VECTOR AND SCALAR QUANTITIES

Kuantiti vektor dan skalar

 Scalar quantities – quantities that has magnitude only.
 Kuantiti skalar hanya mempunyai nilai sahaja.
 Example – distance, speed, mass, energy, density,etc. Calculate the average reading of each for each student and
 Cth.: jarak, laju, jisim, tenaga, ketumpatan, dll. determine which student obtains the most accurate reading?
 Vector quantities – quantities that have magnitude and Hitung bacaan purata bagi setiap pelajar dan tentukan
direction. pelajar mana yang merekodkan bacaan paling tepat.
 Kuantiti vektor mempunyai nilai dan arah
 Example – displacement, velocity, weight, acceleration, Example 3
force, momentum, etc. The diagram shows the result for four shooters A, B, C and D
 Cth.: sesaran, halaju, berat, pecutan, daya, momentum, dll in a tournament. Every shooters shot five times.The table
shows the conclusion. Write either high / low.
Precession/Consistency/Kepersisan Gambarajah dibawah menunjukkan keputusan 4 orang
 Consistency is the degree of uniformity of the penembak didalam satu pertandingan. Setiap penembak
measurements. melakukan 5 tembakan. Jadual menunjukkan keputusannya.
 Ukuran darjah keseragaman dlm. nilai ukuran yang dibuat Tulis tinggi/rendah.
 The more the uniformity the more the precession.
 Bacaan yang lebih seragam mempunyai kepersisan yang
tinggi.
Example 1
Group A and group B do an experiment to measure
the period of a simple pendulum five times and the
results are shown in the table below.
Kumpulan A dan B melakukan eksprimen untuk menentukan
tempoh ayunan bandul sebanyak 5 kali dan keputusan yang Sensitivity/Kepekaan
didapati ditunjukkan di bawah.  Sensitivity of an instrument is the ability to detect a small
change in the quantity to be measured.
 Keupayaan alat pengukuran mengesan perubahan yang
kecil dalam kuantiti yang diukur.
 The more sensitive the measuring instruments the smaller
the scale divisions.
 Lebih peka alat pengukuran lebih kecil nilai senggatan
State which group’s measurements are more consistent and terkecil pada alat pengukuran
Example 4
explain why?
A,B, C and D show parts of four different balance scales.
Nyatakan kumpulan manakah bacaannya lebih persis dan
Which balance is the most sensitive?
terangkan mengapa?
A.B,C dan D menunjukkan skala pada empat alat
Accuracy/Kejituan penimbang yang berbeza. Alat penimbang yang manakah
paling peka?
 Accuracy is the degree of closeness of the measurements
to the actual or accepted value.
 Ukuran yang menunjukkan betapa hampir nilai
pengukuran kepada nilai sebenar
 The higher the accuracy the lesser the error.
 Lebih jitu bacaan lagi rendah ralat
Example 2
Minah, Mary and Malika were asked to measure the
diameter of a test tube in the laboratory. The actual diameter
of the test tube is 2.75 cm. Each of them measured the
diameter three times at three different places on the test ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT/Ralat dlm pengukuran
tube. Their measurements are shown in the table.  Any measurement of a physical quantity has errors or
Minah, Mary dan Malika disuruh mengukur diameter sebuah uncertainty.
tabung uji di makmal. Nilai diameter sebenar ialah 2.75cm.  Semua pengukuran kuantiti fizikal mempunyai ralat.
Setiap pelajar mengambil melakukan pengukuran sebanyak
 There are two types of errors: systematic errors & random
tiga kali pada tempat yang berbeza pada tabung uji tersebut.
errors.
Keputusannya ditunjukkan dibawah.
 Terdapat dua jenis ralat: ralat sistematik dan ralat rawak.
 Systematic errors/Ralat sistematik
 Systematic errors are errors in the measurement of a
physical quantity due to instruments, the effects of
surrounding conditions and physical constraints of the
observer.
