Literary Devices

Definition and Examples of Literary Terms

Fallacy
Fallacy Definition

A fallacy is an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention.

There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations.

Types of Fallacy

Here are a few well-known types of fallacy you might experience when making an
argument:

1. Appeal to Ignorance

Appeal to ignorance happens when one individual utilizes another individual’s lack of
information on a specific subject as proof that his or her own particular argument is
right.

2. Appeal to Authority

This sort of error is also known as “Argumentum Verecundia” (argument from modesty).
Instead of concentrating on the benefits of an argument, the arguer will attempt to
append their argument to an individual of power or authority, in an effort to give
trustworthiness to their argument.

3. Appeal to Popular Opinion

This sort of appeal is when somebody asserts that a thought or conviction is correct,
since it is the thing that the general population accepts.

4. Association Fallacy

Sometimes called “guilt by affiliation,” this happens when somebody connects a

particular thought or issue to something or somebody negative, so as to infer blame on
another individual.

5. Attacking the Person

Also regarded as “argumentum ad hominem” (argument against the man), this is a

common fallacy used during debates, where an individual substitutes a rebuttal with a
personal insult.

6. Begging the Question

The conclusion of a contention is accepted as a statement of the inquiry itself.

7. Circular Argument

This fallacy is also known as “circulus in probando.” This error is committed when an
argument takes its evidence from an element inside the argument itself, instead of from
an outside source.

8. Relationship Implies Causation

Also called “cum hoc ergo propter hoc,” this fallacy is a deception in which the individual
making the contention joins two occasions that happen consecutively, and accepts that
one created or caused the other.

9. False Dilemma/Dichotomy

Sometimes called “bifurcation,” this sort of error happens when somebody presents
their argument in such a way that there are just two conceivable alternatives left.

10. Illogical Conclusion

This is a fallacy wherein somebody attests a conclusion that does not follow from the
suggestions or facts.

11. Slippery Slope

This error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will
unavoidably prompt great and frequently ludicrous conclusions.

12. Syllogism Fallacy

This fallacy may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. Syllogism
fallacy is a false argument, as it implies an incorrect conclusion.

Examples of Fallacy in Literature

To understand the different types of fallacy better, let’s review the following examples of
fallacy:

Example #1: Appeal to Ignorance

“You can’t demonstrate that there aren’t Martians living in caves on the surface of Mars,
so it is sensible for me to accept there are.”

Example #2: Appeal to Authority

“Well, Isaac Newton trusted in Alchemy, do you suppose you know more than Isaac
Newton?”

Example #3: Appeal Popular Opinion

“Lots of people purchased this collection, so it must be great.”

Example #4: Association Fallacy

“Hitler was a veggie lover, so I don’t trust vegans.”

Example #5: Attacking the Person

“Don’t listen to Eddie’s contentions on teaching, he’s a simpleton.”

Example #6: Begging the Question

“If the neighbor didn’t take my daily paper, who did?” (This accepts that the daily paper
was really stolen).

Example #7: Circular Argument

“I accept that Frosted Flakes are incredible, since it says so on the box.”

Example #8: Relationship Implies Causation

“I saw a jaybird, and ten minutes later I crashed my car. Jaybirds are really bad luck.”

Example #9: False Dilemma/Dichotomy

“If you don’t vote for this applicant, you must be a Communist.”

Example #10: Illogical Conclusion

“All Dubliners are from Ireland. Ronan is not a Dubliner, so clearly he is not Irish.”

Example #11: Slippery Slope

“If we permit gay individuals to get married, what’s next? Permitting people to marry
their dogs?”

Example #12: Syllogism Fallacy

“All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow.”

Function of Fallacy
 Literary critics find the weaknesses of literary pieces by searching for fallacies within
them. Because of this, there is a tendency for critics to distort the intentions of the
writer.

