programs that encourage women’s participation, as exemplified by the
experience of Mindanao.
Keywords: post-conflict reconstruction; women’s livelihood; Mindanao; internally displaced
persons (IDPs)

Introduction
Around 950,000 people were displaced in 2008 following armed confrontation between the
Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and rebel groups from Mindanao (DSWD, 2010,
August 10). When the conflict began in Mindanao in the 1960s, people of affected communities
had to overcome the challenges of displacement. They had no choice but to move to evacuation
centers, stay with relatives, or resettle in other locations. They lost their possessions and liveli-
hoods. Quite often they were poor before the displacement and, after being displaced, were at
risk of becoming even poorer. In this unfortunate situation, the safety and security of families
were priorities, while reconstruction efforts had to begin immediately.
This paper explores the participation and role of women in post-conflict reconstruction by
reviewing five livelihood projects implemented in Mindanao. It aims to answer the following
questions: how did women contribute to such reconstruction in Mindanao through their livelihood
work? What were the benefits at the household and community level as a result? Why should
these be promoted, compared to or along with other reconstruction approaches?
I argue that women’s participation in different livelihood activities result in economic, social
and political reconstruction of conflict-affected communities in Mindanao. Immediate and direct
contributions were in the form of additional income and better provision of food for the women’s
families. But, depending on the livelihood intervention design and implementation, such work has
also resulted in reconstruction contributions in the form of farm inputs and harvest facilities,

* karina.santillan@gmail.com

AJWS ISSN 1225-9276

© Asian Center for Women’s Studies, Ewha Womans University
http://acws.ewha.ac.kr

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16 K.R. SANTILLAN

social services such as health and daycare centers, better nutrition for household members,
accumulation of savings, reduction of debt, revival of social capital through the formation of
associations and cooperatives, and promotion of peace in the community. However, the livelihood
projects undertaken by women and presented in this paper, were mostly involved in work such as
small-scale businesses, farming activities, and employment that did not require formal
education. The income they earned from these was not enough to provide for other important
needs such as education of their children or repair and improvement of their houses. The
impact and contribution of their work, therefore, was limited to providing for needs that could
be fulfilled by small incomes. I argue here that governments and aid agencies recognize
women as very capable actors in the post-conflict reconstruction process. Assistance in the
form of more gender-sensitive, coordinated and sustainable livelihood interventions need to be
developed and channeled for reconstruction among the conflict-affected communities in
Mindanao.

Data and methodology

The data discussed here include five different cases of livelihood projects that involve women’s
participation in the conflict-affected areas of Mindanao. These projects were implemented
between the years 2000 and 2010. The year 2000 was when the government of the Philippines
initiated an “all out war” against the rebel groups, which led to the displacement of hundreds
of thousands of people. The data presented here is from different kinds of livelihood projects,
their methods of implementation, the participants, impact on the participants and the community,
and constraints in implementation.
In order to demonstrate and measure the extent of women’s contribution in post-conflict
reconstruction, specific indicators were identified. These included the needs of internally dis-
placed persons (IDPs) from several conflict-affected communities in Mindanao. In turn, these
were identified by using the IDP Needs Assessment conducted by the Community and Family
Services International (CFSI). The CFSI is a non-governmental organization, which conducted
a focus group discussion among the IDPs in evacuation centers during the outbreak of the conflict
in 2000. A total of 33,350 IDPs participated in these discussions for the needs assessment. This
specified their most basic and immediate needs while they stayed in the evacuation centers and on
returning to their communities and came up with the following requirements, as identified by the
participants: food, potable water, toilets/sanitation facilities, day care centers, farm inputs, farm
animals, farm to market roads, pre- and post-harvest facilities, health centers, medicines, electri-
city, schools, livelihoods, housing and sports facilities (CFSI, 2003).
Post-conflict reconstruction has been generally defined as the restoration of the economic,
social and political capacities of the conflict-affected population. By using the needs assessment
produced by the CFSI, the basic post-conflict reconstruction requirements of conflict-affected
communities in Mindanao were identified. Therefore, provision for these would indicate direct
contribution to post-conflict reconstruction.
To further analyze the extent of women’s contribution to post-conflict reconstruction, there
were three types of reconstruction components: economic, social and political. These three are
based on Brigitte Sorensen’s (1998) work, wherein she documents the different ways in which
women have contributed to the rebuilding of countries emerging from armed conflicts. The
first component, economic reconstruction, includes the strategies women develop in the event
of conflict and what they do to meet the survival and well-being needs of their families.
Women’s involvement in economic reconstruction comes in the form of, but is not limited to,
involvement in agricultural production, co-operative associations, petty trade and small-scale
businesses.

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 17

The second component, social reconstruction, is the rehabilitation of services such as health
care, education and social integration. Social integration refers not only to the reintegration of ex-
combatants or IDPs, but also the forming of new social values and establishing relationships and
institutions based on factors such as kinship, socio-economic interests and shared experiences
(Sorensen, 1998). The last component, political reconstruction, is women’s participation in
peace building.