 Disebabkan oleh alat pengukuran yang tak sempurna,
kesan keadaan persekitaran, had fizikal orang yg
melakukan eksprimen.
 value of error is constant
 nilai ralat adalah tetap
 errors can’t be reduce by taking repeated readings
 ralat tidak boleh dikurangkan dgn mengambil bacaan
ulangan.
 errors can be reduced by improving the procedure of taking
the measurements , using a different instrument or getting
somebody else to make the measurements.
 Ralat dpt dikurangkan dgn. menambahbaik prosedur dlm
melakukan pengukuran, menggunakan alatan yg lain atau
meminta bantuan orang lain melakukan eksperimen.
 Sources of systematic errors are:
 Contoh ralat sistematik:
(i) Zero errors or end errors/ralat sifar
Zero errors occur when the instrument gives a non-
zero reading when in fact the actual reading is zero.
Berlaku bila alatan tidak menunjukkan bacaan sifar
tetapi sebenarnya bacaan patut sifar
(ii) Personal error of the observer.
Ralat yang disebabkan oleh individu yg melakukan
eksprimen
Physical constraints or limitations of the observer can
cause systematic errors. An example is the reaction
time.
Had fizikal individu boleh menyebabkan ralat
sistematik. Cth: masa tindakbalas
(iii)Parallax errors – occur when the position of the eye is
not perpendicular to the scale.
Ralat paralak-berlaku disebabkan kedudukan mata yg
tidak berserenjang dgn skala.
Random errors/Ralat rawak
 The main source of random error is due to the
carelessness of the observer when making a
measurement.
 Punca utama ialah kecuaian individu yang melakukan
pengukuran
 Values of error is not constant
 Nilai ralat adalah berubah-ubah
 Can be reduce by taking repeated readings.
 Boleh dikurangkan dgn mengambil bacaan ulangan
Examples of random errors are/Cth:
(i) Mistake in counting/Kesalahan dalam pengiraan
(ii) Different pressures are applied when closing the gap of
the micrometer screw gauge when it is used to
measure the diameter of a wire.
Tekanan yg berbeza digunakan semasa menutup
rahang tolok skru mikrometer
(iii) Changes in the temperature during an experiment.
Perubahan dalam suhu semasa eksperimen.
(iv) Recording the wrong reading.
Mencatatkan bacaan yg salah.
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS/Alat pengukuran
Ruler/ Pembaris
 Sensitivity/accuracy is 0.1cm /kepekaan 0.1cm
Example 5
(i) Five identical steel balls are measured with a rule
graduated in cm, as shown in Fig.1.1.
Lima bola keluli yang sama diukur menggunakan
pembaris yang berskala cm seperti dibawah
Fig 1.1
Calculate the diameter of one steel ball.
Hitung diameter satu bola keluli tersebut.
[2]
(ii)A ruler is used to measure the length of a piece of
cotton, as shown in Fig. 1.2
Sebatang pembaris digunakan untuk mengukur panjang
seutas benang seperti di bawah.
Fig 1.2
(a) Use the ruler in Fig. 1.1 to find the length of the piece of
cotton.
Dengan menggunakan pembaris diatas tentukan
panjang seutas benang tersebut.
[2]
(b) The left-hand end of the cotton is moved to the 1.0 cm
mark on the ruler. On Fig. 1.2, mark clearly and
carefully, with an arrow, where the right-hand end will
reach on the ruler. [1]
Sebelah kiri benang tersebut dialihkan pada tanda
1.0cm pada pembaris. Dengan menggunakan symbol
anak panah tandakan kedudukan hujung kanan
benang tersebut pada pembaris.
(c) The piece of cotton is wound around a wooden rod.
The rod has a square cross-section. The cotton goes
around the rod exactly 3 times, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Benang tersebut dililitkan pada bungkah kayu
berbentuk kuib. Benang tersebut dililit mengelilingi
bungkah kayu tersebut sebanyak tiga kali seperti
dibawah.
 Example 6
Write down the readings shown by the following
Nyatakan nilai bacaan yg ditunjukkan dibawah