Here are some common examples of fallacies:

Appeal to Authority - These fallacies occur when someone accepts a truth on blind faith
just because someone they admire said it.
 Katherine loves Tom Cruise. One day, she meets Tom Cruise and he tells her unicorns live
in New York City. Without searching to find out if fairy tales have sprung to life in the
midtown Manhattan, she believes it to be true.
 Princess Kate wears Alexander McQueen. Are you trying to say you have better fashion
sense than a royal princess?
Appeal to Ignorance - These fallacies occur when someone asserts a claim that must be
accepted because no one else can prove otherwise.
 People have been praying to God for years. No one can prove He doesn't exist. Therefore,
He exists.
 Since the students have no questions concerning the topics discussed in class, the students
are ready for a test.
Appeal to Pity - These fallacies occur when someone seeks to gain acceptance by pointing
out an unfortunate consequence that befalls them.
 I know we don't love each other. But, if we don't get married it will crush my mother. You
know she has a weak heart. Do you really want to do that to her?
 If we don't adopt that puppy today, they might put him down. Do you want to be responsible
for that?
Begging the Question - Also called Circular Reasoning. This type of fallacy occurs when
the conclusion of an argument is assumed in the phrasing of the question itself.
 If aliens didn’t steal my newspaper, who did?
 I have a right to free speech so I can say what I want and you shouldn’t try to stop me.
False Dilemma - These fallacies occur when someone is only given two choices for
possible alternatives when more than two exist.
 In South America, only two countries offer travel and tourism options: Mexico and
Guatemala.
 Katie is one of 16,400 students on her college campus. The only boys worth dating are
Dave and Steve.
Red Herring - These fallacies occur when someone uses irrelevant information to distract
from the argument.
 How is talking about vaccinations going to help us find a cure for cancer?
 There are starving children in Africa. Eat your carrots.
Slippery Slope - These fallacies occur when someone assumes a very small action will
lead to extreme outcomes.
 If we allow our 14 year-old to have her first date tonight, what’s next? A wedding, kids?
 If we teach Tommy how to drive the car, he'll want to learn how to fly helicopters next!
 Straw Man Fallacy - These fallacies occur when someone appears to be refuting the
original point made, but is actually arguing a point that wasn't initially made.
 President Trump doesn't have middle class Americans in mind. He's part of the upper
echelon of America.
 “We should be doing more to make cars greener and more fuel efficient.” “Our cities are
built for cars, do you want to effect the economy?”
Sweeping Generalizations - These fallacies occur when a very broad application is
applied to a single premise.
 Dogs are good pets. Coyotes are dogs. Therefore, coyotes are good pets.
 Divorce is rampant in America. We only stand a 50 percent chance of survival. Therefore,
we can't get married.
Ad Hominem (Attacking the Person) - These fallacies occur when an acceptance or
rejection of a concept is rejected based on its source, not its merit.
 That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is selling it.
 Don't listen to Dave's argument on gun control. He's not the brightest bulb in the chandelier.
Band Wagon - These fallacies occur when a proposition is claimed to be true or good
solely because many people believe it to be so.
 Everyone on campus is wearing Air Jordans. I need to buy those sneakers.
 All my friends are doing a low carb diet. That must be the only way to lose weight.
Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc - These fallacies occur when it is assumed that, because two
things occur together, they must be related.
 People who eat oatmeal have healthy hearts.
 Roosters crow before sunrise. Therefore, roosters cause the sun to rise.
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc - These fallacies occur when it is assumed that, because one
thing happened after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.
 Right when I sneezed, the power went off. I must've caused the outage.
 Mary wore her favorite necklace today and aced her spelling test. That necklace must be
lucky.

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-

fallacies.html#zmfQSUaoF7jM4HvM.99

https://literarydevices.net/fallacy/

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-fallacies.html

Slippery Slope
This is a common fallacy in which an arguer assumes that one thing must lead to an
extreme other, therefore the first thing must be avoided. Though there may be gradual
steps leading to the final negative occurrence, the steps usually aren’t logical.
The series of Direct TV commercials are a great example of the slippery slope fallacious
argument:

The premise of this advertisement is that when you choose cable instead of Direct TV,
you will eventually sell your hair to a wig shop. All of the gradual steps between lead
you to this demise, but nonetheless they are not logical steps. This commercial is
intended to be funny and ridiculous, highlighting the outrageousness of the slippery
slope fallacy.

Post Hoc Fallacy

Post hoc, short for post hoc ergo propter hoc means “after this, therefore because of
this.” It is the assumption that because one thing occurred after another, then it must
have occurred because of it. This uses fallacious logic that just because two things
happened in sequential order, the first thing caused the second thing to happen. This is
a dangerous assumption because it concludes that the first thing that happened will
always make the second thing happen.