Background
Mindanao economy and the livelihoods situation
The Mindanao economy was driven by the growth of the lumber sector, which peaked in the
1960s. The growth of the sector began to dwindle in the 1990s due to indiscriminate and unsu-
pervised logging. Mindanao is also rich in mineral resources, with deposits of gold, copper, chro-
mite, coal and silver. It has the world’s largest nickel reserves. The cement, power and beer
industries and utilities such as malls, banks, universities and machine shops exist in Mindanao,
but are concentrated in the more developed urban areas of Mindanao such as Iligan, Marawi,
Davao, and Cagayan. Small businesses have been stable, but have had limited opportunities
for new employment, while local investments have been restricted due to the conflict. Mindanao
is the poorest compared to the other two major island groups of Luzon and Visayas. It has the
highest incidence of poverty at 39 percent in 2006 and accounts for 33 percent of the Philippines’
poor families. Within Mindanao, the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) is the
least developed area as it contributes less than one percent to the Philippines’ GDP (Manghahas,
2010; USAID, 2005).
Sixty percent of the population in ARMM lives below the poverty threshold. Poverty is
highest in the agricultural sector, yet households are highly dependent on it, along with forestry
and fishing. Four of the ten poorest provinces in the Philippines are in ARMM: Sulu, Tawi-Tawi,
Maguindanao and Lanao del Sur. The majority of those neither working nor studying are women
in these areas. Many are unskilled and only work at home. There is also a tendency to give fathers
and older siblings priority in getting available jobs (USAID, 2005). Many young people do not
have jobs in the formal economy and a large number of job opportunities for them are in the infor-
mal sector. In Mindanao, a large number of young people are employed in manufacturing, con-
struction, finance and real estate, but not so in ARMM. However, the agro-processing, tourism
and service sectors have the potential to grow and provide jobs. (USAID, 2005).

Aid to the Mindanao conflict

Aid for relief and reconstruction was provided as and when armed confrontations occurred. Relief
operations, rehabilitation and reconstruction were undertaken by the Department of Social
Welfare and Development (Soriano, 2006). Oxfam, Red Cross and Action Against Hunger pro-
vided direct humanitarian assistance to the communities in the form of goods, training, technical
assistance and services (Arieta, 2002).
Some criticize the aid provided to Mindanao by the government and donor agencies (Soriano,
2006; Padilla, 2004). Rehabilitation strategies were mere extensions of relief, similar to those fol-
lowing natural disasters. Efforts were focused on infrastructural repairs, to the neglect of lost live-
lihoods and disrupted social relations. According to an Oxfam study, the initiatives of the
Philippines government in providing livelihood assistance were limited to “trickles” of seed dis-
persal and group credits to acquire carabaos (water buffaloes), while livelihood resources were
provided but without sufficient training, and resettlement areas were built far from the farm

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18 K.R. SANTILLAN

lands (Soriano, 2006). The Philippines government and the donors have mainly provided assist-
ance in the form of humanitarian aid. Long-term and reintegration needs of the IDPs have been
insufficient, and on return to their homes, they received little assistance for reconstruction of their
communities. Also, no long-term reconstruction strategy has been initiated by the government for
when the displaced return to their homes (IDMC, 2009).
The gender dimension of providing aid to conflict-affected areas in Mindanao is not widely
discussed in donor evaluation reports. Nevertheless, the Philippines government and various
bilateral and multilateral donors recognize the importance of providing aid for Mindanao,
taking gender issues into account. This recognition is apparent in the Statement of the Official
Development Assistance – Gender and Development Network in 2006. This seeks to further
improve women’s participation in the development process, promote gender equality and under-
take gender mainstreaming (ODA-GAD, 2006). Moreover, the Republic Act 7192, or the Women
in Development and Nation-Building Act, states that a significant portion of ODA funds must be
used by agencies “to support programs and activities for women” Also, the National Economic
and Development Authority (NEDA), the agency that coordinates and monitors the flow of
ODA into the Philippines, published the Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines for
Project Development, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation (NEDA, 2007). Through
these statements and initiatives, the Philippines’ agencies have recognized the need for gender
mainstreaming in the allocation of ODA.
Not many donors have published reports on the kinds of projects that take gender issues into
account implemented by them in Mindanao. These concerns are easily set aside in times of armed
conflict and food insecurity because these are not seen as urgent for basic survival. Gender stereo-
typing can also be observed in development projects, for instance, health education and reproduc-
tive health care is merely given to the women in evacuation centers, while farming technologies
are taught mainly to men, even if women are engaged in traditional agricultural systems (Padilla,
2005).

The Emergency Livelihood Assistance Project (ELAP)

The Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP) is a joint project started in 1997 by the
USAID, Growth with Equity in Mindanao Program (GEM), the Mindanao Economic Develop-
ment Council, the Moro National Liberation Front, and the Bangsamoro Women Foundation
for Peace and Development Inc. From an initial 2,200 ex-combatants and their families,
funding was augmented, with an increase in the number of persons covered to 23,000 in 2001
and 28,000 in 2003 (Berger Philippines, n.d.). The beneficiaries were residents of the provinces
of Maguindanao, North Cotabato, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay and the Sulu
Archipelago.
ELAP targeted ex-combatants, but did not specify that the assistance would also be provided
for women and made no special adjustments for participation by women farmers. Also, there was
no gender-disaggregated data in the assessment report of the project and so the actual numbers of
women and men participants were not indicated. Nevertheless, women farmers and members
of the Bangsamoro women’s organization gained access as direct beneficiaries and workers in
one of the project committees. The program provided assistance in the form of agricultural
inputs, training and technical assistance to produce corn, cassava, bananas, seaweed, mud
crabs and tilapia fish. Members of the Bangsamoro Women’s Foundation for Peace and Develop-
ment were part of the committee which helped manage the project operations. The involvement of
women brought about program development and implementation based on consensus among both
men and women of the communities. The women worked as farmers and community organizers
for this project, along with the male participants (Berger Philippines, n.d.).