Fig 1.3
Calculate the thickness of the square wooden rod.
Hitung ketebalan bungkah kayu tersebut

[2]
VERNIER CALLIPERS/Angkup vernier
 Sensitivity/accuracy is 0.01cm
 Kepekaan/kejituan 0.01cm

Example 7
 Smallest division of main scale is 0.1cm
Write down the readings shown in the following diagrams.
 Nilai senggatan terkecil pada sekala utama ialah 0.01cm Nyatakan nilai bacaan yg ditunjukkan dibawah
 Smallest division of vernier scale is 0.09cm (a) (b)
 Nilai senggatan terkecil pada sekala vernier ialah 0.09cm

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

 How to record reading using vernier caliper

(g) (h)

 Zero error in vernier callipers / Ralat sifar

(i)No zero error / Tiada ralat sifar
 (ii)Positive zero error/Ralat sifar positif (+0.03cm) (c)

(iii)Negative zero error/Ralat sifar negatif (-0.02cm)

Example 8
Determine the zero error for the following readings.
Tentukan ralat sifar untuk bacaan dibawah (d)
(a) (b)

(d) (e)

(e)
(f) (g)

Example 9
Determine the zero error, reading recorded and the corrected
reading for the following diagram.
Tentukan ralat sifar, bacaan yg ditunjukkan dan bacaan
sebenar.
(a)

(f)

(b)
(g)

Diagram (a) Diagram (b)

Determine:
Tentukan:
i. the zero error
ralat sifar

.....................................................................................[1]

ii. the correct diameter of the cylinder S

diameter sebenar silinder S

Question
1. Figure below shows how a vernier calipers is used to
measure the external diameter of a cylinder S.
Gambarajah dibawah menunjukkan angkup vernier
digunakan untuk mengukur diameter luar silinder S
.....................................................................................[1]
(d) In finding the diameter of the cylinder, a few
measurements were made of different parts of the
cylinder. Why?
Dalam menentukan diameter silinder beberapa bacaan
diambil pada bahagian berbeza pada silinder. Kenapa?

.........................................................................................

.....................................................................................[1]

2. Figure 2.1(a) shows the reading of vernier callipers when

the jaws of the callipers are fully closed. Figure 2.1(b)
shows the same vernier callipers used to measure the
thickness of a wooden block.
(a) What is the function of the part labeled:
Rajah 2.1(a) menunjukkan bacaan angkup vernier bila
Apakah fungsi bahagian berlabel:
rahangnya tertutup. Rajah 2.1(b) menunjukkan bacaan
angkup vernier bagi ketebalan bungkah kayu.
i. X: ..........................................................................[1]

ii. Y: ..........................................................................[1]

(b) i. What is the sensitivity of the vernier calipers shown in

Figure 6?
Apakah kepekaan angkup vernier diatas?

.................................................................................[1]

ii. What is the width of the smallest division on the vernier Figure 2.1(a)
scale?
Apakah nilai senggatan terkecil skala vernier?

.................................................................................[1]

(c) Diagram (a) shows the reading of vernier calliper when

the jaws are closed. Diagram (b) shows the reading
observed when it is used to determine the diameter of the
cylinder.
Gambarajah (a) menunjukkan bacaan angkup vernier
bila rahang tertutup. Gambarajah (b) menunjukkan
bacaan angkup vernier bila ia digunakan untuk
mengukur diameter silinder. Figure 2.1(b)
(a) State the physics quantity measured by vernier callipers. (e) Diagram 3.2 shows the reading of vernier calliper when
Namakan kuantiti fizik yg disukat oleh angkup vernier the jaws are closed and Diagram 3.3 shows the reading
of the vernier calliper when it is used to measure
.......................................................................................[1] diameter of cylinder S.
` Rajah 3.2 menunjukkan bacaan angkup vernier bila
(b) State the type of scale labelled rahangnya tertutup. Rajah 3.3 menunjukkan bacaan
Namakan jenis skala pada angkup vernier bila ia digunakan untuk mennetukan
diameter silinder S.
(i)X:................................................................................[1]

(ii)Y:................................................................................[1]

(c)Based on Fig 2.1

Berdasarkan Rajah 2.1
(i)What is the zero error of the vernier callipers? Diagram 3.2 Diagram 3.3
Nyatakan nilai ralat sifar pada angkup vernier? State
Nyatakan
.....................................................................................[1] i. the zero error:
nilai ralat sifar
(ii)What is the reading of the vernier callipers as shown in
figure 2.1(b)? .............................................……………………[1 mark]
Nyatakan bacaan angkup vernier pada Rajah 2.1(b)
ii. the reading shown:
......................................................................................[1] bacaan yang ditunjukan