For example, this Bud Light commercial uses the premise that compulsive superstitious
habits cause fans’ favorite teams to win.

With the closing line, “it’s only weird if it doesn’t work,” Bud Light perpetuates the notion
that superstitious habits are the main cause of victory or defeat.

Appeal to Authority
Appeal to authority is probably one of the most popular forms of a persuasive strategy in
advertisements. After all, celebrity endorsements usually carry a singer, actor, or
professional athlete’s career.

Appeal to authority is the assumption that a person perceived as an authority says

something, and therefore it must be true. The person may not be an expert on the
subject, or the claim is wrong, but the opposing arguer is still lead to believe the claim is
true.

Go Daddy is famous for their celebrity endorsed TV commercials. The action-star, Jean-
Claude Van Damme endorses Go Daddy in this commercial.

Though Van Damme is not a website domain expert, his celebrity status is used to
advertise Go Daddy domain names and business success.
Bandwagon Fallacy or Ad Populum
Much like the appeal to authority, the ad populum fallacy appeals to popularity. The
premise is that an idea is popular therefore, it is correct. Even though many of us were
warned in our youth not to follow the crowd, it is undoubtedly the driving force in many
adult lives.

This Modern Warfare Two commercial plays on the idea that “everybody is doing it.”

“There’s over 20 million people doing it now, so it’s safe to say that everyone is doing it.”
A mix of innuendo and sarcasm, this clever commercial entices the viewer to want to
know what everyone is doing.

Fallacies are dangerous persuasive tools because they often sound so appealing.
However, these poor logical arguments aim for cheap reasoning and complacent
acquiescence. Don’t get fooled by these arguments. Instead, stay tuned to learn more
about fallacies so you can avoid them when you try to persuade someone through
debate in the future.

http://www.copypress.com/blog/youre-using-fallacies-and-you-dont-even-know-it/
I don’t want you to go

Here I am
Alone and I don't understand
Exactly how it all began
The dream just walked away
I'm holding on
When all but the passion's gone
And from the start
Maybe I was tryin' too hard
It's crazy coz it's breakin' my heart
Things can fall apart but I know
That I don't want you to go
And heroes die
When they ignore the cause inside
But they learn from what's left behind
And fight for something else
And so it goes
That we have both learned how to grow
And from the start
Maybe we were tryin' too hard
It's crazy coz it's breakin' our heart
Things can fall apart but I know
That I don't want you to go

[Bridge]
Oh it's just too much
Takin' all the whole world all by myself
But it's not enough
Unless I stop trusting somebody else
Somebody else
And love again
[Instrumental Interlude]
And from the start
Maybe we were tryin' too hard
It's crazy coz it's breakin' our hearts
Things can fall apart but I know
That I don't want you to go, no
Maybe we were tryin' to hard
It's crazy coz it's breakin' our hearts
Things can fall apart but I know
That I don't want you to go
Oh no, don't want you to go

"Sundo"

Kay tagal kong sinusuyod

Ang buong mundo
Para hanapin
Para hanapin ka
Nilibot ang distrito
Ng iyong lumbay
Pupulutin, pupulutin ka

Sinusundo kita
Sinusundo

Asahan mo mula ngayon

Pag-ibig ko'y sayo
Asahan mo mula ngayon
Pag-ibig ko'y sayo

Sa akin mo isabit
Ang pangarap mo
 Di kukulangin
Ang ibibigay
Isuko ang kaba
Tuluyan kang bumitaw
Ika'y manalig
Manalig ka

Sinusundo kita
Sinusundo

Asahan mo mula ngayon

Pag-ibig ko'y sayo
Asahan mo mula ngayon
Pag-ibig ko'y sayo

Asahan mo mula ngayon

Pag-ibig ko'y sayo
Asahan mo mula ngayon
Pag-ibig ko'y sayo
Pag-ibig ko'y sayo

(Asahan mo)
Handa na sa liwanag mo
Sinuyod ang buong mundo
Maghihintay sayo'ng sundo
(Asahan mo)
Handa na sa liwanag mo
Sinuyod ang buong mundo
Maghihintay sayo'ng sundo