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 19

Assistance was focused on establishing small-scale “commercial level” production of com-

modities and providing pre- and post-harvest equipment and facilities. The participants,
however, were only eligible for assistance for two production cycles and then they “graduated.”
An independent survey conducted in 2000 indicated that 90 percent of the graduates continued
production activities on their own, while 50 percent were able to increase the area of production
and diversify crops (Berger Philippines, n.d).
Post- and pre-harvest equipment and facilities were provided such as rice mills, corn shelters,
power tillers, rice threshers, weighing scales, solar dryers, moisture meters, and workboats. The
Mindanao State University conducted a survey and indicated an increase in income for the par-
ticipants. Many of them formed cooperatives or farmer associations and invested in farm equip-
ment and facilities (Berger Philippines, n.d.). This project addressed the economic and social
reconstruction needs. The former included livelihood, income, technical assistance to improve
agricultural productivity, and harvest facilities. The latter were addressed through the integration
of combatants and formation of cooperatives. Although the provision of reconstruction require-
ments may not have been possible without external development assistance from USAID and
other agencies, the main instrument used to meet these was in the form of livelihood assistance
for farming.
Along with their male counterparts, women farmers were able to contribute to the post-con-
flict reconstruction process by participating in the livelihood project. Thereby, they were able to
provide for economic reconstruction by obtaining sources of livelihood and income. In addition,
men and women were direct beneficiaries who received technical assistance for the improvement
of agricultural productivity. By farming, the women were also able to meet social reconstruction
needs via cooperatives and farm associations, wherein members could gather and resolve
problems as a group and invest in farming facilities. Apart from farming, women’s participation
as project committee members also contributed to social reconstruction by developing social
cohesion, wherein they were able to discuss and work with the men and make joint decisions
on project implementation.
Another social reconstruction need that was met was the reintegration of MNLF combatants
into their communities. Livelihood was a strong incentive to lure these erstwhile rebels into lives
where they had regular work. This also addressed the political reconstruction need for peace by
getting active Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) combatants to leave the rebel group.
In sum, women’s participation in livelihood work has contributed to economic, social and pol-
itical reconstruction of their communities. Both women and men participate in this project as its
main actors and beneficiaries. Therefore, their combined participation in these activities has con-
tributed to reconstruction. The economic post-conflict contributions included livelihood work
through farming; income for their families; and facilitating their community’s acquisition of
pre- and post-harvest facilities and farm inputs. The women participants also contributed to the
social reconstruction of their community via joint decision-making in the project. Consensus
was achieved among women and men regarding its implementation. Moreover, cooperatives
and associations were formed by all the farmers. Social integration was also achieved, wherein
the members of the rebel groups were encouraged to leave their lives of violence and isolation
and to rejoin their communities and earn a living.

La Frutera
La Frutera is a modern banana plantation and processing plant that employs 2,000 women and
men and now exports bananas to Saudi Arabia and Japan. It is located on 1,300 hectares in
ARMM in a town that was a former base of the MNLF and a recruitment area for the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) guerillas. The company is a collaboration of the following:

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20 K.R. SANTILLAN

the Abdullahh Abbar & Ahmed Zainy Co. of Saudi Arabia, farming experts from Israel, De Nadai
family of Italy, Chiquita Brands International and some members of the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front (Nuguid-Anden, 2003). The operation of La Frutera in Buluan, Maguindanao is headed by
Datu Toto Paglas (USAID, 2005).
The town of Buluan in Maguindanao is known to have remained peaceful even during
the height of the government-MILF war in 2000 that destroyed the towns around it. Datu
Paglas, the town’s mayor in 2002, explained that this became possible due to the constant
dialogue with the town’s elders regarding livelihoods for the community. He said that the
trouble disappeared when people were provided work. An increase in livelihoods led to a
decrease in criminal activities and thus improved the peace and law and order situation
in the town. The stability of the town attracted investors, which created even more jobs
(USAID, 2005). The workers are a mix of Christians and Muslims, some of whom are
former MILF combatants. Fear and mistrust was prevalent in La Frutera in the beginning,
as some workers went to work toting guns. Nevertheless, policies and practices within the
company were established to foster tolerance between Christians, Muslims, rebels, pacifists,
men and women (USAID, 2005). Rose Sira, a female Human Resource and Development
manager of La Frutera, testified that the culture of harmony was difficult to establish in
the beginning, but now is there, among the men and women workers (Nuguid-Anden,
2003).
Kulaypa Mamangcas, a Maguindanao woman who is a supervisor in La Frutera, said that
the plantation had changed the women’s lives. Earlier, there was little work available for
them, but now there is. Their work is labor-intensive and workers do not require much
formal education. They receive training for only two weeks during which they train how
to do simple tasks like bagging, spraying, propping, weeding, carrying and stacking. The
local Datu (chief) decides whom to hire and favors heads of households and former MILF
combatants who are older. To increase productivity, workers were paid per bunch of
bananas. This helped in promoting production as well as an increase in the worker’s daily
remuneration from 150 pesos to 200 pesos (USAID, 2005). La Frutera also involves its
employees in community development and social responsibility activities (Nuguid-Anden,
2003). La Frutera Development Foundation was established in 2000 and provided training
for livelihood work for the people of Buluan. For instance, the company develops small-
scale businesses like extracting banana fibers or making compost from bananas and sugar
(USAID, 2005).
The Frutera Corporation is an example of collaboration between the private sector and
members of the community. The corporation’s success is due to Mindanao’s comparative
advantage in agriculture. It employs men, women, Christians, Muslims and ex-combatants.
Giving priority to heads of households in the hiring process did not exclude women from
being hired, as some of them were household heads. Some women also occupied higher-
level positions and were able to contribute to economic reconstruction by getting stable
incomes for their families. They also made a significant contribution to social reconstruction
as they participated in the company’s community development and social responsibility activi-
ties. Political reconstruction also became possible through peaceful working relations among
men, women, Christians and Muslims. Because of the livelihoods provided by La Frutera to
the locals of Buluan, the town remained peaceful even at the height of the conflict in 2000.
According to the testimony of the mayor, Datu Paglas and some employees of the plantation,
sustainable peace and development in the community can be attributed to the work provided
to people of Buluan, both men and women. Their engagement in work in the plantation has
brought about sustained peace to the community.