(iii)Determine the thickness of the wooden block. .…………………………………………………….[1 mark]

Hitung ketebalan bungkah kayu tersebut.
iii. actual diameter:
.....................................................................................[2] diameter sebenar

3.Diagram 3.1 shows the vernier callipers. ..…………………………………………………..[2 marks]

Rajah 3.1 menunjukkan sebuah angkup vernier.
(f) Explain a method to increase the accuracy to determine
reading of the diameter?
Terangkan satu cara untuk meningkatkan kejituan
bacaan dalam menentukan diameter silinder.

…………………………………………………………………
Diagram 3.1
(a) Name the physical quantity measured by the vernier .............……………………………………………[2 marks]
callipers.
Nyatakan kuantiti fizik yang disukat oleh angkup vernier

……..……………………………………………………...[1]

(b) Name the part labelled X.

Namakan bahagian berlabel X

.........………………………………………………………[1]

(c) State the function of the X.

Nyatakan fungsi X

.....................................................................................[1]

(d) What is the accuracy for the vernier callipers.

Berapakah kejituan angkup vernier

……………………………………………………… .......[1]
 MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE/Tolok skru
mikrometer
 Sensitivity 0.01mm/0.001cm
 Kepekaan 0.01mm/0.001cm
 Measure diameter of object less than 1cm
 Digunakan utk mengukur diameter objek kurang dari 1cm. (g) (h)

 Zero error / Ralat sifar

 Function of ratchet is to prevent over tightening.
 Racet digunakan untuk mengelakkan tekanan berlebihan
 One complete turn of the thimble (50 division) moves the
spindle by 0.5 mm.
 Apabila bidal diputar dari skala sifar ke skala ke-50 (satu
putaran lengkap). Skala utama di laras akan menunjukkan
pergerakan sebanyak 0.5 mm.
EXAMPLE 11
 1 division of thimble scale = 0.5 = 0.01mm Determine the zero error in the following diagrams.
50 Nyatakan ralat sifar dibawah
 Satu senggatan pada skala bidal = 0.01mm. (a) (b)
 How to record reading from micrometer screw gauge.

(c) (d)

EXAMPLE 10
Write down the readings shown in the following diagrams.
Nyatakan bacaan dibawah.
(a) (b)

EXAMPLE 12
Determine the zero error, reading recorded and the corrected
reading for the following diagram.
Tentukan ralat sifar, bacaan yg ditunjukkan dan bacaan
sebenar.

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

QUESTION
4. Figure below shows how a micrometer screw gauge is
used for measuring a metal plate, X.
Rajah dibawah menunjukkan sebuah tolok skru
micrometer digunakan untuk menentukan ketebalan
kepingan logam X
(a) Name the part labelled
Namakan bahagian belabel
i. P :................................................................................[1]
ii. Q : .............................................................................[1]
(b) What is the function of this instrument?
Apakah fungsi alat ini?
........................................................................................[1]
(c) When P is turned a full circle, its horizontal displacement
is 0.5 mm.
Apabila P diputar satu putaran lengkap skala utama di
laras akan menunjukkan pergerakan sebanyak 0.5 mm.
i. The vernier scale has 50 divisions. What is the width of
each division?
Skala vernier pula terdiri daripada 50 bahagian yang
kecil. Berapakan nilai satu bahagian skala vernier ?
.....................................................................................[1]
ii. Estimate the sensitivity of the instrument.
Nyatakan kepekaan alat ini.
.....................................................................................[1]
(d) What is the function of the part labelled Q?
Apakah fungsi bahagian berlabel Q?
.....................................................................................[1]
(e) If the zero error of this instrument is given as -0.05 mm,
determine
Kalau ralat sifar alat ini ialah -0.05mm, tentukan
i. the reading as shown in figure above.
bacaan yang ditunjukkan pada rajah
..................................................................................[1]
ii. the thickness of plate X
ketebalan plat X
...................................................................................[1]
5.Figure below shows a micrometer screw gauge being used
to determine the diameter of sphere.
Rajah dibawah menunjukkan sebuah tolok skru
micrometer digunakan untuk menentukan diameter sebuah
sfera logam
 tolok skru micrometer bila ia digunakan untuk menentukan
ketebalan kepingan kaca.