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 21

The milk-processing plant in Lanao del Norte

The province of Lanao del Norte is known as one of the areas where conflict between the govern-
ment and Muslim armed rebels took place (Baluyos, 2010, June 18), However, those who have
visited the province lately are able to attest that Lanao del Norte is now peaceful and developing
economically. This is attributable to one of the country’s biggest milk processing plants located
there.
As a priority of the local government unit of Lanao del Norte, women should be provided
work opportunities. The Rural Improvement Club (RIC), a women’s group, was organized in
the province. The members of RIC received assistance from the Department of Agriculture-Pro-
vincial Agriculture Office (DA-PAO) to start such work, via a livelihood center where women
could sell their processed agricultural products. Another organization, the Lanao Foundation
Inc. (LFI) ventured into the dairy industry. This had 700 heads of cattle in a dairy farm in
Bangaan, Sultan Naga Dimaporo producing 600 liters of milk a day in this. The Department of
Science and Technology and the Philippine Council for Agriculture Research and Development
assisted the dairy farm in breeding and reproduction. The LFI involved the RIC so that women
could work in milk processing and it aimed at extending livelihood opportunities, especially to
those who were unemployed. It also sought to improve the nutritional status of children in the
province. The milk products were pasteurized, distributed and sold in Tubod and the neighboring
towns of Lala, Kolambugan, Baroy and Kapatagan. In the beginning, the processing of milk was
done manually and had a short shelf life because of the lack of processing equipment. The pro-
duction volume was also limited to just 300 liters a day. Then, more cattle heads were added and,
following increased production, a milk processing plant was constructed in 2007. Machines were
installed, which enabled automated packaging of milk products and increased the production
capacity of up to 17,280 liters of milk in safe and hygienic 200 ml. pouches daily. In addition,
the LFI was able to acquire a supply contract from the Provincial Government of Lanao del
Norte to feed 1,800 pre-school children for 120 days (Baluyos, 2010, June 18).
LFI sought further assistance from Department of Science and Technology through its Small
Enterprises Technology Assistance Program in acquiring ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk
dairy processing or retort machines. In 2008, these machines were installed, adding to the pro-
duction capacity of 8,640 liters of sterilized and long-life milk per day. The shelf life of the
milk was thereby increased to six months and allowed products to be shipped across longer dis-
tances, to regional and national markets. With this new production capacity, LFI was awarded a $4
million contract for a feeding program in schools by the government. This targetted 7,000 elemen-
tary pupils and so its work was enlarged, benefitting 120,000 school children. LFI has 35 workers,
all of whom are from within the community of Tubod (Baluyos, 2010, June 18).
The involvement of a women’s group and women employees in the milk processing plant con-
tributed to post-conflict reconstruction. Economic reconstruction was possible through the
income the women obtained by working in the plant. Economic development was evident in
Lanao del Norte because of the plant and its expansion. More importantly, food security
became a major aspect of providing milk for feeding programs for school children. The project
demonstrates the importance of government agencies in building partnerships with local organ-
izations to establish successful livelihood projects in which women are involved.

The women vendors of Mindanao and the Asian Development Bank

The Asian Development Bank has been involved in development in Mindanao since its foun-
dation in 1966. It focuses on building infrastructure in rural areas, promoting agrarian reforms
and rural growth, investing in education, peace building, capacity building and governance
(Mangahas, 2010). In 2001, the ADB provided a technical assistance grant to the Mindanao

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22 K.R. SANTILLAN

Development Authority to help facilitate the exchange of business information for small and
medium-sized enterprises. In addition, the Government of Japan provided a one million dollar
grant for gender-related poverty reduction projects focusing on women vendors of selected
public markets. Resource centers in various towns were built as venues for training and lectures
on alternative livelihoods, drop-in clinics, day-care centers, cold storage for their products,
lockers and washrooms (Mangahas, 2010).
The women’s centers became primary venues for interaction. So, the women felt that these
had become places where they could socialize and form groups, instead of having to face pro-
blems on their own (Mangahas, 2010):

It’s a place where we can meet each other often and form a bond, unlike in the past when we were on
our own. Now, we no longer approach the city hall authorities directly. Instead, we go as a group.
Earlier, we used to visit them individually and no action was ever taken on our demands. Now as
a group, we have their ear because we are more powerful.
– Geraldine Aguia (31years), a vendor from Panabo City

A grant from ADB’s Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction benefitted 1,600 women vendors in
eight towns of Mindanao (Mangahas, 2010). They received training in food processing, making
native delicacies, fruit processing, ice cream making, simple accounting and bookkeeping. Alice
Buenafe (46 years) finished training in making ice-cream and said it helped her to contribute to the
family income, together with her husband who is also a vendor. Their daily income increased,
averaging 1,200 pesos ($25.26). Anecita Buenaflor, a vegetable vendor, visits the center to
help prepare bicho, a local sweet delicacy. The extra work she did here contributed to her
family income, especially during the down time at the market (Mangahas, 2010). Gabriela
Ocana (49 years), received training in making soap and was now able to sell soap and fruit.
She said her family is also able to save some money by using the soap she made. Many
women received training in cookery and were able to improve their cooking skills and run
small eateries. Other training was given for making herbal medicines, hair styling, dressmaking
and nail care. Apart from livelihood training, the center was also used as a day-care center where
the children of the vendors were housed while they were at work (Mangahas, 2010).
The project is an example of assistance provided to women who already have existing liveli-
hoods. This was in the form of knowledge transfer about small and medium enterprises. In
addition, the project was gender-sensitive and specifically targeted the women vendors of the
communities, who were able to contribute to post-conflict reconstruction by participating in
the project. This helped improve their family incomes, generated savings, and enabled them to
seek alternative livelihoods. Their contribution to social reconstruction came in the form of pro-
vision of health clinics and day care centers. Social capital was also improved as women gathered
in the women’s centers to discuss and resolve their problems as a group.

Oxfam humanitarian support in central Mindanao

Oxfam has provided humanitarian assistance in Central Mindanao as of 1998. It was able to
respond to the humanitarian needs of the area with a grant from the European Commission Huma-
nitarian Organization (ECHO). Assistance was focused on improving food security, water, sani-
tation and public health, education, peace building and capacity development (Oxfam, 2006).
Between October 2004 and May 2006, Oxfam implemented a humanitarian support program
in the municipalities of Pikit and Pagalungan in the province of North Cotabato and the munici-
pality of General Salipada K. Pendatun (GSKP) in the province of Maguindanao. The benefici-
aries targeted for humanitarian support were internally displaced persons.

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 23

Oxfam identified the main problems of the IDPs before implementing the project. It noted that
they lacked awareness and understanding of their rights to basic services; lacked support for basic
needs; were at risk of disease due to inadequate access to safe water, sanitation facilities and
health services; lacked livelihood options that limited their choices; had no support for food pro-
duction; and had limited capacity for diversifying their income and livelihood options. All of
these factors limited both the food and incomes available to the households. With these issues
in mind, Oxfam identified three sectors on which assistance would be focused: public health,
access to information, and livelihood and food security. The livelihoods and food security
sector, therefore, supported agricultural and aquaculture rehabilitation, provided livelihood assist-
ance, facilitated networking with responsible local government units, and encouraged diversifica-
tion and development of alternative livelihoods.
The Oxfam staff was guided by several principles in addressing the livelihood needs of the
community. Their involvement with the members of the community needed to be consultative,
participatory and open to negotiation. It was necessary for them to recognize the capacities of
the community members. They had to respect and understand the dynamics of the community
and be sensitive to the local culture. Finally, they had to be gender sensitive and sought equal par-
ticipation by the men and women of the community.
The report on the program’s impact and outcomes, particularly its livelihoods and food secur-
ity dimensions, indicates that the promotion of organic and diversified farming decreased the cost
of farm production and reduced the farmers debts. The beneficiaries expressed an improved sense
of health because of their gradual shift to organic farming, which eliminated their use of petro-
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. They were also able to increase savings because they no
longer needed to buy pesticides and fertilizers. Prior to shifting to organic farming, fertilizers
and chemical pesticides cost them 8,000 to 10,000 pesos ($160-200) for every hectare of land,
but with organic farming, their cost on farm inputs reduced to 500 pesos ($10) and they were
able to spend their savings on food and other needs.
The women participated in income-generating activities such as raising ducks and goats, soap-
making, growing vegetables, and making salted eggs and balut or boiled duck eggs. These gave
women access to new sources of income and they noted an improvement in their family diets
because they were able to have more substantial foods such as fish, eggs and vegetables,
which came directly from their own work in gardens, fish culture cages and duck-raising.
Some women also reportedly sold goats when they needed immediate cash, but the goat livestock
project had limited success because of the death or theft of animals.
The women beneficiaries donated two eggs per week to their organization. In this way, other
women in the barangay (village) used these to raise ducks as well. In Barangay Lasangan, 60
women members have been actively raising ducks and there was an increase in the number of
women getting involved in this activity. Livelihood training was conducted in partnership with
the Philippines Department of Agriculture. The Oxfam staff had little technical knowledge of
agriculture, raising livestock or other income-generating activities that the community wanted.
So they linked up with other agencies that possessed the requisite knowledge in these fields,
for instance, technicians from the Department of Agriculture were invited as resource persons.
To assess this project, a focus group discussion among women beneficiaries was conducted.
They said they were now more active in the economic sphere and participated in the production
and management of farms and gardens. They were more involved in community affairs, decision-
making, negotiation and had gained confidence and awareness of women’s roles in resolving con-
flicts. Their involvement in the livelihood projects gave them more knowledge and provided them
additional means of earning and contributing to family incomes.
Active involvement by women in organizations and livelihood projects gave women the
awareness that they were capable of earning and taking part in community activities. The

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24 K.R. SANTILLAN

evaluation report indicated that they took steps to go beyond reproductive work within their
households and socialize with other women in the community. Their experience of being dis-
placed led them to make decisions on their own and assume leadership positions in the
community.
The impact of Oxfam’s assistance to the community was limited in several ways as its liveli-
hood projects were small-scale and provided only minor increases in income to the beneficiaries.
Oxfam recommended that future livelihood interventions should focus on access to and sustain-
able management of natural resources and should be involved in training for production of higher
value products and access to markets. The beneficiaries also said that the assistance was termi-
nated prematurely and they needed better technical and management skills to sustain the projects.
Finally, although many women beneficiaries became involved in the livelihood projects and in
making decisions at the community level, deeply-embedded cultural and religious beliefs still
remained that constrained them from taking full advantage of their capacities. Oxfam rec-
ommended that women and men in the community should continue to be educated regarding
their rights for a change in attitudes among men to occur.
Oxfam specifically targeted IDPs in this project. A needs assessment conducted among them led
to the identification of their most important needs, livelihood being one among these. This interven-
tion led to more agricultural opportunities and alternatives. The project was gender-sensitive as it
encouraged equal participation both by men and women. Women’s participation in organic and
diversified farming contributed to economic reconstruction through increased savings, reduced
debts and additional income. Their contribution to social reconstruction was in the form of the
women’s groups which encouraged mutual help. They made contributions to group savings for
those who needed help in emergency situations. Also, they made contributions to enable others
to participate in livelihood activities such as raising ducks, making soap and growing vegetables.