(a) What is the accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge in

cm?
Nyatakan kepekaan tolok skru micrometer.

.....................................................................................[1]

(b)Figure (a) shows the reading of micrometer screw gauge

without any object. Figure (b) shows the same Diagram 6(a)
micrometer screw gauge when measuring the diameter
of sphere.
Rajah (a) menunjukkan bacaan tolok skru micrometer
tanpa sebarang objek. Rajah(b) menunjukkan bacaan
tolok skru micrometer bila ia digunakan untuk mengukur
diameter sfera logam.

Diagram 6(b)
Figure (a) Figure(b)
a) State the sensitivity of micrometer screw gauge
(i) What is the zero error of the micrometer screw
Nyatakan kepekaan tolok skru micrometer.
gauge?
Berapakah ralat sifar tolok skru micrometer tersebut.
…………………....................................................[1 mark]
..................................................................................[1]
b) Name the part label P.
Namakan bahagian berlabel P.
(ii) What is the reading of the micrometer screw gauge as
shown in figure (b)?
....………………....................................................[1 mark]
Berapakah berapakah bacaan tolok skru micrometer
pada Rajah (b).
c) What is the function of the part label P?
Apakah fungsi bahagian berlabel P?
..................................................................................[1]
....………………...................................................[1 mark]
(iii) Determine the diameter of the sphere.
Tentukan diameter sfera logam tersebut.
d) State the type of zero error shown in Diagram 1(a) and
state the value of the zero error.
..................................................................................[1]
Nyatakan jenis ralat sifar yang ditunjukkan pada Rajah
1(a) dan nyatakan nilai ralat sifar tersebut.
(iv) What additional step should be taken to increase the
accuracy of the readings?
............................................................................................
Apakah langkah tambahan yang boleh dilakukan
untuk meningkatkan kejituan bacaan?
………………….....................................................[2 marks]
......................................................................................
e) State the reading of micrometer screw gauge in Diagram
6(b).
..................................................................................[2]
Nyatakan bacaan tolok skru micrometer pada Rajah 6(b).
6.Diagram 6(a) shows a micrometer screw gauge when the
................………....................................................[1 mark]
jaws are closed. Diagram 6(b) shows the scale of the
micrometer screw gauge when it is measuring the
f) State the actual thickness of the glass
thickness of a piece of glass.
Nyatakan ketebalan sebenar kepingan kaca tersebut.
Rajah 6(a) menunjukkan bacaan tolok skru mikrometer
bila rahangnya tertutup. Rajah 2.1(b) menunjukkan bacaan
.................………....................................................[1 mark]
h) Without changing the instrument, state a method how to
get more accurate value for the thickness of the glass.
Tanpa menukar alat pengukuran, nyatakan satu cara
untuk menentukan ketebalan kaca dengan lebih tepat.

...........................................................................................

........……………..................................................[2 marks]

g) Give one reason why micrometer screw gauge is more

sensitive compare to vernier calliper.
Nyatakan satu sebab mengapa tolok skru micrometer
lebih peka berbanding angkup vernier.

………………....................................................[1 mark]
7.Diagram shows a micrometer screw gauge reading when it
is closed at its gap.

The subsequent readings must be corrected by

A adding 0.02 mm B subtracting 0.02 mm
C adding 0.48 mm D subtracting 0.48 mm

8.Based on the diagram above, the thickness of a sheet of

paper is

A 3.25 cm B 3.75 cm C 0.325 cm D 0.0375 cm

9. Figure (a) shows the existence of zero error of a

micrometer screw gauge. Figure (b) shows the reading of
the micrometer screw gauge for diameter of metal wire.

The actual reading of diameter of the metal wire is

A 8.30 mm B 8.32 mm C 8.80 mm D 8.82 mm

9 Diagram below shows a micrometer screw gauge.

Based on the diagram, what is the reading

A 6.0mm B 6.00mm C 6.5 mm D 6.50 mm