Women’s livelihood approach vis-à-vis other reconstruction and development

approaches
Regional development and decentralization
Coordination and management of development projects in the Philippines are challenging
because the country is an archipelago that consists of 1,701 islands. Although the government
adopted a decentralization program through the enactment of the Local Government Code
(LGC) in 1991, the delegation of responsibilities to the 17 administrative regions has not guaran-
teed efficient management of resources and development projects, nor has it facilitated economic
growth for all the regions. Loopholes in the LGC and the greater authority of the central govern-
ment led to frequent arbitrary intervention by central government departments and members of the
congress in appropriation of funds and development projects in the different regions (Balisacan,
Hill, & Piza, 2008). As a result, the different regions of the country benefit unequally in infrastruc-
tural development, education and trade. Major infrastructure projects have been carried out in
certain regions and not in others. The more prosperous regions in the country possess existing
administrative capacity and political influence in order to facilitate infrastructure projects (Bali-
sacan et al., 2008). Therefore, projects for power generation and telecommunications are built
in these regions, as well as international transport facilities such as airports and ports (Balisacan
et al., 2008). Meanwhile, improvement of small roads within provinces do not receive priority, as
can be seen in the poor condition of domestic roads.
Some regions are also ahead of others in the trade and industry sectors. Of the three major
islands, Luzon dominates the manufacturing sector and has the highest employment rates and
opportunities (Balisacan et al., 2008). The Southern Tagalog and Central Luzon regions exhibit

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 25

high export growth, along with Central Visayas (Balisacan et al., 2008). A big factor in promoting
export growth and vitality of regions are the export zones, which are concessional facilities estab-
lished by the Philippines Export Zone Authority. However, these were established in some
regions and not in others, therefore, the regions that have export zones have better opportunities
and facilities for export growth, while those that do not lag behind.
In terms of foreign direct investments, Mindanao received a total value of P1.704 billion in
2008. Foreign and foreign-affiliated firms in Mindanao mostly operate in the wood products
industry, manufacturing, fishing and fish products, banana production, mining, coconut products,
coffee and cacao production (Tadem, 2010). Therefore, it cannot be said that investments, trade
and employment are absent in Mindanao. Its rich natural resource base is crucial for attracting
investment and development projects. However, these projects are concentrated in some pro-
vinces and regions within Mindanao. For instance, major infrastructural developments such as
international airports and ports, energy plants and bridges were developed in Butuan City,
Cagayan de Oro City, Davao, Pagadian, Dipolog and Zamboanga (Tadem, 2010). These are
peaceful and Christian-dominated areas within Mindanao, while the Muslim-inhabited provinces
and cities have not had any such projects.
In principle, infrastructural projects should benefit the entire country, to facilitate the move-
ment of people, capital and goods. However, these are concentrated in regions and provinces
that already have the administrative capacity, political influence and funds, while, the poorer
regions such as the ARMM and others do not. Although the government is active in promoting
sectors in Mindanao that are economically viable such as agriculture and natural resources, these
are labor intensive and extractive. They are highly dependent on natural resources rather than
human resources. Although Mindanao earns revenue from these, not many people here are
employed in the manufacturing and services sectors, which make use of human capacities
rather than natural resources.
The central government’s manner of distribution of development projects among the regions
of the country do little for the reconstruction of Mindanao. Unequal distribution of these projects
is a reality; the poorest regions continue to be neglected. The top to bottom development approach
in the Philippines setting cannot be expected to immediately and directly provide for Mindanao’s
immediate reconstruction needs. In comparison, the livelihoods approach assumes a bottom-up
means of reconstruction. It begins within the community and directly benefits the participants
and their families.

Reintegration efforts for rebels

The reintegration process of MNLF members, implemented by the government, was in the form
of training and employment for the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and the Philippines
National Police (PNP). There was a slow turnout of applicants and reports indicated that ex-com-
batants were not willing to participate (IAG, 2009). Also, other rebel groups continued to thrive,
such as the MILF and the Abu Sayyaf Group, but the government has no specific program to
reintegrate them.
The reintegration of ex-combatants, through work in the AFP or PNP had little impact on
reconstruction because not many ex-combatants were willing to participate. Their military
skills did not facilitate employment in the AFP or PNP because they experienced discrimination
for having been rebels. Work in the AFP and PNP is also male-dominated, limiting the partici-
pation of women. Providing other livelihood options that did not require combat skills and
were not male-dominated could facilitate reintegration of male and female rebels. Ex-combatants
could also be trained for other activities such as those demonstrated in the livelihood projects of
Oxfam or ADB. These projects do not discriminate against ex-combatants, instead they

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26 K.R. SANTILLAN

encourage peaceful transactions and cooperation among members of the community, and can be
undertaken both by men and women.

Donor approaches
The approaches used by major donors involved in the Mindanao conflict varied according to their
policies and interests. The ADB, European Commission, Japan, UNDP, U.S. and World Bank
have been giving aid to Mindanao for a variety of sectors. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of
Mindanao is mentioned in their overall aid policy for the Philippines. Major donors consider
the peace process between the Philippines government and the MILF as a major factor in deter-
mining the success and effectiveness of their own development efforts. These donors also con-
sider socioeconomic development of conflict-affected areas in Mindanao to be important for
reducing poverty and achieving peace (Kudo & Yoshiumura, 2008).
It is fortunate that major donors allocate funds and projects for the reconstruction of Mindanao
and recognize the need to focus on projects that are community-based and encourage socioeco-
nomic activity. However, they do not mention the importance of involving women in these. Donor
assistance for reconstruction of Mindanao should consciously allocate funding for women’s live-
lihoods and so recognize that they are capable household heads and reconstruction actors. Donors
must ensure that planning and implementation of socioeconomic activities include training for
and provision of some more options that encourage the participation of women. Their monitoring
and evaluation must also study the impact of these projects on women and other community
members, and make recommendations on how to sustain these livelihood activities even
without donor support.

Overall analysis
The conflict has been a constant challenge for Mindanao’s development, especially in areas with
Muslim populations. Like many other conflict-ridden regions of the world, this too was charac-
terized by competition among different religious, ethnic and political groups vying for power and
resources. It also manifests the common characteristics of conflicts in Third World Countries
(Douma, Frerks, & van de Goor, 1999): a colonial history, the favoring of certain sectors of
society, and weaknesses of the government in managing resources, and the lack of fair and
equal access to decision-making processes. To date, the possibility of clashes between the military
and the armed groups remains, even after the signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on the
Bangsamoro between the government and the MILF on March 27, 2014, which grants autonomy
to the ARMM in exchange for disarmament by the MILF. The Mindano conflict has not followed
a regular sequence of stages of pre-conflict, conflict, peace process, and reconstruction. It has
often reverted to conflict just when reconstruction has begun, or conflict and reconstruction are
known to occur simultaneously.
The focus of this paper is on the reconstruction stage, recognizing that it is the most crucial
one in every conflict because it promotes opportunities to rebuild lives and regain losses in prop-
erty. Although initial emergency response and humanitarian aid has been helpful, it is very impor-
tant to determine what approaches have worked to ensure and sustain the ability of the affected
population to recover and overcome poverty. Furthermore, this paper focuses on the capability of
women as actors of reconstruction. Although it does not compare their capabilities with those of
men, nor does it deny that the latter are capable contributors, it recognizes that both men and
women suffer due to the loss of resources and both need access to food, health, education and
other social services. But women suffer in conflict differently from men. Some become heads
of households, trying to manage reproductive work and earn a living. It is also true that they

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 27

were not easily included in decision-making processes and were not immediately recognized as
capable actors in post-conflict reconstruction. This is evident in that there is little written work and
research about their roles in post-conflict reconstruction efforts.
The projects demonstrate that women’s participation in different livelihood activities result in
economic, social and political reconstruction of conflict-affected communities in Mindanao. The
most immediate and direct contribution made by them is in the form of additional income and
better provision of food for their families. But depending on the intervention design and
implementation, women’s livelihoods also add to reconstructive contributions by providing
farm inputs and harvest facilities, social services such as health and daycare centers and better
nutrition for family members, savings, reduction of debt, revival of social capital through the for-
mation of associations and cooperatives, and promoting peace in the community.
It was also observed that women were mostly involved in livelihood generation via small-
scale businesses, farming activities or employment that did not require formal education. The pro-
jects demonstrated that such development is a means of meeting basic needs, but has so far been
unable to meet public services such as education and better health service or for repairing housing
structures. The impact and contribution of their livelihood work is therefore limited to providing
needs that only require small amounts of money.
The projects did re-establish social and economic interdependence among its beneficiaries.
Social networks based on a beneficial exchange of labor, assets and food grew. The livelihood
work also included interventions for skills-training, micro-credit, agricultural tools, market
access, and strengthening of community organizations. However, there were no initiatives
made for infrastructural development such as roads, schools, hospitals or houses. The projects
activated economic and community development by capitalizing on local resources and opportu-
nities. Although small-scale, these efforts revived post-conflict economies via petty trade, were
open to everyone, did not require large investments or access to land, could be carried out any
time and could instantly generate income. However, some work such as soap-making or duck-
raising were livelihoods that may easily crowd the market within small communities. Neverthe-
less, it is noteworthy that the livelihood interventions for women and conflict-affected commu-
nities in Mindanao have in common the collaboration among multilateral and bilateral donors,
government units, private corporations, people’s groups and community members. Proper coordi-
nation by these actors contributes to livelihood interventions in the form of technical training,
sharing of knowledge and encourages more active involvement in the reconstruction process.
In addition, the case of Oxfam and ADB demonstrated the importance of conducting needs
assessments to determine specific intervention areas appropriate for the recipient community.
These livelihood projects also demonstrated that women are not typically victims of war, but
are social actors capable of influencing the course of reconstruction by being involved in agricul-
tural production and the informal sector, as well as mobilizing social networks. They are survivors
and household heads; they adapt to their environments when basic services break down and as
social networks disintegrate as result of conflict. However, the projects demonstrate constraints
in post-conflict reconstruction efforts, where women are still under-represented in decision-
making. Also, women’s organizations need more access to funds and programs. They need to
be more involved in reconstruction planning, decision-making and implementation, as well as
for strengthening linkages within regional and national economic planning.
Unfortunately, the projects do not represent an entirely effective livelihood intervention
approach for women. Their impact and scope need further investigation. For instance, many of
the assessment reports do not give gender-disaggregated data. There are no exact and separate
statistics and numbers for men and women beneficiaries. Also, many of the projects do not
mainly target women as beneficiaries. In other words, the needs of women in conflict-affected
communities are not taken into account adequately. The kinds of livelihoods women were

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28 K.R. SANTILLAN

involved in generated only small incomes, while other livelihood options or employment oppor-
tunities were limited. Also, the sustainability of livelihoods was difficult to determine, especially
of projects generated via aid budgets as their implementation and monitoring was limited to
certain periods of time.
Exchanges and dialogue about livelihood opportunities are needed to find new avenues of
work. Research and evaluation reports on projects for women are few, which makes it
difficult to assess which ones are more appropriate and feasible. The range of such projects for
women are limited as well and there have been none that allow for employment in the formal
urban sector.
Compared with other reconstruction approaches, the livelihood projects rely on human
resources and the involvement of women. Large-scale development projects do not directly
provide for the basic needs of conflict-affected communities. On the other hand, the income gen-
erated by women through their work enabled them to buy food, medicines, and fulfill other basic
needs immediately. Such projects can also reach conflict-affected communities easily, especially
since these communities are located in areas that are difficult to access by public transport.
Resource persons for training can visit the communities, while local resources can be used to
develop income-generating activities. As these livelihood projects are developed, they can
thrive and become locally sustainable, without requiring people to migrate or travel to distant
places. Meanwhile, the reintegration of ex-combatants as an approach does not encourage the par-
ticipation of women. It fails to recognize them as reconstruction actors. It also fails to foster social
reconstruction because the ex-combatants have not been easily motivated to join the AFP and
experienced discrimination. Nor have they been able to form organizations that would help
their communities. Lastly, the donors’ approaches varied and do not implicitly promote the par-
ticipation of women in reconstruction efforts.

Conclusion
Armed conflict is a reality in many countries and communities and is a barrier to development. It
destroys resources and lives. The root causes of conflict and its impact require careful and in-
depth study depending on where it occurs and who are affected. The need to further understand
it is important because there is a need to prevent it from recurring. More importantly, there is a
need to help those who suffer from it. The conflict in Mindanao has lasted for decades, apart
from which the region is burdened by poverty and lack of employment opportunities. Even
though Mindanao is rich in natural resources, development here has been slow and minimal,
partly because of the conflict. Assistance for the affected areas is crucial. However, the Philippines
government and aid agencies have yet to coordinate efforts for effective reconstruction that would
support sustainable livelihoods.
The post-conflict reconstruction stage presents itself as an opportunity to rebuild lives and
properties. Both men and women suffer from such struggles and both are also capable actors
in post-conflict reconstruction. However, women’s role as active contributors to post-conflict
reconstruction is not widely recognized, although they are active contributors to such reconstruc-
tion, as seen here. One way in which they are able to do this is through livelihood development.
Women actively pursue such strategies in conflict situations because they are responsible for
taking care of their families and so they undertake work in agriculture or trading in order to
earn for their needs.
The reality of unequal distribution of development efforts and economic growth in the differ-
ent regions of the country, the lack of consistent policies for the reconstruction of conflict-affected
communities in Mindanao and poverty comprise some of the root causes of conflict that continue
to persist. Providing livelihoods to the women in these conflict-affected areas is not the single and

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 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 29

most effective approach to reconstruction, but it is one that can directly improve living conditions
of individuals, families and communities. It is an approach that is direct and can generate tangible
results immediately.

Notes on contributor
Karina R. SANTILLAN finished her Masters in International Studies, majoring in Development
Cooperation, at Ewha Womans University in Seoul, South Korea. She graduated with a degree in Bachelor
of Arts in European Languages, majoring in Spanish, from the University of the Philippines, Diliman.

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Abstract in Tagalog
Mahigit dalawang milyong tao ang nawalan ng tahanan at lumikas dahil sa kaguluhan sa
Mindanao noong 2000 hanggang 2009. Sa panandaliang paghupa ng kaguluhan, sila ay
bumalik sa kanilang komunidad upang simulan ang proseso ng muling pagtatag ng kanilang
buhay. Ihinahayag ng artikulong ito kung ano ang naiambag ng mga babae sa proseso ng
pagtatag matapos ang kaguluhan. Ito ay isang pag-aaral kung paano nakatulong ang mga
babae sa pamamagitan ng paglahok sa mga gawaing pangkabuhayan. Tinitignan nito ang
kinahinatnan ng limang proyektong pangkabuhayan na naisakatuparan sa Mindanao sa mga
taong 2000 hanggang 2010. Sinukat ang saklaw ng ambag ng mga kababaihan sa proseso
ng pagtatag sa pamamagitan ng pagtukoy ng mga benepisyong naibigay nila sa kanilang
pamilya at komunidad, na siyang naging bunga ng kanilang paglahok sa mga gawaing
pangkabuhayan. Pinatotohanan ng artikulong ito na ang paglahok ng mga babae sa iba’t
ibang gawaing pangkabuhayan ay nakatulong sa proseso ng pagtatag sa aspetong
ekonomiko, sosyal at politikal ng mga komunidad na apektado ng kaguluhan. Ikinikumpara
din ng artikulong ito ang paglahok ng mga babae sa mga gawaing pangkabuhayan sa ibang
mga paraan ng pagtatag na naisakatuparan ng mga gobiyerno at mga ahensya. Isinusulong
nito ang paglaan ng mga gawaing pangkabuhayan na hinihimok ang paglahok ng mga
babae bilang isang mahusay ng paraan para maisakatuparan ang proseso ng pagtatag
matapos ang kaguluhan.
Keywords: proseso ng pagtatag matapos ang kaguluhan; kabuhayan para sa babae; Mindanao;
mga taong lumikas dahil sa kaguluhan

University of Texas at Austin(텍사스 대학) | IP: 128.83.63.*** | Accessed 2017/07/12 00:44(KST)